Uses of Brick 

• Structural units, bridges, dams, building frame 
• Facades  
• Acid refractory Lining etc 
Bricks
are one of the most extensively used materials of
construction. Their popularity as building material lies in
their
• Strength
• Durability
• Insulating property against heat/coldness and sound
• Being handy to work with.
• Relatively cheaper prices.

Raw materials:- Mainly manufactured from Clay. Clays

are fine-grained soils that have resulted from the decay
of rocks. deposited of fine rock particles transported by
water or wind
Clay consist of the following chemical element
– Alumina (Al2O3)
– Silica (SiO2)
– Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)
– Lime (CaO)
– Magnesia(MgO)
– Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
– Sulphur trioxide(SO3)
– Alkalies (K2O, Na2O)
– Water (H2O)
• Clays are generally found mixed with other
materials (impurities) that influenced their
properties.
• It Prepared with water (plastic), it can be
molded, dried and burnt without cracking or
changing it shape or warping
Composition
– Clay………….. 20 - 40%
– Sand………….. 30 – 50%
– Others (lime, silt, loam) ………. 20 – 35%
Functions of the constituent materials
Alumina
– A fine –grained mineral that makes the major part
of clay
– Plastic when mixed with water and is capable of being
molded to desired shape
– On drying – it loses its plasticity becomes hard,
shrinkage, warping and cracking
– When burnt, stronger and harder due to the
homogeneity created by fusion
– Brick of very high alumina content are likely to be
refractory
– 20% to 30%
Silica
• A Course grained of mineral
• It reduces shrinkage and warping in burning
• Hardness and durability introduced
• Large percentage of uncombined silica is leads to
brittleness
• Silica fuses only at very high temperature of and hence
increases refractoriness of low alumina clay and makes
bricks resistant to heat. the silica content may rise to 98%.
Lime
– It acts as a flux and lower the fusion point of silica
– Acts as a binder to the clay and silica particles leading
to greater strength
– Excess of lime may cause the bricks to melt and lose
their shape
– < 5% 
Iron oxide
– Like lime lowers the fusion point of clay and
silica.
– Gives color
– Depending on the percentage of iron oxide
present in the clay, the color of the bricks may
vary from light yellow to red
– A high percentage may make – dark blue
– If iron is present in the form of Pyrites(sulphide
of iron,) it can get oxidized, crystallized and split
the brick to pieces.
– 5‐6% 
Magnesia – (MgO)
– Gives the brick yellow shade.
– Minimizes warping of bricks in burning
 Magnesia is present in small quantity (1%)
 
Manufacture of brick four basic sages
1. Preparation
2. Molding
3. Drying
4. Firing
Preparation
• Digging out (winning)
• Crashing and/ or grinding and mixing until it is of a
uniform consistency.
• water is added to increases plasticity( a process
known ‘tempering’)
• Chemicals like barium carbonate that reacts with
soluble salt producing an insoluble product therefore
reducing effloresence in the final product.
• Sand and water added to produce the desired
consistency
 
Molding  based on moisture content there are three kind of processes of
molding
1. Soft mud process
• Clay from shallow surface
• 30% moisture content
• Mechanically forcing wet, soft clay into molds under pressure,
cuts, of excess clay
• The inside of the mould sprayed or dipped in water to prevent
the clay from sticking
2. Stiff-mud process
– It is forced or extruded in a column through dies in a brick making
machine.
– a column of clay is forced into a wire-cutting table, where it is cut
into appropriate length by taut wires.
3. Dry pressed brick 
– Relatively dry or non plastic clays
– The material is fed into the machine by hopper, where it is
compressed into mould under high pressure
– It is compact, strong, and well formed
Drying 
– Brick contain from 7 - 30% moisture
– Conventionally they stacked in open sheds for 7 days to 6 weeks
– Under controlled condition, heat, moisture, and air velocity for 2
to 4 days
– Drying enables the bricks to be stacked higher in the kiln and
increase firing temperature more rapidly with out problem such
as bloating ( when gases or vapor are trapped within the brick).

