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Dilbert on Statistics

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Please follow this…

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Descriptive Statistics:
Tabular and Graphical
Presentations
CHAPTER-2 – Descriptive Statistics : Tabular and Graphical Presentation
Business Statistics
www.pibm.in

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 Text Book
TEXT BOOK
 Anderson, Sweeney, Williams, Camm, Cochran (2014). Business Statistics,
Cengage Learning (12th Edition)
NOTE – Most of the material is copied/adopted from this book. Please read the book for
additional explanation and understanding.

REFERENCE BOOK
 Black, K. (2011). Applied business statistics: Making better business
decisions. Wiley Publication.
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 VISUAL vs TEXT

https://www.deekit.com/5-reasons-to-draw-your-ideas/ 6
Table of Content

1 Summarizing Qualitative Data

2 Summarizing Quantitative Data

3 Exploratory Data Analysis

4 Crosstabulations and Scatter Diagram

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 Colgate-Palmolive Company (Slide-1/4)

The Colgate-Palmolive Company started as a small soap and candle shop in

New York City in 1806. Today, Colgate-Palmolive employs more than 40,000
people working in more than 200 countries and territories around the world.
Although best known for its brand names of Colgate, Palmolive, Ajax, and Fab,
the company also markets Mennen, Hill’s Science Diet, and Hill’s Prescription
Diet products.

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 Colgate-Palmolive Company (Slide-2/4)

The Colgate-Palmolive Company uses statistics in its quality assurance

program for home laundry detergent products. One concern is customer
satisfaction with the quantity of detergent in a carton. Every carton in each
size category is filled with the same amount of detergent by weight, but the
volume of detergent is affected by the density of the detergent powder. For
instance, if the powder density is on the heavy side, a smaller volume of
detergent is needed to reach the carton’s specified weight. As a result, the
carton may appear to be underfilled when opened by the consumer.

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 Colgate-Palmolive Company (Slide-3/4)

To control the problem of heavy detergent powder, limits are placed on the
acceptable range of powder density. Statistical samples are taken periodically,
and the density of each powder sample is measured. Data summaries are then
provided for operating personnel so that corrective action can be taken if
necessary to keep the density within the desired quality specifications.

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 Colgate-Palmolive Company (Slide-4/4)
A frequency distribution for the densities of 150 samples taken over a one-
week period and a histogram are shown in the accompanying table and figure.
Density levels above .40 are unacceptably high. The frequency distribution
and histogram show that the operation is meeting its quality guidelines with
all of the densities less than or equal to .40. Managers viewing these statistical
summaries would be pleased with the quality of the detergent production
process. In this chapter, you will learn about tabular and graphical methods of
descriptive statistics such as frequency distributions, bar graphs, histograms,
stem-andleaf displays, crosstabulations, and others. The goal of these
methods is to summarize data so that the data can be easily understood and
interpreted. 11
Colgate-Palmolive Company (Slide-3/3)

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DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

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 Descriptive Statistics
 It is analysis of data which helps to understand and describe/show or
summarize data in a meaningful way.
 It is important as raw data is hard to visualize.
 Example – If we are analyzing birth certificates then descriptive statistics
can be
 Gender ratio (Female v/s male)
 Average weight of baby (in kg)
 Average age of mother
 Range of Age of mother

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SUMMARIZING QUALITATIVE
DATA

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Summarizing Qualitative Data

1 Frequency Distribution

2 Relative Frequency

3 Percentage Frequency Distribution

4 Bar Graph

5 Pie Chart

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Frequency Distribution

 A frequency distribution is a tabular summary of data showing the

frequency (or number) of items in each of several nonoverlapping
classes.
 The objective is to provide insights about the data that can’t be
quickly obtained by looking only at the original data.

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 Frequency Distribution – Example (Slide-1/2)
Data from a Sample of 50 Soft Drink Purchases
EXAMPLE
 Construct and interpret a
frequency distribution for
qualitative data as shown in
the table for a sample of 50
soft drink purchases.
 Coke Classic, Diet Coke, Dr.
Pepper, Pepsi, and Sprite are
five popular soft drinks.
How will you develop solution?
What will be your inference?
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 Frequency Distribution – Example (Slide-2/2)
Count the number of times each INFERENCE
soft drink appears and list them The frequency distribution
in table as below. summarizes information about
Soft Drink Frequency the popularity of the five soft
Coke Classic 19 drinks.
Diet Coke 8  Coke Classic is the leader.
Dr. Pepper 5  Pepsi is second.
Pepsi 13  Diet Coke is third.
Sprite 5  Sprite and Dr. Pepper are tied
Total 50 for fourth.
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 Relative Frequency Distribution
 The relative frequency of a class is the fraction or proportion of the total
number of data items belonging to the class.

