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Fundamental Physics of High Voltage Engineering
Fundamental Physics of
High Voltage Engineering
Dr. Qing Yang
Dept of High Voltage and Insulation Engineering
Chongqing University
Lecture 1-1
Lecture 1- Electrical breakdown

in gases
Qing Yang
Associate Professor, Ph.D.
Office phone: 65111172-8212
E-mail: yangqing@cqu.edu.cn
Lecture 1-2
Sources of Charge Carriers- Electrons
 Source of initial charge carriers

 Cosmic radiation
 Radioactive substances in gases
(Both are sources of free electrons.)

 Carrier multiplication
 Initial free electrons gain energy under the electric field, and they
accelerate, and further gain more energy. This leads to collisions
and release new electrons.
Lecture 1-3
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
 Elastic collision
 A collision in which the energy exchanged is translational kinetic
energy only (KE to KE).
 Atomic or molecular structures are unchanged.
A+eA+e
 Under normal conditions the collisions are elastic and most
collisions are elastic even under the electric field effect.
 Inelastic collision
 Kinetic energy of the colliding particle is transferred into potential
energy of the struck particle (KE to PE). This type of collision
causes ionization.
 Excitation: A + e  A* + e  A + e + hv
 Ionization: A + e  A+ + e + e
Lecture 1-4
Basic Processes in Gas Breakdown

 Availability of energetic electron
 Beginning of ionization by collision
 High field conduction by ionization
 Sharp increase in current
Exponential growth.
Lecture 1-5
Lecture 1-6
V-I characteristics
 Region 1-Low field region:

 Mainly the background current(I0), photoelectric current, if the
gap is irradiated. Relationship between V and I is almost linear.
 Region 2-Intermediate field region:
 Up to certain voltage, V=V2, the current remains constant at I0
level as no other additional mechanisms are responsible for
producing any additional current.
 Region 3-High field region:
 An exponential growth in current occurs due to high field effects,
beginning with ionization processes.
Lecture 1-7
Chapter 1: Electrical breakdown in gases

 Main contents
 Major types of electrical breakdown in gases
 Ionization and decay processes
 Townsend mechanism and Streamer mechanism
 Breakdown of long air gaps in non-uniform fields
 Breakdown under impulse voltages
 Factors to influence breakdown voltages of gases
 Approaches to improve dielectric strength of gases
 Surface discharges
Lecture 1-8
Main contents of the lecture

1.1 Major types of electrical breakdown in gases
1.1.1 Basic concepts of electrical breakdown in gases
1.1.2 Main types of gas discharges
1.2 Ionization and decay processes
1.2.1 Ionization in gases
1.2.2 Deionization in gases
Conclusions
Lecture 1-9
1.1 Major types of electrical breakdown in gases

 Gaseous discharges: all types of conduction of currents
through gases
 Breakdown in gases: processes of gases turning into good
conductors from good insulators
 Surface flashovers: electrical breakdown occurring on
interfaces between gas and solid dielectrics or gas and
liquid dielectrics
Note:
a) In engineering application, both breakdown and flashover are called
discharges;
b) Breakdown voltage of an insulator is the minimum voltage that
causes a portion of the insulator to become electrically conductive.
Lecture 1-10

 Gas dielectrics usually used in electrical power equipment
include air, N2, SF6, and mixed gases with high dielectric
strength. （SF6: sulphur hexa fluoride）
 Air： overhead transmission lines; external insulation of electrical
equipment
 SF6: gas insulated switchgears or substations (internal insulation)
 Air is a type of self-restoring gas dielectric. It is currently
the cheapest and the most widely applied in electrical
power equipment. Air is the gas dielectric presented in the
course.
Lecture 1-11

 Electric strength indicates the ability of gases to withstand
voltage stress.
 In uniform electric field, the ratio of breakdown voltage Ub
to gap distance is the breakdown field strength Eb. The
breakdown stress of a gas in uniform electric field is
considered as the electric strength of the gas.
 The electric strength of air in the standard condition is 30 kV/cm.
Note: a ratio of breakdown voltage to gap distance in a non-uniform

electric field cannot be considered as the electric strength of a gas. It is
usually called as the average electric strength.
Lecture 1-12
1.1.2 Main types of gas discharges
 (a) glow discharge  (b) corona discharge

 (c) brush discharge  (d) spark discharge
 (e) arc discharge
(a) (b) (c) (d) and (e)
Note: a) Corona discharges and brush discharges do not bridge electrodes

but the other three types gas discharges bridge electrodes.
b) These gas discharges may change into each others under different
conditions.
Lecture 1-13
1.1.2 Basic terms used in gas dicharge
 (a) molecules, atoms, particles, neutral molecules

 (b) electron, positive ions, negative ions, atomic nucleus
 (c) photon
 (d) gas atom state, energy level
Lecture 1-14
1.2 Ionization and decay processes in gases

 Excitation and ionization of an atom
 Excitation is an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary
baseline energy state. An atom is on an excited state after being
excited.
 Ionization is the process by which an electron is removed from an
atom, leaving the atom with a positive ion. The energy required to
remove an outer electron completely from its normal state in the
atom to a distance well beyond the nucleus is called the ionization
energy (the first ionization potential).
 Ionization by double electron impact: If an atom is already raised
to an excited state with energy by a previous collision, then
ionization of this excited atom can occur by a collision with a
relatively slow electron. This electron would need less energy than
the first ionization energy.
Lecture 1-15
Energy W > Wi
Free Electron
Energy Energy
Excitation
Energy
Photon
Free Electron
Lecture 1-16
Various processes of ionization in gases are resulted from energy

obtained by gas molecules.
1. Ionization by collision
 This is a type of ionization involving the collision of electrons and ions
with gas molecules.
 When a electron travels in the distance x in an electric field with
stress E, the kinetic energy of the electron is as:
1 me: electron mass; Ve: electron velocity