Drying of bricks by natural methods 

Method of Drying Bricks 
 Brick 

Operation Involved in Manufacturing of Clay Bricks 
Firing 
– Localize melting (sintering)of clay
– Increases strength and decreases the soluble salt
content without loss of shape of the clay unit.
– Silica and alumina do not melt, since their melting
point are very high; they are fused by lower
melting point mineral such as metallic oxides and
lime.
Stage of firing are:
100 0C Evaporation of free water
400 0C Burning of carbonaceous matter
700 0C Dehydration
900 0C Oxidation
900 - 1000 0C Sintering of clay
 Control rate of increase of temperature Maximum
temperature give rise to
– Having satisfactory strength
– Quality
• Too rapid firing will cause bloating and over
burning of external layers
• Too low a temperature impairs strength and
durability
• Firing of ordinary quality or common bricks is at
9000C and for Engineering brick is greater than
1000oC
Drawing is the process of unloading a kiln after
the bricks are cool. Then they are sorted,
graded, packaged and then to storage
Vitrification is changing in to glass like
substance by fusion due to heat.
Brick Kilns (burning process) ‐  two type  
1. Intermittent (periodic) 
Temperature is varied periodical until the burning is complete 
and the bricks are removed new pile of green brick is fired  

Intermittent Kiln  Clamp or Pazawah Kiln 
2. continuous  (tunnel) 
  Dried  bricks  pass  through  various  temperature 
zones  on  special  cars  and  pulled  through  the 
preheating, firing, and cooling at a constant rate 
of  speed  Several  compartment  fired  by  single 
oven.  The  heat  is  regulated  in  each  section  so 
that  while  the  remaining  water  is  being 
removed  from  the  brick  in  one  compartment, 
bricks are being fired in a second compartment 
and cooled in a third compartment. The tunnel 
may  be  straight  or  a  curved.  The  tunnel  kiln  is 
very  efficient  ,heat  is  carefully  controlled  and 
produced a more uniform product. 

Hoffman's Continuous Kiln 

Bull’s Trench Kiln 
Method of giving attractive appearance
a) Texture
• When column of clay leaves the die in the stiff mud process
• Applied by attachments which cut , scratch, brush, roll or
roughen the surface (molding stage)
b) Glaze
• Shiny or glossy surface finish
• Glazes are sprayed on the brick before or after burning
Type of glazes
1. Ceramic glaze
– Spraying a coating of a mixture of mineral ingredients on one or
more facing of the brick
– Available on any color
– Glass like coating
2. Salt glazed (transparent)
– A solution of sodium silicate
– Transparent and the color of the brick is presented under a glass
3. Flashing
– At the end of the burning stage
– By inject natural gas
Types of bricks
A. Common bricks
– Ordinary red brick , not designed to provide good
finish appearance or high strength.
– The cheapest brick available and most widely used
for walls.
– No special color, shape, and texture
B. Facing bricks
– Designed to give attractive appearance,
– Hence they are free from imperfection e.g. cracks
– May be derived from common bricks to which a sand
facing and/ or pigment has been applied prior to
firing.
C. Engineering brick
–  Design for extra strength and durability 
– They are usually highly dense and well fired.
Classification of Bricks 
Clay  bricks  are  classified  as  first  class,  second  class,  third  class  and 
fourth class based on their physical and mechanical properties. 
First Class Bricks 
1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour. 
2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight 
edges and square corners. 
3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones. 
4. These should have uniform texture. 
5. No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger 
nail. 
6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime. 
7. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against 
each other. 
8. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold 
water for 24 hours. 
9. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit 
varies with different Government organizations around the country. 
Uses:  First  class  bricks  are  recommended  for  pointing,  exposed  face  work  in 
masonry structures, flooring and reinforced brick work. 
Second Class Bricks are supposed to have the same requirements as the first 
class ones except that 
1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted. 
2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed. 
3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2. 
Uses:  Second  class  bricks  are  recommended  for  all  important  or  unimportant 
hidden  masonry  works  and  centering  of  reinforced  brick  and  reinforced  cement 
concrete (RCC) structures. 
 
Third Class Bricks are under burnt. They are soft and light‐ coloured  producing 
a  dull  sound  when  struck  against  each  other.  Water  absorption  is  about  25  per 
cent of dry weight. 
Uses : It is used for building temporary structures. 
 