 A relative frequency distribution is a tabular summary of a set of data

showing the relative frequency for each class.

n is number of observations.
Frequency of the class
Relative frequency of a class =
𝒏

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 Relative Frequency Distribution

 The percent frequency of a class is the relative frequency multiplied by

100.

 A percent frequency distribution is a tabular summary of a set of data

showing the percent frequency for each class.

Percentage frequency = Relative frequency of a class × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

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 Example – Relative & Percent Frequency
Soft Drink Frequency Relative Frequency Percentage Frequency
Coke Classic 19 19÷50 = 0.38 38 %
Diet Coke 8 8÷50 = 0.16 16 %
Dr. Pepper 5 5÷50 = 0.10 10 %
Pepsi 13 13÷50 = 0.26 26 %
Sprite 5 5÷50 = 0.10 10 %
Total 50 1.00 100

 From the percent frequency distribution, we see that 38% of the purchases
were Coke Classic, 16% of the purchases were Diet Coke, and so on.
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 Bar Graph
 A bar graph is a graphical device for depicting qualitative data that have
been summarized in a frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency
distribution.
 On the horizontal axis we specify the labels that are used for each of the
classes.
 A frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency scale can be used for
the vertical axis.
 Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each class label, we extend the
height appropriately.
 The bars are separated to emphasize the fact that each class is a separate
category.
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Example - Bar Graph

 Bar graphs shows the

frequency distribution for
the 50 soft drink purchases.
 It is graphical presentation
showing Coke Classic, Pepsi,
and Diet Coke to be the
most preferred brands.

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 Pie Chart
 The pie chart is a commonly used graphical
device for presenting relative frequency
distributions for qualitative data.
 First draw a circle; then use the relative
frequencies to subdivide the circle into sectors
that correspond to the relative frequency for
each class.
 Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, a class
with a relative frequency of 0.25 would
consume 0.25(360) = 90 degrees of the circle.
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 Pie Chart - Example
As circle contains 360 degrees and Coke Classic shows a relative frequency of 0.38,
the sector of the pie chart labeled Coke Classic consists of - 0.38(360) = 136.8
degrees.
The sector of the pie chart labeled Diet Coke consists of 0.16(360) = 57.6 degrees.

Soft Drink Relative Frequency % Frequency Angle in Degree

Coke Classic 0.38 38 % 136.8
Diet Coke 0.16 16 % 57.6
Dr. Pepper 0.10 10 % 36.0
Pepsi 0.26 26 % 93.6
Sprite 0.10 10 % 36.0
Total 1.00 100 % 360
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SUMMARIZING
QUANTITATIVE DATA

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Summarizing Quantitative Data
1 Frequency Distribution

2 Relative Frequency and Percent Frequency Distributions

3 Dot Plot

4 Histogram

5 Cumulative Distribution

6 Ogive
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 Frequency Distribution
 Frequency distribution is applicable to qualitative and quantitative data.
 In quantitative data, one has to be careful in defining the nonoverlapping
classes to be used in frequency distribution.

EXAMPLE Year-End Audit Times

(In Days)
These data show the time in 12 14 19
days required to complete 18 15 15 Develop
year-end audits for a sample 18 17 20 frequency
27 22 23 distribution?
of 20 clients of Sanderson
22 21 33
and Clifford, a small public 28 14 18
accounting firm. 16 13 29
Frequency Distribution – Method
Width of Classes
 Determine the number of nonoverlapping classes.
 Determine the width of each class.
 Determine the class limits.

No single frequency distribution is best for a data set. Different people

may construct different, but equally acceptable, frequency distributions.
The goal is to reveal the natural grouping and variation in the data.
Trail and error may be required, while finalizing classes.
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Frequency Distribution – No of Classes

Determine Number of Classes

 Use between 5 and 20 classes.
 Goal is to have classes, which can describe data very well. Too many
classes reduces number of items in a class.
 Data sets with a larger number of elements usually require a larger
number of classes. Smaller data sets usually require fewer classes.
 In practice, the number of classes and the appropriate class width are
determined by trial and error.

