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GEOMETRY

In this section some fundamentals of elementary plane geometry are

discussed.
Fundamental elements of geometry are divided into three parts.

1.Point-Line-angle.
2.Triangles.
3.Circle and other geometrical structures.

PART-1
POINT-LINE-ANGLE

Point:
In general two straight lines intersect at a point.
A point has only one position. It does not have dimensions (Length, breadth
or height)

pt
Line:
The shortest distance between any two points is called a line.
Q

P
P and Q are two points and the shortest distance between them is called a line
segment.
Again, a set of points, which have length alone is called a straight line.
A straight line can be extended infinitely on both sides of P and Q.
A stretched wire possesses only length. It is one dimensional in nature.
Here we take P as the origin.

P Q …… x
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PQ produced is called x – axis. One coordinate (x) is sufficient to fix a point on it.

Surface:
A geometrical figure having length and breadth is called a surface. It is two
dimensional is nature.
A straight line can be represented in two dimensions also.
Here two coordinates are needed to fix a point say P(x, y) with reference to
axes x and y. x refers to length along x axis and y refers to breadth along y axis.
Examples of surfaces are
Y
(1) Black board
(2) Table top Q (x2, y2)
(3) Outer portion of a football etc.
(A surface need not be flat) P(x1, y1)
0 X
Space:
A geometrical figure having length, breadth and height occupies space. Space
is three dimensional in nature.
A straight line one dimensional in nature can fit in 3-D. (3-dimensions).
Z
Here three coordinates are needed to fix a point say P(x, y, z) with reference to
three axes x, y, and z.
Q (x2, y2, z2)
X refers to length along x -axis
P (x1, y1, z1)
Y refers to breadth along y -axis
Z refers to height along z -axis X
EXAMPLES:
(1) Cube
Y

(2) Foot ball (as a whole, including space inside)

(3) A room
Angle:
B
The intersection of two lines yields a point.
Two lines OA and OB intersect at O.
‘θ ’ (theta) is the angle between the lines. θ
O A
Notation:
180° Q
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∠ AOB = ∠ BOA = θ
An angle will be always measured in anticlockwise direction.
An angle is measured in degrees.
θ = 30°, θ = 45°, θ = 60° etc.
B
The total angle occupied by a straight line is 360°.
Acute angle:
If θ < 90°, then it is called an acute angle.
O θ = 30
A
B
Right angle:
If θ = 90°, then it is called a right angle or right angle.
Obtuse angle: θ = 90°
O A
If θ lies between 90° and 180°, then it is called an obtuse angle.
B

θ = 120°
Reflex angle:
O A
If θ is more than 180° and less than 360°,
then it is called a reflex angle.
O
Complementary angles:
Aθ =
If the sum of two angles is exactly equal to 90°,
0
then the two angles are called complementary angles. and θ =
360

60°
B
30°
A

Here ∠ A = 30° and ∠ B = 60°

∠ A + ∠ B = 30° + 60° = 90°
∠ A and ∠ B are called complementary angles.
Supplementary angles:

60°
B
120°
A

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If the sum of two angles is 180° or two right angles, then the two angles are
called supplementary angles.
∠ A = 120° and ∠ B = 60°
∠ A + ∠ B = 120° + 60° = 180°
∠ A and ∠ B are called supplementary angles.
Remarks:
Examples of adjacent complementary and supplementary angles are given
below.

B 120°
55° 60°

35°
A
A D
Vertically opposite angles:
δ
Two lines AB and CD intersect at O.
β
α and β are vertically opposite angles and they are equal.
C B
Similarly the opposite angles γ and δ are equal.
Examples: α= β and
γ
1. In the following diagram, find the angle ∠POQ . P D
Solution:
Q
∠POQ = α + β
α
2 α + 2 β = 180 0 α β β
Hence ∠POQ = 90 0
A O B
D
2. In the following diagram find the remaining angles 40
∠ ACB = 180° - 70° = 110°
∠ DCE = 110°
∠ CDE = 40° and ∠ DEC = 30° 70
E C A

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3. In the diagram given below if a = 2(b + 30°), find b.