me ve2  qEx E: field stress; x: traveling distance
2
Note: kinetic energy of an electron is decided by a) field stress and b)

traveling distance of the electron.
Lecture 1-17
 Condition of ionization by collision
1
me ve2  Wi Wi : ionization energy
2
 Electrons are small enough to travel a much longer distance

than positive ions. They are more possible to obtain velocity
sufficient to make success ionization by collision than
positive ions.
Lecture 1-18
 Free path λ
The free path λ is defined as the distance molecules or particles travel

between collisions. The free path is a random quantity and as we shall see its
mean value depends upon the concentration of particles or the density of the
gas. λ is the travelling distance of the electrons, which is very important for
the kinetic energy of the electrons.
The probability that λis longer than x can

be described as f(x). Then after the
electron travel a distance of x, the
probability of the electron to strike the
atom in the next dx distance can be
described as dx/λ . The probability of non-
strike can be described as 1-dx/λ .
Lecture 1-19
Therefore, The probability that λis longer than x+dx can be describes as
f(x+dx).
f ( x)(1  dx /  )
f ( x)
f ( x  dx)  f ( x)  dx  f ( x)(1  dx /  )
x
f ( x) f ( x) 
x
 f ( x )  e 
x 
Lecture 1-20
Therefore, if there are n0 electrons at the initiation distance x=0, the

amount of the electrons travelling x distance without collision can be
described as
x

n( x)  n0 e 
Lecture 1-21

2. Photo-ionization
 This is a type of ionization involving photon radiation.
 A molecule in the ground state can be ionized by a photon of
frequency v provided that the quantum of energy emitted hv, is
greater than the ionization energy of the molecule.
 Sources of photons
 ultraviolet radiation; cosmic radiation; radioactive substances
 recombination of two ions with opposite polarities
 After excitation an atom or a molecule may return to a lower
excited state, or the ground state, by emitting a photon.
 Condition of photo-ionization
h: Plank's constant;
hv  Wi
v: frequency of photon
Lecture 1-22

3. Thermal ionization
 Thermal ionization, in general, applies to the ionizing actions of
molecular collisions, radiation and electron collisions occurring
in gases at high temperature.
 Degree of thermal ionization m is the ratio of the number of
ionized particles to the number of total particles.
 Thermal ionization becomes

significant when T>10000 K.
 Almost all air molecules are
ionized when T>20000 K.
Thermal ionization degree m of air versus temperature T

Lecture 1-23

4. Cathode processes
 This is a type of ionization involving electron emission
which takes place at or near the electrode surface, in

particular the cathode surface.
 Main types of cathode processes
 Electron emission by positive ion and excited atom impact

 Photoelectric emission
 Field emission
 Thermionic emission
Lecture 1-24
Positive Ion Impact
 =>Principal secondary process in the generation of “new electrons” at

the cathode
Condition for generating a new electron
(WKE + WPE)positive ion>= (2Wa ) metal surface of cathode
 Every impact should release two active electrons. One to neutralize the
positive ion, and an other to initiate a new electron
Probability plays a major role.
 If the impinging particle is an excited atom or a metastable atom, a

new electron released from the impact can initiate another electron.
Lecture 1-31
 Postive ion collisions depend on cathode, material type (metal) and surface
irregularities .
 Work function of metal, Wa plays a role. Wa for copper=4eV.

Energy also plays a major role.
 At higher(E/p), energy gained by the moving particle is high [WKE is

proportional to (E/p)]
 Number of positive ions are high at higher(E/p)compared to lower(E/p)
Lecture 1-32
Other types of emission from the cathode
 Thermionic Emission:
Occurs when the temperature is in the range of 1500 to 2500K.
 Field Emission
Occurs when the field is in the range of 108 to 109 V/cm
Lecture 1-33

5. Electron Attachment: negative ion formation
 If a gas molecule has unoccupied energy levels in its outermost
group, then a colliding electron may take up one of these levels,
converting the molecule into a negative ion.
 Electron attachment coefficient: the number of attachments
produced in a path of a single electron traveling a distance of
per unit (1 cm) in the direction of field.
Note: Electron attachment decreases the number of free

electrons, unlike ionization which increases the free electrons.
Lecture 1-28

1. Drift of charged particles under electric force
 In the presence of an electric field, charged particles in a gas
experience a force causing them to drift toward electrodes with
opposite polarities. Some charged particles may disappear at the
electrodes with opposite polarities.
2. Diffusion of charged particles
 In electrical discharges whenever there is a non-uniform
concentration of ions there will be movement of ions from regions
of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. The
process by which equilibrium is achieved is called diffusion.
 This process will cause a deionizing effect in the regions of higher
concentrations and an ionizing effect in regions of lower
concentrations.
 Diffusion rates of electrons are much greater than those of ions.
Lecture 1-29

3. Recombination of charged particles
 Whenever there are positively and negatively charged particles
present, recombination takes place.
 The potential energy and the relative kinetic energy of the
recombining electron–ion is released as quantum of radiation.
 At high pressures, ion-ion recombination takes place. The rate of
recombination in either case is directly proportional to the
concentration of both positive ions and negative ions.
 The recombination process is particularly important at high
pressures for which diffusion is relatively unimportant.
 Usually, negative ions are first formed by electron attachment
process and then these negative ions are recombined with positive
ions.
Lecture 1-30
Conclusions
 Gas breakdown is a contradiction between ionization and

deionization. Breakdown or Not Breakdown depend on
which one is dominate.
 In the conditions of high electric field, ionization can be
divided into spatial ionization and surface ionization.
 The applied energy on the molecules is important for the
ionization: Electrical energy, Thermal energy and Photon
energy. The transmission of the energy depends on the
collision of electrons, photons and molecules. Collision is
the major reason for the gas breakdown.
Lecture 1-31
collision
spatial ionization Photon ionization
Thermal ionization
Positive ion impaction
Ionization Photoelectric emission
surface ionization
Field emission
Gas Thermionic emission
Electron Attachment
Drift of charged particles under electric force
Deionization
Diffusion of charged particles
Recombination of charged particles