Fourth  Class Bricks are over burnt and badly distorted in shape and size and 
are brittle in nature. 
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete 
and road metal. 
On the Basis of Finish 
Sand Faced Brick has textured surface manufactured by sprinkling sand on the inner surfaces 
of the mould. 
Rustic Brick has mechanically textured finish, varying in pattern. 
On The Basis of Burning 
Pale Brick are under burnt bricks obtained from outer portion of the kiln. 
Body Bricks are well burnt bricks occupying central portion of the kiln. 
Arch Brick are over burnt also known as clinker bricks obtained from inner portion of the 
kiln. 
On the Basis Of Types 
Solid:‐  Small  holes  not  exceeding  25  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  the  brick  are  permitted; 
alternatively, frogs not exceeding 20 per cent of the total volume are permitted. 
Perforated :‐Small holes may exceed 25 per cent of the total volume of the brick 
Hollow:‐ The total of holes, which need not be small, may exceed 25 per cent of the volume 
of the brick. 
 Cellular:‐  Holes closed at one end exceed 20 per cent of the volume. 
Types of Brick According to the Ethiopian Standard 
According  to  the  Ethiopian  Standard,  solid  bricks  are  of  the 
following three types. 
1. Brick without holes or depression (type TS) 
2. Brick with holes up to 20 mm in diameter each and having a total 
cross  sectional  area  not  exceeding  25%  of  the  base  area  of  the 
brick (type TH) 
3. Brick with depression not exceeding 25 percent of the base area 
having  a  maximum  depth  of  the  depression  not  more  than 
10mm (type TD). 
 
  According  to  the  Ethiopian  Standard,  hollow  and  beam  tiles 
bricks are of the following three types. 
1. With two faces keyed for plastering or rendering (type kk) 
2. With two faces smooth and suitable for use with out plastering 
or rendering on either side. (type ss) and 
3. With  one  face  smooth  and  another  face  keyed  for  plastering 
(type sk). 
Fire bricks or Refractory bricks  
These bricks are capable of withstanding very high
temperatures without melting or becoming soft.
• Firebricks are manufactured in exactly the same
manner as the ordinary bricks burnt in kilns at
temperatures ranging from 13500c to 19000c.
• Firebricks are the white or yellowish white color and
are used for lining the interiors of fireplaces, ovens,
kilns, chimneys and furnaces.

Properties of Bricks
The essential properties of bricks are:
Physical properties,
Chemical characteristics,
Thermal characteristics and
Durability.
 
1. Physical properties
• Shape- rectangular 
• Size – 60 mmx120mmx250mm 
• Color – red 
• Density- density varies from 1600 kg/cubic meter to
1900 kg/cubic meter.  
A single bricks (60x120x250) will weigh between 3.2kg
to 3.5kg depending upon its density. 
2. Mechanical properties  Minimum Compressive Strength   
Minimum Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the most Class
important property of bricks Average of 5 bricks Individual bricks
(N/mm2)  (N/mm2) 
especially because they are to be
A 20 17.5
used in load bearing walls. The
compressive strength of a brick B 15 12.5
depends on the composition of the
C 10 7.5
clay and degree of burning. 
D 7.5 5.0
3.Thermal properties 
The heat and sound conductivity of bricks varies greatly with

their density and porosity. Very dense and heavy bricks

conduct heat and sound at a great rate. They have therefore

poor thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities. For this

reason, bricks should be so designed that they are light and

strong and give adequate insulation. 

4. Durability 
By durability of bricks is understood the length of time for which
they remain unaltered and strong when used in construction. 
The durability of bricks depends on a number of factors such
as: absorption value, frost resistance and efflorescence.
Tests for Clay Bricks 
Two types of tests are used to determine the quality of building bricks. 
1. Field test
2. Laboratory test 
  Field tests: such as appearance, hammer and hardness  
1.
 Appearance test is that: shape, plainness, color etc.
 When stroked with hammer, a properly burnt dry brick free from cracks emits a
highly metallic ring. 
 The hardness of a brick sample can be checked by scratching its surface or
broken section with a knife or fingernail. A well-burnt brick will be scratched with
difficulty. 
 A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall freely from a height of about
one meter on to a hard floor. It should not break. 
 