Solution:
∠ a + ∠ b = 180° (Allied angles)
2(b + 30) + b = 180
3b = 120
a b
b = 40°

PART II

1. Triangles:
The straight lines joining three noncollinear points form a triangle. The three
points A, B and C are called vertices.
A

B C
B C

(A should not lie on BC)

AB, BC and CA are three line segments joined to form a triangle.
Symbol: Triangle = ∆ .
Remarks:
(i) In a triangle ABC, p}afef(t`d`izglek`isAmay{ Esuidbtk 180°.
i.e. ∠ A + ∠ B + ∠ C = 180°
A of two sides will always be greater than the third side.
(ii) Sum of the lengths
i.e., AB + BC A
> CA
or BC + CA > AB
B C
or BCA + AB > BC C
(one of these three should be true)

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Classification of triangles:
(1) A triangle whose sides are all unequal is called a scalene triangle.
(2) A triangle with any two equal sides is called an isosceles triangle.
(3) If all the three sides of a triangle are equal, then it is called an equilateral
triangle.
A A
A
A A
A
B C B C
B C B C B C
B C Isosceles triangle Equilateral triangle
Scalene triangle AB = AC AB = BC = CA
Remark:
(i) In a scalene triangle, sides and angles A, B, C are unequal.
(ii) In an isosceles triangles,two sides AB and AC are equal, and ∠ B = ∠ C.
(3) In an equilateral triangle, as all the three sides are equal, all the three angles are
equal.
i.e. ∠ A = ∠ B = ∠ C = 60° (180°/3)

(4) Acute angled triangle:

If an angle is greater than zero and less than 90°, then it is called an acute
angle.
All the angles A, B and C are acute and must be acute.
A

B C
B C
A
(5) Obtuse angled triangle:
If an angle lies between 90° and 180°, then it is
called an obtuse angle.
If one angle in a triangle is greater than 90°, B C
then it is called an obtuse angled triangle.
Here ∠ A > 90°

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(6) Right angled triangle:

If one angle of a triangle = 90°, then it is called B
a right angled triangle.
(It is also called a right triangle)
∠ A is a right angle here.

A C
Remark:
If two sides of a triangle are not equal, then the
angle opposite to the larger side is greater than the angle opposite to the other side.
BC is the largest side. ∠ A is the largest angle.
A

7. Exterior angle: B C

The angle between a side of a triangle (AC) and an extension of another side
(BC) is called exterior angle of a triangle.
Here the angle marked as θ is called the exterior angle.
A
Further ∠ C + ∠ θ = 180°
∠ θ = 180° - ∠ C.

C θ
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES B C

1. Medians of a triangle.
Median is a line segment joining one vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of
the opposite side.
There are three medians in a triangle.
A
The point of intersection of medians is called centroid.
AD, BE and CF are called medians. F E
G is the centroid. G

AG : GD = BG : GE = CG : GF =2 : 1 B C
D

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2. Altitudes of a triangle: A
A straight line drawn from a vertex of a triangle
perpendicular to the opposite side is called altitude. F E
O
There are three altitudes, in a triangle The point of intersection of
altitudes is called orthocentre. B C
D
The length of the altitude is called height of the triangle.
AD, BE and CF here are called altitudes. O is the orthocentre. A
In a right angled triangle, the orthocentre is the vertex
where there is a right angle.
Here ∠ B is a right angle.
B = (0) C
B = O is the orthocentre.
A
Bisectors of angles in a triangle:
ABC is a triangle. IA, IB and IC are three lines A
which bisect angles A, B and C.
These three lines are called the bisectors of angles A, B and C.
I is called incentre. I
Remark:
A circle can be drawn with I as center touching the three I
sides AB, BC and CA. Such a circle is called incircle. B C
B C
Four important postulates on congruent triangles.
A A’
1. SSS Rule (side – side – side):
Two triangles are congruent if three sides of
one triangle are equal to the corresponding sides
of the other triangle.
Here AB = A’B’; BC = B’C’ ; CA = C’A’.
Then ∆ ABC = ∆ A’B’C’ B C B’ C’

2. SAS Rule (side – angle – side):

If any two sides and the angle included A A’
between them of one triangle is equal to another,
then the two triangles are congruent.
Here AB = A’B’ ; AC = A’C’ and ∠ A = ∠ A’

3. ASA Rule: (angle – side – angle): B C B’ C’

If in two triangles any two angles and two corresponding
sides are equal, then they are said to be congruent.
A A’
Here ∠ A = ∠ A’ ; ∠ B = ∠ B’ and AC = A’C’.
A A’

B C B’ C’
B C B’ C’
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4. RHS rule (Right angled triangle – Hypotenuse – side)

If the hypotenuse and one side of two right triangles
are equal, then they are congruent.
Here AB = A’B’ and AC = A’C’.

SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
Two triangles are said to be similar, if their
corresponding sides are proportional .The A A’
corresponding angles are equal in two similar triangles
The triangles ABC and A’B’C’ are said to be proportional if
AB BC CA
'
= =
A B' B' C ' C ' A'
B C B’ C’
∠ A = ∠ A’ : ∠ B = ∠ B’ and ∠ C = ∠ C’

Three similarity rules: A A’

1. SAS rule:
Two triangles ABC and A’B’C’ are said to be
similar if a pair of corresponding angles and equal
and the sides including there are proportional.
B C B’ C’
Here ∠ A = A’ ; AB = A’B’ and AC = A’C’.

2. AAA rule: A A’
Two triangles ABC and A’B’C’ are said to be
similar if two pairs of their corresponding angles are equal.
Here ∠ A = ∠ A’ and ∠ C = ∠ C’.
A
3. SSS rule: B C B’ C’
Two triangles are similar if their corresponding
sides are proportional. (explained in rule 1)
(This condition itself is sufficient for two triangles to be similar). D E

Thale’s theorem:
A line drawn parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other twoB sides C
proportionally.
The line DE is parallel to BC .∆ ABC is proportional to ∆ ADE A
AD AE
=
DB EC D
Result:
In a right angled triangle, a perpendicular drawn from the vertex
to the opposite side, divides the given triangle into two similar triangles.
B C
BD is perpendicular to AC . ∆ ABD and ∆ BDC are similar.
A
EXAMPLES:

1. ABC is a triangle and DE is the line joining the midpoints of D E

AB and AC. What is DE?
2 1 1
A. AB B. AC C. BC D. None of these B C
3 3 2
If D and E are midpoints of AB and AC, then the line DE is parallel to BC.
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1
DE = BC
2

2. One angle of a right- angled isosceles triangle is 45°. What will be the ratio of its
sides?
Let a be its side. A
a2 + a2 = AC2 45
2 a = AC a
a:a: 2 a
45
1:1: 2 will be the ratio of its sides. B a C

3. In the diagram given below BC = AC ; A

AD = DE; and ∠ B = 40° ; ∠ E = 30 °. What is angle CAD?

∠ DAE = 180° - 70° = 110°

40 30
∠ CAD = 110° - ∠ BAC - ∠ DAE = 110° - 40° - 30° = 40°
B C D E

A
4. In the diagram given below, find the angle ABD.
70°
∠ BCA = 60° ; ∠ ABC = 50° ; ∠ DBA = 130°

120°
D E
B C

PART 3: CIRCLE AND OTHER GEOMETRICAL FIGURES:

CIRCLE:

1. If a point P moves such that its distance from a

fixed point ‘O’ is always a constant, then P describes a circle.
O
r

P’

Distance OP = r is called the radius of the circle. O

O is called the center of the circle. r

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Any line POP’ passing through the

center ‘O’ is called the diameter of the circle.

POP’ = 2r
P Q P
2. Area of the circle = π r2.

3. Circumference of the circle = 2π r A B

4. Part of the circumference of a circle is called arc

of the circle.A straight line joining two points on the circumference R Q
is called a chord.
APQB is known to be a major arc P
and ARB is called a minor arc.

5. If AB is a diameter of a circle, APB is called a semicircle.

∠ APB = 90° as angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
A B
6. Let O be the center of a circle. AB be a chord of the
circle. Let OC be perpendicular to AB.
Then C will be the midpoint of AB, i.e. AC = CB O

A C B

7. Let AB and CD be two equal chords of a circle with

center at ‘O’. Let us draw OP and OQ perpendicular
to AB and AC. Then OP = OQ A
Conversely, if OP = OQ, then AB must be equal to CD.

B P O C

8. In a circle, the angle subtended by an arc at the center is double Q

the angle subtended by the same arc at the circumference. D
∠ BOC = 2∠ BAC
A

B C
B
9. A straight line which meets a given circle at only one point is called a tangent to
the circle. P
P is called the point of contact.

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10. If AB and CD are two chords of a circle which intersect internally or externally,
then PA . PB = PC. PD

A
A C B
P O P

D B D
C
(Internal division) (External division)
D

Quadrilateral: d1 L M
A geometrical figure obtained by joining fourA C
non-collinear points is called a quadrilateral.
AB, BC, CD and DA one sides of a quadrilateral. d2
AC and BD are diagonals of the quadrilateral. AL = d1 and
BM = d2 are drawn perpendicular to BD and AC. B
1
Area of the quadrilateral = (d1 + d2 )BD
2

Trapezium: D C
A quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel
is called a trapezium.
Here AB and CD are parallel. DE is perpendicular to AB.
1
Area of the trapezium ABCD = DE (AB + CD). A E B
2

Remark:
If the non-parallel sides AD and BC are equal, then it is called isosceles
trapezium. In this case ∠ C = ∠ D and ∠ A = ∠ B.