Lecture 1-32
Part I- Chapter 1: Electrical Breakdown in Gases
1.3 Townsend and Streamer mechanisms
Lecture 2-33
1.3.1 The Townsend mechanism
 The Townsend mechanism is also called as the Townsend

breakdown mechanism or the avalanche mechanism.
 Experiment of gas current measured between two parallel
plate electrodes
Gap arrangement Current-voltage relationship in prespark region
Lecture 2-34
 Analysis to experiment results

 The current at first increases proportionately with the applied
voltage
 The current remains nearly constant at a value i0 which
corresponds to the background current (saturation current), or if
the cathode is irradiated with a UV light, i0 gives the emitted
photocurrent.
 At still higher voltage beyond V2 the current increases above the
value i0 at an exponential rate.
 The increase in current beyond V2 is ascribed to ionization of the
gas by electron collision.
 Non-self-sustained discharge period: the applied voltage is between
V2 and V3.
 Self-sustained discharge period: the applied voltage is beyond V3.
Lecture 2-35
 Non-self-sustained discharges
 Discharges sustained with both applied voltages and external
ionization factors.
 If both applied voltages and external ionization factors are
removed, gas discharges will terminate.
 Self-sustained discharges
 Discharges sustained with no external ionization factors but
applied voltages.
 Ionization in gases can be sustained with only applied voltages.
Lecture 2-36
 Occurrence of electron avalanche
The number of electrons

increase at an exponential rate.
(a) Electron multiplication
Why do electrons and positive

ions distribute in avalanche as
shown as in left graph?
(b) Electron avalanche
Lecture 2-37

 Townsend’s first ionization coefficient: 
 This is defined as the number of electrons produced by an electron
per unit length (1 cm) of path in the direction of the field.
Supposed n the number of electrons at a

distance x from the cathode in field direction,
the increase in electrons dn in dx is given by:
n0 n n
dn=ndx
Integration over the distance d from cathode x dx
to anode gives:
dn
n=n0ed
In term of current, with the I0 the current d
leaving the cathode, above equation becomes:
Calculation model of electron
I=I0ed avalanche in uniform field
Lecture 2-38

 Townsend’s first ionization coefficient: 
 The term ed is called the electron avalanche.
 It represents the number of electrons produced by one electron
in travelling from cathode to anode.
 The current of electron avalanche increases with increasing
the gap distance d at an exponential rate.
 When I0=0, discharges in gases finish.
(non-self-sustained discharges)
 The electron multiplication process by electron collision
( called as -process) does not lead to self-sustained discharges.
Why?
Lecture 2-39
 Variation of gap current with electrode spacing in uniform

field gaps
Why does log I against gap

length not yield a straight line?
Lecture 2-40

 Ionization in gas by collision of positive ions: coefficient 
(called as the -process)
 This is defined as the number of electrons produced by a positive
ion per unit length (1 cm) of path in the direction of the field.
 The following equations can be obtained with the two coefficients
 and :
(   )e (   ) d ed
I  I0  I  I0
  e (   ) d  d
1 e

where  << .
Lecture 2-41

 Townsend second ionization coefficient 
 This ionization process is related to the liberation of electrons from
the cathode by positive ion bombardment.
 Defined as the number of electrons released from the cathode per
incident positive ion.
 This ionization process is called as the -process.
Let n = number of electrons reaching the anode per second, n0 number of

electrons emitted from the cathode, n+ number of electrons released from the
cathode by positive ion bombardment. The following equations are found:

n  (n0  n )e
d
n0 ed ed
  n d
 I  I0

n   [ n  ( n0  n  )] 1   ( e  1) 1   (ed  1)
Lecture 2-42

  (ed-1) = 1 defines Townsend breakdown criterion.
 The number of ion pairs produced in the gap by the passage of
one electron avalanche is sufficiently large that the resulting
positive ions, on bombarding the cathode, are able to release
one secondary electron and so cause a repetition of the
avalanche process.
 The discharge is self-sustaining and can continue in the
absence of the source producing I0.
 For  (ed-1) < 1, the current I is not self-sustained, i.e. on removal
of the source producing the primary current I0 it ceases to flow.
 For  (ed-1) > 1, the ionization produced by successive avalanches
is cumulative.
Lecture 2-43
 Processes of self-sustained discharges in gases

electrons from the cathode UV light
Free electron
Acceleration in e field
Gama Process
Alpha process - Avanlanche
Positive ion
Lecture 2-44

 Conditions of the Townsend mechanism
 Uniform electric field

 Low gas pressure pd<26.66kPa·cm
 Small gas gap
 Main contents of the Townsend mechanism
 Self-sustaining criteria
Brief conclusions of the Townsend

mechanism
Lecture 2-45

In the above analysis, electron attachment to neutral molecules was not considered.
Electron attachment removes free electrons and thus gives gases very high dielectric
strengths. The gases in which electronattachment occurs are electro-negative gases.
An attachment coefficient η can be defined, analogous withα , as the number of
attachments per electron per unit drift in the direction of the field. Under these conditions,
the equation for the average current growth in a uniform field can be shown to be as
follows.
Homework #1: please deduce the equation above!