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 Frequency Distribution – Width of Classes
Determine Width of Classes
 The width of all classes is recommend to be the same. Thus the choices
of the number of classes and the width of classes are not independent
decisions.
 Use equation as below to decide class width. The approximate class
width given by equation can be rounded to a more convenient value.

Largest data value − Smallest data value

Approximate class width =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

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 Frequency Distribution – Class Limits
 Class limits must be chosen so that each data item belongs to one and only
one class.
 The lower class limit identifies the smallest possible data value assigned to
the class.
 The upper class limit identifies the largest possible data value assigned to
the class.
 In developing frequency distributions for qualitative data, we did not need
to specify class limits because each data item naturally fell into a separate
class.

EXAMPLE - For a class 10-14, lower class limit is 10 and upper class limit is 14.
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 Frequency Distribution – Steps (Slide-1/2)

 Decide the approximate number of classes in which the data has to be

grouped.
 Find the range of the data: The range is the difference between the largest
and the smallest value.
 Determine the approximate class width by dividing the range by the
number of classes. If necessary, round up the value to the next whole
number.
 Prepare first column of table by listing class interval/class.
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 Frequency Distribution – Steps (Slide-2/2)
 Decide the starting point (lower limit) of first class interval :The lower
class limit should cover the smallest value in the raw data. It is a multiple of
class intervals. 0,5,10,15,20 etc. are commonly used.
 Determine the remaining class limits (boundary):Continue to add the class
width to the lower limit of first class to get the rest of the lower limits.
 To find the upper limit of the first class, subtract one from the lower limit of
the second class. Then continue to add the class width to this upper limit to
find the rest of the upper limits.
 Distribute the data into respective classes: Determine the frequencies for
each class by counting the number of data values that fit for each class. The
total frequency value should be equal to the total number of data values.
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 Frequency Distribution - Example
EXAMPLE
These data show the time in days required to complete year-end audits for a
sample of 20 clients of Sanderson and Clifford, a small public accounting firm.

Year-End Audit Times Classes for

(In Days)  Largest data value = 33 Audit Time
Frequency
12 14 19  Smallest data value = 12 10-14 4
18 15 15  Number of classes = 5 15-19 8
18 17 20 (Assume number classes 20-24 5
27 22 23 between 5 to 20. Here we 25-29 2
22 21 33 have assumed as 5.)
28 14 18 30-34 1
 (33-12)/5 = 4.2  4
16 13 TOTAL 20 36
Frequency Distribution – Class Midpoint
Width of Classes
 The class midpoint is the value halfway between the lower and
upper class limits.

Classes for Audit Time Class Midpoint

10-14 12
15-19 17
20-24 22
25-29 27
30-34 32
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 Relative & Percentage Frequency
Distribution
 The relative frequency and percent frequency distributions for quantitative
data is in the same manner as for qualitative data.
 The percent frequency of a class is the relative frequency multiplied by 100.
Frequency of the class n is number of
Relative frequency of a class =
𝒏 observations.
Audit Time
Frequency Relative Frequency % Frequency  0.40 of the audits,
(Days) or 40%, required
10-14 4 0.20 20 from 15 to 19 days.
15-19 8 0.40 40
 Only .05 of the
20-24 5 0.25 25
audits, or 5%,
25-29 2 0.10 10
30-34 1 0.05 5 required 30 or
TOTAL 20 1.00 100 more days. 38
 Dot Plot
 One of the simplest graphical summaries of data is a dot plot.
 A horizontal axis shows the range of data values.
 Then each data value is represented by a dot placed above the axis.
Year-End Audit Times
(In Days)
12 14 19
18 15 15
18 17 20
27 22 23
22 21 33 The three dots located above 18 on the horizontal
28 14 18 axis indicate that an audit time of 18 days occurred
16 13 three times. 39
 Histogram
 Another common graphical presentation of quantitative data is a
histogram.
 The variable of interest is placed on the horizontal axis and the frequency,
relative frequency, or percent frequency is placed on the vertical axis.
 A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with its height
corresponding to the interval’s frequency, relative frequency, or percent
frequency.
 Unlike a bar graph, a histogram has no natural separation between
rectangles of adjacent classes.