Parallelogram:
If in a quadrilateral, both the sets of opposite sides are parallel and
equal, then it is called a parallelogram.
In a parallelogram ABCD
1. Opposite sides are parallel and equal D C
2. AB is parallel to CD and AD is parallel to CB.
3. Further AB = CD and AD = CB.
4. Opposite angles are equal ∠ A = ∠ C and ∠ B = ∠ D O
5. ∠ A + ∠ B = 180 ; ∠ B + ∠ C = 180 A B
∠ C + ∠ D = 180° and ∠ D + ∠ A = 180°
6. Diagonals bisect each other AO = OC and BO = OD.
7. Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
∆ ABC is congruent to ∆ ADC.
∆ ADB is congruent to ∆ DCB.
8. Diagonals divide a parallelogram into four equals triangles.
i.e. Area of ∆ AOD = area of ∆ AOB = area of ∆ BOC = area of ∆ DOC.

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Area of a parallelogram:
Area of a parallelogram is base × altitude. D C
ABCD is a parallelogram. DE is drawn perpendicular to AB.
DE is the altitude.
Area of the parallelogram = AB. DE.

Rectangle: A E B
In a parallelogram if angle at every vertex is a right D C
angle, then it is called a rectangle.
∠ A = ∠ B = ∠ C = ∠ D = 90°
Area of a rectangle = length × breadth = AB × BC (or) CD × AD.

RHOMBUS:
In a parallelogram, if A B
1. All the sides are equal (AB = BC = CD = DE)
2. Diagonals bisect each other at right angles or, A
3. Each diagonal bisects angles at the vertices or,
(AC bisects angles A and C and BD bisects angles B and D.
then it is called a rhombus.
1 1
Area of the rhombus = the product of diagonals. = AC . BD B O D
2 2

EXAMPLES:
C
1. Two radii OA and OB of a circle of area 16π subtend an angle of 60° at the center
‘O”. Find AB.

Area of the circle = 16π A

Radius of the circle = 4
i.e. OA = OB = 4
∠ AOB = 60° D
OD is drawn perpendicular to AB 30° B
∠ AOD = 30° O
1
AD = OA sin 30 = 4. = 2.
2
AB = 4 units.

2. The lengths of two sides of a parallelogram are 8cm and 6 cm and the length of
one diagonal is 10 cm. Find the area of the parallelogram.
ABCD is the parallelogram. D C
Area of ∆ ABD = s(s − a)( s −b)( s − c)
a + b + c 10 + 6 + 8
Where s = = = 12 10 6
2 2
Area of ∆ ABC = 12 × 6 × 2 × 4 = 24
Area of the parallelogram ABCD = 2 × 24 = 48 sq. units.
A 8 B

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3. Given that area of a rhombus is 24 sq. cm and the sum of the lengths of the
diagonals is 14 cms, find the side of the rhombus.
Let d1 and d2 be the lengths of the diagonals.
1
d 1 d 2 = 24
2
d1d2 = 48 ------- (1)
Further
d1 + d2= 14 ---------- (2)
Solving (1) and (2),
d1 = 6 cm and d2 = 8 cms

2 2
 d1  d 
(side)2 =   +  2  = 25
2
  2

4. In the diagram given below, E and F are the mid-points of opposite sides of a
rectangle. Find the area of the shaded region.
Area of shaded region = Area of rectangle - Areas of (∆ DGF + ∆ GAE +
∆ ECB)
=(16x8)-(1/2x4x8+1/2x4x8 +1/2x8x8)
= 128 – (64) = 64
D F C

4 6

G 8
6
A B
E 76
5. ABCD is a parallelogram of area 100 sq. cm. E and F are midpoints of AB and AD.
Find the area of the triangle AEF.
Area of the parallelogram ABCD = 100 sq. cm
DB is a diagonal
Area of triangle ADB = 50 sq. cm D C
Triangles AEF and ADB are similar.
AF AE 1
= = F
AD AB 2
Triangle AEF is half the triangle ADB.
Area of triangle AEF = 2.5 sq. cm
A E B

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