1.3.2 Paschen’s law
 The sparking voltage–pd relationship - Paschen’s curve
 The breakdown voltage of a

uniform field gap is a unique
function of the product of
pressure and the electrode
separation.
 Vb goes through a minimum
value Vbmin at the product
(pd)min.
Lecture 2-47
Self-sustained Equation of the

discharge Townsend first
condition of the Bpd ionization
  Ap exp(  )
Townsend  (ed  1)  1 u coefficient
mechanism
Bpd
ub   f ( pd )
Breakdown
voltage
 Apd 
ln  
 ln 1  1 /   
 A and B are constants related to types of gases.

 ub is the self-sustained discharge voltage, equal to breakdown voltage.
Lecture 2-48

巴申曲线的右半支：
p collision 
d  ionization _ probabilti y  U b 
free _ path 
d collision 
p    ionization _ probablity  Ub 
E  ( U / d )
巴申曲线的左半支
p collison 
d   ionization _ probability  Ub 
free _ path 
Lecture 2-49
 Brief conclusions
How to improve the breakdown voltage according to
Paschen’s law?
Lecture 2-50
1.3.3 The streamer mechanism of spark

 The Townsend mechanism is valid for gas gap with low pressure
and small distance in uniform electric field.
 In air at pressures around atmospheric and above
( pd > 103 torr cm), the Townsend mechanism cannot answer the
three following questions.
 According to the Townsend’s theory, formative time lag of the
spark should be at best equal to the electron transit time. Why do
the experiment results shows formative time lags are only between
1/10 and 1/100 of that time?
 The Townsend mechanism indicates that avalanches should
distribute in the complete space of gas gap. Why have photographs
of avalanche development shown that channels of ionization like
streamers existing in gas gaps?
 The Townsend mechanism indicates that breakdown voltages are
dependant on cathode material. Why is it invalid for gas gap in air
at pressures around atmospheric and above?
Lecture 2-51

 Two important factors have to
be considered to solve problems
of the Townsend mechanism:
1) Field distortion caused by space
charge of an electron avalanche
 The Townsend mechanism is valid
only when the electrical field of
the space charges of electrons and
ions can be neglected compared to
the external field.
Lecture 2-52
2) Secondary avalanche generated by photoionization

 Recombination between positive ions and electrons releases
photons which in turn generate secondary electrons by the
photoionization process.
 These electrons under the influence of the electric field in the gap
develop into secondary avalanches. Since photons travel with the
velocity of light, the process leads to a rapid development of
conduction channel across the gap.
Secondary avalanche
formation by photoelectrons
Lecture 2-53
 Occurrence and development of streamers when V=Vb
(a) Avalanches occur and transit toward anode. (original avalanches)
Lecture 2-54

(b) Avalanches approach or reach anode. Recombination between positive

ions and electrons releases photons which in turn generate secondary
electrons.
Lecture 2-55

(c) Secondary avalanches occur under the influence of the electric field and
photoionization.
Lecture 2-56

(d) a plasma area occurs when secondary avalanches go into the original
avalanche. New secondary avalanches occurs by more intensive
photoionization.
Lecture 2-57

(e) The plasma continues to grow. New secondary avalanches occur in the
space between plasma tip and cathode, where electric field becomes much
greater.
Lecture 2-58

(f) The plasma channel connects cathode and anode (gas gap breakdown).
Lecture 2-59
 Occurrence and development of streamers when V = Vb

 The streamer has apparent growth of the avalanche head and is
thus called as the ‘anode directed streamer’.
 Occurrence and development of streamers when V > Vb
 Secondary avalanches occur before original avalanched reach
anode.
 The streamer is because of additional discharge growth from
original avalanches tails and thus called as the ‘cathode directed
streamer’.
Lecture 2-60
 Photographs showing development of cathode directed

streamers
(a) avalanche near anode; (b) and (c) cathode directed streamer starts;
(d) and (e) time period for plasma channel to connect cathode and
anode.
Lecture 2-61
 Brief conclusions of the streamer mechanism

→Electric field distortion；
→The recombination of the ion and electrons at the head of the
avalanche；
→Release photon；
→Photonionization and photoelectron；
→New collision ionization;
→secondary avalanche；
→streamer;
→anode and cathode connected by streamer.
Lecture 2-62
 Condition for the transition from avalanche to streamer

 Transformation from avalanche to streamer generally occurs when
the charge within the avalanche head reaches a critical value of
n0 exp(xc)≈108 or xc≈18-20, where xc is the length of the
avalanche path in field direction when it reaches the critical size.
 When the avalanche in the gap reaches a certain critical size, the
combined space charge field and externally applied field lead to
intense ionization and excitation of the gas particles in front of the
avalanche head.
 Photons released by recombination between positive ions and
electrons generate secondary electrons by the photoionization
process.
 Photonionization is a self-sustained process if a streamer occurs.
Lecture 2-63

 Formative time lags of streamers
 After the avalanche has reached the critical size, there is an increase
in the velocity of the avalanche head by about a factor of 10.
 The streamer mechanism requires a much shorter formative time
than the Townsend mechanism, because it relies on photoionization
in gases. Phontos have much greater drift velocity than electrons.
 The sudden change in the formative time lag usually takes place for
values of some 10-7 sec.
 Shapes of streamers
 Stripes of breakdown channel are observed during a streamer
breakdown process. That is why this process is called as streamer
breakdown.
 Influence of Cathode material
 The secondary avalanche mechanism results from spatial
photoionization of gas molecules and is independent of electrodes.
Lecture 2-64
Conclusions
 Towsend theory：
Uniform e-field, Low air pressure and Small distance air
gap;
 Streamer theory：
Uniform e-field, High air pressure and long distance air
gap
Criterion: pd=26.66 kPa·

cm
Lecture 2-65
Conclusions
(1) Towsend：
Collision ionization is the reason for the current
growth. The cathode process is the condition for the self-
sustained discharge.
(2) Streamer theory：
① Collision ionization is the basis. However, electric
field distortion and photonionization are responsible
for the channel propagation;
② Streamer is self-sustained discharge.
Lecture 2-66
1.4 Breakdown in non-uniform fields
Instructor: Dr. Qing Yang
Lecture 3-67
1.4.1 Description of non-uniform fields