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 Histogram - Example
 The class with the greatest
frequency is shown by the
rectangle appearing above the
class of 15–19 days.
 The height of the rectangle
shows that the frequency of Classes for Audit Time Frequency
this class is 8. 10-14 4
 Unlike a bar graph, a histogram 15-19 8
contains no natural separation 20-24 5
between the rectangles of 25-29 2
adjacent classes. 30-34 1 41
 Histogram

One of the most

important uses
of a histogram
is to provide
information
about the
shape, or form,
of a
distribution.

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 Histogram – Skewness (Slide – 1/2)
 Moderately Skewed to the LEFT : A histogram skewed to the left if its tail
extends farther to the left.
This histogram is typical for exam scores, with no scores above 100%, most
of the scores above 70%, and only a few really low scores.

 Moderately Skewed to the RIGHT : A histogram skewed to the right if its

tail extends farther to the right.
An example of this type of histogram would be for data such as housing
prices; a few expensive houses create the skewness in the right tail.

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 Histogram – Skewness (Slide – 2/2)
 SYMMETRIC : In a symmetric histogram, the left tail mirrors the shape of
the right tail. Histograms for data found in applications are never perfectly
symmetric, but the histogram for many applications may be roughly
symmetric.
Data for SAT scores, heights and weights of people, and so on lead to
histograms that are roughly symmetric.
 Highly Skewed to the RIGHT : This histogram was constructed from data on
the amount of customer purchases over one day at a women’s apparel
store. Data from applications in business and economics often lead to
histograms that are skewed to the right. For instance, data on housing
prices, salaries, purchase amounts, and so on often result in histograms
skewed to the right. 44
Cumulative Distribution

 The cumulative frequency distribution shows the number of items with

values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
 The cumulative relative frequency distribution shows the proportion of
items with values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
 The cumulative percent frequency distribution shows the percentage of
items with values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.

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 Example - Cumulative Distribution
 The cumulative frequency for the class “less than or equal to 24” is simply
the sum of the frequencies for all classes with data values less than or
equal to 24.
 For the frequency distribution in Table, the sum of the frequencies for
classes 10–14, 15–19, and 20–24 indicates that 4 + 8 + 5 = 17 data values
are “less than or equal to 24.”
Cumulative Cumulative Relative Cumulative Percentage
Audit Time (Days)
Frequency Frequency Frequency
Less than or equal to 14 04 04 ÷ 20 = 0.20 0.20 × 100 = 20
Less than or equal to 19 12 12 ÷ 20 = 0.60 0.60 × 100 = 60
Less than or equal to 24 17 17 ÷ 20 = 0.85 0.85 × 100 = 85
Less than or equal to 29 19 19 ÷ 20 = 0.95 0.95 × 100 = 95
Less than or equal to 34 20 20 ÷ 20 = 1.00 1.00 × 100 = 100 46
Ogive
 An ogive is a graph of a cumulative distribution.
 The data values, as below, are shown on the horizontal axis.
 cumulative frequencies, or
 cumulative relative frequencies, or
 cumulative percent frequencies
 The frequency (one of the above) of each class is plotted as a point.
 The plotted points are connected by straight lines.
 The ogive is constructed by plotting a point corresponding to the
cumulative frequency of each class.

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 Audit Time (Days) Cumulative Frequency
Example - Ogive Less than or equal to 14 4
Less than or equal to 19 12
Because the classes for the audit Less than or equal to 24 17
time data are 10–14, 15–19, 20– Less than or equal to 29 19
24, and so on, one-unit gaps Less than or equal to 34 20
appear from 14 to 15, 19 to 20,
and so on. These gaps are
eliminated by plotting points Audit Time (Days) Point on X axis
halfway between the class limits. Less than or equal to 14 14.5
Thus, 14.5 is used for the 10 –14 Less than or equal to 19 19.5
class, 19.5 is used for the 15–19 Less than or equal to 24 24.5
class, and so on. Less than or equal to 29 29.5
Less than or equal to 34 34.5
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 Example - Ogive
Below data will be used for drawing Ogive curve. A preceding class before the
first class is also taken into consideration for drawing this curve. This class is
less than or equal to 9. Cumulative frequency of this class is taken to be 0.