B. Laboratory tests
1. Compressive strength test 
2. Water absorption test
3. Efflorescence test and 
4. Saturation coefficient test =(absorption after 24 hrs in cold water)
absorption after boiling for 5hrs
Characteristics (Qualities)of  a Good Brick 
 
The  essential  requirements  for  building  bricks  are  sufficient  strength  in  crushing, 
regularity in size, a proper suction rate, and a pleasing appearance when exposed 
to view. 
Size  and  Shape:‐The  bricks  should  have  uniform  size  and  plane,  rectangular 
surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight edges. (60mmx120mmx250mm) 
Color:‐ The brick  should have  a uniform deep red or cherry color  as  indicative of 
uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick. 
Texture  and  Compactness:‐  The  surfaces  should  not  be  too  smooth  to  cause 
slipping  of  mortar.  The  brick  should  have  pre  compact  and  uniform  texture.  A 
fractured surface should not show fissures, holes grits or lumps of lime. 
Hardness and Soundness:‐ The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a 
finger nail no impression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a metallic 
sound should be produced. 
Water Absorption:‐ should not exceed 25% of its dry weight when kept immersed 
in water for 24 hours. 
Crusing Strength:‐ should not be less than 10 N/mm2 (35kg/cm2). 
Brick Earth:‐ should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter, salt petre, etc. 
 
Dropped from 1m height, it should not be broken to pieces.  
Deffects of Bricks 
Over  Burning:‐  Bricks  should  be  burned  at  temperatures  at  which 
incipient,  complete  and  viscous  vitrification  occur.  However,  if  the 
bricks are over burnt, a soft molten mass is produced and the bricks 
loose their shape. Such bricks are not used for construction works. 
Under  Burning  of  Bricks:‐  When  bricks  are  not  burnt  to  cause 
complete  vitrification,  the  clay  is  not  softened  because  of 
insufficient heat and the pores are not closed. This results in higher 
degree  of  water  absorption  and  less  compressive  strength.  Such 
bricks are not recommended for construction works. 
Bloating:‐  This  defect  observed  as  spongy  swollen  mass  over  the 
surface  of  burned  bricks  is  caused  due  to  the  presence  of  excess 
carbonaceous matter and sulphur in brick‐clay. 
Black Core:‐ When brick‐clay contains bituminous matter or carbon 
and they are not completely removed by oxidation, the brick results 
in black core mainly because of improper burning. 
Effeloressence:‐  This  defect  is  caused  because  of  alkalies  present  in  bricks.  When 
bricks come in contact with moisture, water is absorbed and the alkalis crystalize. 
On  drying  grey or white  powder  patches  appear  on  the  brick  surface.  This  can  be 
minimized  by  selecting  proper  clay  materials  for  brick  manufacturing,  preventing 
moisture to come in contact with the masonry, by providing waterproof coping and 
by using water repellent materials in mortar and by providing damp proof course. 
Chuffs:‐ The deformation of the shape of bricks caused by the rain water falling on 
hot bricks is known as chuffs. 
Checks or Cracks:‐  This defect may be because of lumps of lime or excess of water. 
In case of the former, when bricks come in contact with water, the absorbed water 
reacts  with  lime  nodules  causing  expansion  and  a  consequent  disintegration  of 
bricks, whereas shrinkage and burning cracks result when excess of water is added 
during brick manufacturing. 
Spots:‐ Iron sulphide, if present in the brick clay, results in dark surface spots on the 
brick surfaces. Such bricks though not harmful are unsuitable for exposed masonry 
work. 
Blisters:‐  Broken  blisters  are  generally  caused  on  the  surface  of  sewer  pipes  and 
drain tiles due to air imprisoned during their molding. 
Laminations:‐  These  are  caused  by  the  entrapped  air  in  the  voids  of  clay. 
Laminations produce thin lamina on the brick faces which weather out on exposure. 
Such bricks are weak in structure. 
Non‐Clay bricks 
• Concrete Blocks 
• Fly‐ash Brick 
• Sand‐lime or calcium silicate Bricks 

Thank You!! 
 Bricked Front Street along the Cane River in  The Roman Constantine Basilica 
 historic Natchitoches, Louisiana 

West face of Roskilde Cathedral in 
The ancient Jetavanaramaya  Roskilde, Denmark. 
stupa  The advantage of the BTK design is  West face of Roskilde Cathedral in 
a much greater energy   Roskilde, Denmark. 
 Chile house in Hamburg, Germany 

The brickwork of Shebeli Tower in Iran 
 displays 12th century craftsmanship