 In non-uniform fields, e.g. in point-plane, sphere-plane, rod-plane
gaps or coaxial cylinders, the field strength and hence the
effective ionization coefficient vary across the gap.
 Non-uniform degree of an electric field is defined as: ke= Emax/Eav ,
where Emax and Eav are the maximum and average of the electric
field strength, respectively.
 ke<2: slightly non-uniform fields.
 ke>4: strongly non-uniform fields.
 In uniform field and quasi-uniform field gaps, the onset of
measurable ionization usually leads to complete breakdown of
the gap.
 In non-uniform fields, various manifestations of luminous and
audible discharges (partial breakdown) are observed long before
the complete breakdown occurs.
Lecture 3-68
1.4.1 Description of non-uniform fields

 A strongly divergent field in a positive point-plane gap
Lecture 3-69
1.4.2 Breakdown in slightly non-uniform

fields
 At low pressures the Townsend criterion for spark takes the form
  d  
 0

 exp   ( x)dx  1  1
 
where d is the gap length.
 For the general case to take into account the non-uniform
distribution of  , the criterion condition for breakdown (or
inception of discharge) may be represented as
 xc  d  xc  d
exp 
 
0
 ( x)dx  108

or 
0
 ( x)dx  18  20
Lecture 3-70
1.4.3 Breakdown in strongly non-uniform

fields
1. Corona discharges
 Definition: A corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought
on by the ionization of a gas (fluid) surrounding a conductor,
which occurs when the electric field is strongly non-uniform and
field strength at or near the conductor surface or exceeds a certain
value, but conditions are insufficient to cause complete electrical
breakdown.
 Characteristics:
 Self-sustained discharges in strongly non-uniform fields
 Inception voltages of coronas smaller than breakdown voltages
 luminous and audible
Lecture 3-71

fields
 The field strength Ec at the surface of the conductor in air
required to produce a visual AC corona in air is given
approximately by the Peek’s expressions.
 For two transmission lines in parallel, a Peek’s expression
(Peek’s law) is as:
 0.298 
Ec  21.4m1m2 1   kV/cm
 r 
where:
 r - conductor diameter;  - relative density of air
 m1 - constant describing surface condition of conductors
 m2 - constant of climate.
d
uc  Ec r ln kV  d - distance between two lines
r
Lecture 3-72

fields
 Problems for electric power transmission
 Power loss
 Audible noise
 Electromagnetic interference
 Ozone production
 Insulation damage
 Industry application
 Impulse coronas weaken propagation along transmission lines of
lightning and switching overvoltage waves.
 High-speed printing devices
 Electrostatic precipitators
 Paint sprayers
Lecture 3-73

fields
2. Polarity effect
 In strongly non-uniform fields, partial breakdown starts at
a electrode with smaller radius, not influenced by material
of electrodes.
 Polarities of electrodes influence breakdown processes,
electric strength, and breakdown voltages of gas gaps.

 Polarity effect is significant in strongly non-uniform fields.
 Rod-plane gap is used to illustrate the breakdown in

strongly non-uniform fields as following.
Lecture 3-74

fields
2. Polarity effect
 Positive or anode coronas
 Ionization by electron collision takes

place in the high field region close to
the point.
 Electrons are readily drawn into the
anode, leaving the positive space
charge behind.
 The space charge causes a reduction
in the field strength close to the anode
and at the same time increases the
field further away from it.
Lecture 3-75

fields
2. Polarity effect
 Positive or anode coronas
 The high field region moves further

into the gap extending the region for
ionization.
 The field strength at the tip of the
space charge may be high enough for
the initiation of a cathode directed
streamer which subsequently may lead
to complete breakdown.
Lecture 3-76

fields
2. Polarity effect
 Negative or cathode coronas
 The electrons are repelled into the low

field region and become attached to
the gas molecules.
 The negative ions tend to hold back
the positive space charge, which
remains in the space between the
negative charge and the point.
 In the vicinity of the point, the field is
grossly enhanced, but the ionization
region is reduced. The effect is to
terminate ionization.
Lecture 3-77

fields
2. Polarity effect
 Negative or cathode coronas
 Once ionization ceases, the applied

field sweeps away the negative and
positive ion space charge from the
vicinity of the point, and the cycle
starts again after the clearing time for
the space charge.
 To overcome this retarding action of
the ions, a higher voltage is required,
and hence negative breakdown
voltage is higher than the positive
breakdown voltage.
Lecture 3-78

fields
2. Polarity effect
 Inception of coronas
 For positive coronas, positive space charge causes a reduction in

the field strength close to the anode. This enhances the inception
voltages of positive coronas.
 In contrast for negative coronas, positive space charge enhances
the field strength close to the cathode. This reduces the inception
voltages of negative coronas.
 Therefore, coronas occur first during negative half cycles under
AC voltages when applied voltages increase.
Lecture 3-79
1.4.4 Breakdown in long air gap
leader
air avalanche streamer
(a) Leader and its front streamer m-k; (b) avalanche occurring at the head of streamer;
(c) streamer m-k transforming into leader and the new streamer n-m;
(d) new avalanche occurrences; (e) field distribution in long air gap
Lecture 3-80

 Leader discharges
 A leader is a hot, highly conductive channel of plasma.
 Leader enhances its front field and a new streamer is hence
generated in the space.
 New streamers improve the progress of leader discharge.
 The leader effectively projects the electrical field from the nearby
electrode further into the gap.
 Final jump
 If the power source has sufficient voltage and current, it makes the
streamer zone longer and transfers the spark discharge in the stage
of final jump.
 The final jump often does not identify with leader, due to its huge
current and velocity.
 Breakdown occurs at the stage of final jump.
Lecture 3-81

 Brief conclusions
 Electrons attracted by the anode
 →Electron density↑
 →Current↑ →Thermal energy↑ →Temperature↑
 →Thermal ionization in streamer↑
 →Conductivity↑，Current↑
 →Streamer to Leader
 →E-field↑→New Streamer→Leader propagation
Lecture 3-82
1.5 Breakdown under impulse voltages
Lecture 3-83
1.5.1 Definition of impulse voltages in standards