Audit Time (Days) Class for Audit Time Point on X axis Cumulative Frequency
Less than or equal to 14 10-14 14.5 4
Less than or equal to 19 15-19 19.5 12
Less than or equal to 24 20-24 24.5 17
Less than or equal to 29 25-29 29.5 19
Less than or equal to 34 30-34 34.5 20

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 Example - Ogive
The “less than or equal to 14” class with a cumulative frequency of 4 is shown on the
ogive in graph by point located at 14.5 on the horizontal axis and 4 on the vertical axis.

Cumulative
Audit Time (Days) X axis
Frequency
<= 14 14.5 4
<= 19 19.5 12
<= 24 24.5 17
<= 29 29.5 19
<= 34 34.5 20
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Example – Waiting Time for Patients

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Example – Consumer Holiday Spending

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EXPLORATORY DATA
ANALYSIS

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 Exploratory Data Analysis

 The techniques of exploratory data analysis consist of simple arithmetic

and easy-to-draw pictures that can be used to summarize data quickly.
 One such technique is the stem-and-leaf display.

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 Stem-and-Leaf Display
 A stem-and-leaf display shows both the rank order and shape of the
distribution of the data.
 It is similar to a histogram on its side, but it has the advantage of showing
the actual data values.
 The first digits of each data item are arranged to the left of a vertical line.
 To the right of the vertical line we record the last digit for each item in rank
order.
 Each line in the display is referred to as a stem.
 Each digit on a stem is a leaf.
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Example - Stem-and-Leaf Display (Slide-1/3)
112 72 69 97 107
73 92 76 86 73
These data result from a 150-
126 128 118 127 124
question aptitude test given to 50
individuals recently interviewed for a 82 104 132 134 83
position at Haskens Manufacturing. 92 108 96 100 92
The data indicate the number of 115 76 91 102 81
questions answered correctly. 95 141 81 80 106
84 119 113 98 75
68 98 115 106 95
100 85 94 106 119
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 Example - Stem-and-Leaf Display (Slide-2/3)
Lowest
112 72 69 97 107 Number
73 92 76 86 73
126 128 118 127 124
82 104 132 134 83
92 108 96 100 92
Highest
Number
115 76 91 102 81
95 141 81 80 106
Lowest 84 119 113 98 75
Number
Highest
68 98 115 106 95 Number
100 85 94 106 119
The data value 112 shows the leading digits 11 to the left of the line and the last digit 2 to
the right of the line 57
 Example - Stem-and-Leaf Display (Slide-3/3)
Sort the digits on each line into rank order

The numbers to the left of the vertical line (6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14) form the stem,
and each digit to the right of the vertical line is a leaf. 58
 Stretched Stem-and-Leaf Display
 If we believe the original stem-and-
leaf display has condensed the data
too much, we can stretch the
display by using two more stems
for each leading digit(s).
 Whenever a stem value is stated
twice, the first value corresponds
to leaf values of 0-4, and the
second values corresponds to
values of 5-9.
59
 Example – Mini Marathon
The 2004 Naples, Florida, mini marathon (13.1 miles) had 1228 registrants (Naples
DailycNews, January 17, 2004). Competition was held in six age groups. The
following data showcthe ages for a sample of 40 individuals who participated in the
marathon.
a. Show a stretched stem-and-leaf display. 49 33 40 37 56
b. What age group had the largest number of runners? 44 46 57 55 32
c. What age occurred most frequently? 50 52 43 64 40
d. ANaples Daily News feature article emphasized the 46 24 30 37 43
number of runners who were “20-something.” What 31 43 50 36 61
percentage of the runners were in the 20-something 27 44 35 31 43
age group? 52 43 66 31 50
e. What do you suppose was the focus of the article? 72 26 59 21 47
60
CROSSTABULATIONS AND
SCATTER DIAGRAMS

61
 Crosstabulations

 A crosstabulation is a tabular summary of data for two variables.

 Earlier discussion was focused on methods that are used to summarize the
data for one variable at a time.
 Often a manager is interested in tabular and graphical methods that will
help understand the relationship between two variables.
 Crosstabulation and a scatter diagram are two methods for summarizing
the data for two (or more) variables simultaneously.