 Full lightning impulse voltages (1.2/50 impulses)
National and IEC standards define:
T1=1.2 s  30%
T2=50 s  20%
T1 = 1.67T
T  = 0.3 T1 = 0.5T
 O1: virtual origin, defined where the line AB cuts the time axis.
 T1: front time, a virtual parameter, defined as 1.67 times the interval T.
 T2: time to half-value , a virtual parameter.
Lecture 3-84
 Lightning impulse voltages chopped on tails
 T1: front time (1.2 s  30%)

 Tc: time to chopping time
( 2-5 s)
 Tj : duration after chopping
Lecture 3-85
 Switching impulse voltages ( 250/2500 impulses )

 Tp: time to peak (250 s  20%)
 T2: time to half-value (2500 s  60%)
 Td : time at 90 per cent of crest value
Lecture 3-86
1.5.2 Breakdown under impulse voltages
1. Time lag of breakdown

 For the initiation of breakdown, an electron must be
available to start the avalanche.
 Under an impulse voltage of short duration, a gas gap may
not break down as the peak voltage reaches the lowest
breakdown value.
 The time which elapses between the application of voltage
to a gap sufficient to cause breakdown and the breakdown
is called the time lag.
Lecture 3-87

 Time lag components under an impulse voltage.
t = t s + tf
Vs minimum static
breakdown voltage;
Vp peak voltage;
 Time lag t consists of two components:

 the statistical time ts which elapses during the voltage application until a
primary electron appears to initiate the discharge.
 the formative time tf required for the breakdown to develop once
initiated.
Lecture 3-88

 In uniform fields, tf << ts .
 In non-uniform fields, tf is more significant than ts .
 Factors influencing ts : amount of preionization in gaps
 sizes of gaps
 radiation producing primary electrons
 How to reduce the statistical time lag

UV light, radioactive materials and illumination by auxiliary
sparks
 application of an overvoltage (Vp-Vs) to gaps
 Factors influencing tf :
 When the secondary electrons arise entirely from electron emission
at the cathode by positive ions, the transit time from anode to
cathode is the dominant factor determining the formative time.
 Increasing with the gap length and the field nonuniformity.
 Decreasing with the applied overvoltage.
Lecture 3-89
2. Volt–time characteristics
 Impulse generators are used

to generate impulses of
gradually increasing
amplitude and to determine
the time of breakdown.
 At each value, the test must
be repeated a number of
times so as to obtain
consistent values.
Lecture 3-90
 In uniform and quasi-uniform
field gaps, the characteristic is
usually sharply defined and it
rises steeply with increasing the
rate of rise of the applied voltage.
 In non-uniform field gaps, due
to larger scatter in the results,
the data fall into a dispersion
band.
50% breakdown voltage U50％

2-s breakdown voltage U2s
Lecture 3-91
 Relationship between flashover voltage per meter and time
to flashover (3-m gap).
1. Rod-rod gap.
2. Conductor-plane gap.
3. Power frequency
Lecture 3-92

 Left half part of the “U-curve”
Time to crest↓→Time lag↓→U50% ↑
 Right half part of the “U-curve”
 Time to crest↑
→Range of space charge↑

→field strength surrounding electrode↓
→ U50% ↑
Breakdown voltages via time to crest

Tcr under switching impulse voltages
in strongly non-uniform fields
Lecture 3-93

 Volt–time characteristics in insulation cooperation
Two gaps with volt-time Two gaps with crossed volt-time

characteristics in good cooperation characteristics
Volt-time characteristics of two gaps in quasi-uniform field (S1)
and non-uniform field (S2)
Lecture 3-94

 Experimental results of time lags (example)
 Time lag as a function of overvoltage for

four gap lengths in air.
 The curves represent the average
data for all pressures between
atmospheric and 200 mm Hg
 The overvoltage represents Vp-Vs
Lecture 3-95
1.6 Factors influencing breakdown

voltages of gases
Lecture 4-96
1.6.1 Influences of field non-uniformity

1. Breakdown voltages of gases in uniform and quasi-uniform
fields
 No polarity effects
 Processes from initiation of ionization to final breakdown are
very quick.
 Under AC, DC, and impulse voltages, breakdown voltages are
same.
 Empirical formula of breakdown voltage:
U b  24.22d  6.08 d kV
  - relative density of air Ub is a function of (d), which
 d – length of air gap satisfies the Paschen’s law.
Lecture 4-97
1.6.1 Influences of field non-uniformity

2. Breakdown voltages of gases in strongly non-uniform fields
 In power transmission application, breakdown voltages of
rod-to-rod and rod-to-plane arrangements are used to
determine insulation distances in cases of symmetric and
asymmetric electrode arrangements, respectively.
 Results of breakdown voltages are scattered and polarity
effect is significant.
U b ( )  U b ( ) and U c (  )  U c ( )
Lecture 4-98
1.6.2 Influences of waveforms of applied

voltages
 DC breakdown voltages of gas gaps
 Breakdown voltages of rod-rod and

rod-plane air gaps via gap distance
Lecture 4-99

voltages
 AC breakdown voltages of gas gaps
Breakdown always
occurs at positive half
cycles
 Breakdown voltages of rod-

rod and rod-plane air gaps
via gap distance
Lecture 4-100

voltages
 Breakdown voltages of gaps under 1.2/50 impulse voltages
U 50 ( )  U 50 ()
 1- rod-plane, positive
 2- rod-rod, positive
 3- rod-rod, negative
 4- rod-plane, negative
Lecture 4-101

voltages
 Breakdown voltages of gaps under switching impulse voltages
Relationship between breakdown voltage and gap distance

under switching impulse voltage (500/5000 s)
Lecture 4-102
1.6.2 Influences of atmospheric

conditions
 Pressure (P), temperature (T), and humidity (hc) of air influence density of
air, free paths of electrons, collision ionization, and attachment of
electrons. Therefore, atmospheric conditions influence breakdown
voltages of air gaps.
 Breakdown voltages measured in different atmospheric conditions have to
be transformed into values in standard atmospheric conditions for
comparison.
 Standard atmospheric conditions: P=101.3 kPa; T=293 K; hc=11 g/m3
 Breakdown voltages of air gap decrease with increasing altitude, because
density and pressure of air decrease with increasing of altitude.
 Altitude correction for breakdown voltages
U - breakdown voltage in actual atmospheric condition.
Kd U0 - breakdown voltage in standard atmospheric
U U0 condition.
Kh
Kd - correction coefficient of air density
Kh - correction coefficient of altitude
Lecture 4-103
1.7 Approaches to improve electric

strength of gas gaps
Lecture 4-104
Basic approaches
 The approaches are classified into two groups:
 To improve electric field homogeneity in gas gaps.
 To improve configuration of electrodes.
 To generate field distortion by space charge.
 To weaken ionization in gas gaps.
Lecture 4-105
1.7.1 Improvement of electric field

homogeneity
1. Improvement of electrode configuration
 To increase radiuses of curvature of electrodes.
 To smoothen the surfaces of electrodes
 To eliminate the sharp edges of electrodes
Lecture 4-106

homogeneity
2. Field distortion by space charge
 Corona discharges occur before complete breakdown in gas gaps.
 Space charge generated by corona discharges may improve field
distribution in gas gaps and thereby enhance breakdown voltages.
 Breakdown voltages of gas gaps between two conductor lines may
increase with decreasing diameters of conductor lines in a certain
range.
“细线效应 ”
雷电冲击电压下不存在“细线效应”
Lecture 4-107

homogeneity
3. Barriers used in strongly non-uniform fields
 In strongly non-uniform fields, thin insulation boards used as
barriers can improve field distribution.
 Breakdown voltages of gas gaps in strongly non-uniform fields can
be enhanced by using barriers.
 The function of a barrier is to retard ions with the same polarity as
the electrode where corona starts.
Lecture 4-108

homogeneity
 Example of barrier in positive rod to negative plane
 Positive space charge is retarded by
the barrier.
 Positive space charge stays and
distributes on the barrier uniformly
because of electrostatic repulsion.
 The field between the barrier and the
positive rod is reduced and between
the barrier and plane become more
uniform.
 Breakdown voltage of the gap is
improved by the barrier.
Lecture 4-109

homogeneity
 Breakdown voltages via barrier position under DC voltages
 Breakdown voltages of positive rod

to plane gap are significantly
enhanced by barriers.
 Barrier with well selected position
may improve breakdown voltages
of gas gaps.
Lecture 4-110
1.7.2 Approaches to weaken ionization

1. Increase of gas pressure
 Free paths of electrons are reduced by increasing gas pressure and
thereby collision ionization is weakened.
 Field homogeneity influence more on breakdown voltages in high-
pressure gases than in low-pressure gases.
 Breakdown voltages decrease sharply in high-pressure gases
when field homogeneity decreases.

 Surface conditions of electrode influence more on breakdown
voltages in high-pressure gases than in low-pressure gases.
 Roughness of electrode surface.
 Contamination of electrode surface.
 Humidity
Lecture 4-111

2. Vacuum gaps
 Free paths of electrons are greater than gap distance in vacuum.
Collision ionization is impossible. Breakdown voltages are
significantly improved.
 Field emission is a principle ionization in vacuum. Cathode
material and its surface conditions mainly influence breakdown
voltages of vacuum gaps.
 If solid and liquid dielectrics are used in vacuum, they may release
gases so that breakdown voltages decreases sharply.
 Application: vacuum breakers.
Lecture 4-112

3. Uses of high-electric-strength gases (SF6)
 Some gases of halogen family have greater electric strength
than air, such as SF6.
 Gases with great Electro-negativity
 Used mainly for gas-insulated breakers.
 It is not environment friendly.
 A type of greenhouse gas
Lecture 4-113
1.8 Surface breakdown

Lecture 5-114
1.8.1 Basic concepts

 Surface flashovers
 Surface breakdown is an electric breakdown occurring at the
interface between two dielectrics when a sufficiently high voltage
stress is applied.
 For outdoor insulation in electric power systems, surface flashovers
take place on or just above surfaces of insulators.
 This phenomenon is distinct from breakdown occurring within
insulating material.
Lecture 5-115

 Typical outdoor insulators
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Suspension disk insulator XP-70

(b) 500-kV suspension composite rod insulator
(c) 110-kV outdoor post insulator
(d) Hollow insulator
(e) Outdoor through-wall bushing
(e)
Lecture 5-116

 Surface flashovers can be terminated when power sources
are separated. In most cases, insulators are still in good
insulation after occurrences of surface flashovers.
 Experiment results
 Surface flashover voltages of solid dielectrics are smaller than
breakdown voltages of both the solid dielectrics and the
surrounding gases.
 Insulation levels of outdoor insulators are dependant on surface
flashover voltages of the insulators, but not on breakdown voltages
of the insulators.
 Surface flashover voltages are influenced by surface conditions of
insulators, such as roughness, humidity, and contamination.
Lecture 5-117
1.8.2 Surface flashover mechanisms

 Three typical surface flashovers of insulators
(a) surface flashovers in uniform fields in directions parallel with
insulator surfaces.
(b) surface flashovers in strongly non-uniform fields with small field
components vertical to surfaces of solid dielectrics.
(c) surface flashovers in strongly non-uniform fields with great field
components vertical to surfaces of solid dielectrics.
1- electrodes
2- solid dielectrics
3- field lines
Lecture 5-118