62
 Example – Crosstabulation (Slide-1/4)
The quality rating and the meal price data were collected for a sample of 300
restaurants located in the Los Angeles area. Table shows the data for the first
10 restaurants. Data on a restaurant’s quality rating and typical meal price are
reported.
Quality rating is a
qualitative variable with
rating categories of good,
very good, and excellent.
Meal price is a
quantitative variable that
ranges from $10 to $49.
63
 Example – Crosstabulation (Slide-2/4)

 The Quality Rating and Meal Price labels define the classes for the two
variables. In the left margin, the row labels (good, very good, and
excellent) correspond to the three classes of the quality rating variable.
 In the top margin, the column labels ($10–19, $20–29, $30–39, and $40–
49) correspond to the four classes of the meal price variable.
64
 Example – Crosstabulation (Slide-3/4)
Row Percentages for Each Quality Rating Category

 Converting the entries in a crosstabulation into row % or column % can provide

more insight into the relationship between the two variables.
 Of the restaurants with the lowest quality rating (good), the greatest percentages
are for the less expensive restaurants (50% have $10–19 meal prices and 47.6%
have $20–29 meal prices).
 Of the restaurants with the highest quality rating (excellent), the greatest
percentages are for the more expensive restaurants (42.4% have $30–39 meal
prices and 33.4% have $40–49 meal prices). 65
Example – Crosstabulation (Slide-4/4)

From the percent frequency distribution we see that 28% of the

restaurants were rated good, 50% were rated very good, and 22%
were rated excellent.

66
Example – Crosstabulation (Slide-4/4)

From the percent frequency distribution we see that -

 39% of the restaurants were have meal price $20-29, while
 0.09% of the restaurants were have meal price $40-49
67
 Scatter Diagram and Trendline

 A scatter diagram is a graphical presentation of the relationship between

two quantitative variables.
 One variable is shown on the horizontal axis and the other variable is
shown on the vertical axis.
 The general pattern of the plotted points suggests the overall relationship
between the variables.

68
 Example – Scatter Diagram
On 10 occasions during the past three months, the store used weekend television
commercials to promote sales at its stores. The managers want to investigate
whether a relationship exists between the number of commercials shown and sales
at the store during the following week. Sample data for the 10 weeks with sales in
hundreds of dollars are shown in Table

69
TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS
DEPICTED BY SCATTER
DIAGRAMS

70
 Example

The crosstabulation shows household income by educational level of the head of household
(Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002).
1. Compute the row % and identify the percent frequency distributions of income for households in
which the head is a high school graduate and in which the head holds a bachelor’s degree.
2. What percentage of households headed by high school graduates earn $75,000 or more? What
percentage of households headed by bachelor’s degree recipients earn $75,000 or more?
3. Construct percent frequency histograms of income for households headed by persons with a high
school degree and for those headed by persons with a bachelor’s degree. Is any relationship
evident between household income and educational level?
71
 Tabular and Graphical Procedures
DATA
Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Graphical Tabular Tabular

Graphical Methods
Methods Methods Methods
 Frequency  Bar Graph  Frequency Distribution  Dot Plot
Distribution  Pie Chart  Relative Frequency Distribution  Histogram
 Relative Frequency  Percentage Frequency Distribution  Ogive
Distribution
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution  Stem-and-Leaf
 Percentage Display
 Cumulative Relative Frequency
Frequency
Distribution  Scatter Diagram
Distribution
 Cross tabulation
 Crosstabulation

72
HOMEWORK PROBLEMS

73
 Example

CSM Worldwide forecasts global production for all automobile manufacturers. The
following CSM data show the forecast of global auto production for General Motors, Ford,
DaimlerChrysler, and Toyota for the years 2004 to 2007 (USA Today, December 21, 2005).
Data are in millions of vehicles.
 Construct a time series graph for the years 2004 to 2007 showing the number of
vehicles manufactured by each automotive company. Show the time series for all four
manufacturers on the same graph.
 General Motors has been the undisputed production leader of automobiles since 1931.
What does the time series graph show about who is the world’s biggest car company?
Discuss.
 Construct a bar graph showing vehicles produced by automobile manufacturer using
the 2007 data. Is this graph based on cross-sectional or time series data? 74
75