1. Surface flashovers in uniform and slightly non-uniform fields
 Filed directions are parallel with insulator surfaces.
1- breakdown voltage of air gap

2- surface flashover voltage of glass
board under lightning impulse voltage.
3- surface flashover voltage of glass board
under AC voltage
Lecture 5-119

 Surface flashovers in uniform and slightly non-uniform fields
Cavities between electrodes Water contents absorbed by Non-uniform and
and solid dielectrics solid dielectrics rough dielectric
surfaces
Partial discharges occurring Formation of water layers on
in gas cavities solid dielectrics
Non-uniform fields
Charged particles generated Ions moving toward along dielectric
by partial discharges electrodes in water layers surfaces
Charged particles staying on Ions gathering surrounding

surfaces of solid dielectrics electrodes
Distortion of fields on
surfaces of solid dielectrics
Flashover voltages ↓
Lecture 5-120

2. Surface flashovers in strongly non-uniform fields with great
field components vertical to surfaces of solid dielectrics.
 Basic procedures Coronas occurring at edges of
casing flanges
Coronas extending to larger areas
Occurrence of glow discharges

with thin channels
Occurrence of flash discharges
Rapid increase of spark channels

1- conductor; 2- casing flange of flash discharges
(a) Corona discharges
Complete breakdown occurring
(b) Thin-line-shaped glow discharges when spark channels reach
(c) Flash discharges opposite electrodes
Lecture 5-121

 An equivalent circuit of bushings
Mechanisms of flash-accompanied discharges:
 At the surface approaching flange, current
density and potential gradient are greatest.
Initial coronas occurs there.
 Because of great field components vertical
to dielectric surfaces, charged particles
bombard the dielectric surfaces strongly
and hence result in heating local surfaces.
 Charged particles increase sharply by
thermal ionization and discharge channels
grow rapidly.
C: specific capacitance
R: volume resistance  Discharges turn into flash-companied
R: surface resistance discharges from glow discharges.
Thermal ionization is a significant characteristic of flash-companied discharges.
Lecture 5-122

3. Surface flashovers in strongly non-uniform fields with
small field components vertical to surfaces of solid
dielectrics.
 Typical examples: post insulators
 Thermal ionization and flash discharges do not take place because
vertical field components are small.
 The differences between breakdown voltages of air gap and surface
flashover voltages of solid dielectrics under same electrodes are
smaller than those of above two cases.
Lecture 5-123
1.8.3 Factors influencing surface flashover voltages

 Field distribution and waveforms of
applied voltages
 Non-uniformity of electric fields
 AC, DC, impulse voltages
 Dielectric materials
 Mainly due to the property of humidity
absorbency.
 Gas conditions
 Temperature, pressure, and humidity
 Surface conditions
 Contamination at surfaces, raining on
surfaces
Flashover voltages
decrease sharply.
Lecture 5-124
1.8.4 Approaches to improve surface flashover

voltages
 Barriers
 umbrella skirt of insulators
 Shields
 metal grading rings
 Hydrophobicity improvement of dielectric surfaces
 Application of semiconductor coating
 Fix surface potential by using additional electrodes
Lecture 5-125
Conclusions
 What is surface flashovers?
 Why surface flashover voltages are smaller than
breakdown voltages of air gaps?
 Flash discharges.
 Factors influencing flashover voltages.
 Approaches to improve surface flashover voltages.
Lecture 5-126

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Fundamental Physics of High Voltage Engineering

Lecture 1- Electrical breakdown

Sources of Charge Carriers- Electrons

 Source of initial charge carriers

(Both are sources of free electrons.)

Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

Basic Processes in Gas Breakdown

 Region 1-Low field region:

Chapter 1: Electrical breakdown in gases

 Ionization and decay processes

 Townsend mechanism and Streamer mechanism

 Breakdown of long air gaps in non-uniform fields

 Breakdown under impulse voltages

 Factors to influence breakdown voltages of gases

 Approaches to improve dielectric strength of gases

Main contents of the lecture

1.1 Major types of electrical breakdown in gases

1.1.1 Basic concepts of electrical breakdown in gases

1.1.1 Basic concepts of electrical breakdown in gases

Note: a ratio of breakdown voltage to gap distance in a non-uniform

1.1.2 Main types of gas discharges

 (a) glow discharge  (b) corona discharge

(a) (b) (c) (d) and (e)

Note: a) Corona discharges and brush discharges do not bridge electrodes

1.1.2 Basic terms used in gas dicharge

 (a) molecules, atoms, particles, neutral molecules

1.2 Ionization and decay processes in gases

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

Various processes of ionization in gases are resulted from energy

1 me: electron mass; Ve: electron velocity

Note: kinetic energy of an electron is decided by a) field stress and b)

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

 Electrons are small enough to travel a much longer distance

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

The free path λ is defined as the distance molecules or particles travel

The probability that λis longer than x can

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

Therefore, if there are n0 electrons at the initiation distance x=0, the

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

 Thermal ionization becomes

Thermal ionization degree m of air versus temperature T

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

which takes place at or near the electrode surface, in

 Electron emission by positive ion and excited atom impact

Positive Ion Impact

 =>Principal secondary process in the generation of “new electrons” at

(WKE + WPE)positive ion>= (2Wa ) metal surface of cathode

 If the impinging particle is an excited atom or a metastable atom, a

 Work function of metal, Wa plays a role. Wa for copper=4eV.

 At higher(E/p), energy gained by the moving particle is high [WKE is

 Number of positive ions are high at higher(E/p)compared to lower(E/p)

Other types of emission from the cathode

1.2.1 Ionization in gases

Note: Electron attachment decreases the number of free

1.2.2 Deionization in gases

1.2.2 Deionization in gases

 Gas breakdown is a contradiction between ionization and

Recombination of charged particles

Part I- Chapter 1: Electrical Breakdown in Gases

1.3 Townsend and Streamer mechanisms