Thesis Aleem 9

Photoresponse of Organic Phototransistor based on
DPPDTT/PCBM Blend
Master of Philosophy (M.Phil)
In
Solid State Physics
By
MUHAMMAD ALEEM
Roll No. M.PHIL-SSPR26S18
Academic Session: 2017- 2019
Centre of Excellence in Solid State Physics
UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, QUAID-E-AZAM CAMPUS

LAHORE, PAKISTAN.
Photoresponse of Organic Phototransistor based on
DPPDTT/PCBM Blend
A thesis submitted to the University of the Punjab in the partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Master of Philosophy (M.Phil)

in
Solid State Physics
By
MUHAMMAD ALEEM
Roll No. M.PHIL-SSPR26S18

Session2017- 2019
Centre of Excellence in Solid State Physics
UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB LAHORE

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that the research work contained in this thesis has been performed by Muhammad
Aleem S/O Abd Ur Rashid, Roll Number: SSPR26S18, Session 2017-2019, as fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of degree of M. Phil in Solid State Physics at the Centre of
Excellence in Solid State Physics, University of the Punjab, Lahore.
Supervisor Director
Dr. Muhammad Zahir Iqbal Dr. Saira Riaz
Assistant Professor, Associate Professor
Faculty of Engineering Sciences Centre of Excellence in
Solid State Physics
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences
& Technology, Topi, District Swabi, University of the Punjab, Lahore,
KPK, Pakistan Pakistan
Local Coordinator
Dr. Muhammad Javaid Iqbal.
Assistant Professor,
Centre of Excellence in
Solid State Physics
University of the Punjab, Lahore,
Pakistan.
M.PHIL Thesis Page i

“O My Lord!
Increase me in my knowledge”
(Al-Quran)
“O Allah!
I ask you for knowledge that is benefit”
M.PHIL Thesis Page ii

Dedication is all about love and respect
This thesis has been dedicated to my heaven, I

mean
My Beloved Parents
And to the fragment of this heaven “My brothers.”
&
To
My Respected Teachers.
M.PHIL Thesis Page iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All Admires and prayers to the Almighty Allah Whose Oneness, Uniqueness and Power
is Unchallengeable and who provided me the ability and capability to complete this research
work. I acknowledge many people who helped me abundantly and encouraged me in the
journey of preparing this thesis. All praise and thanks are due to Almighty ALLAH who
always guides me to the right path and has helped me to complete this thesis. There are many
people whom I have to acknowledge for their support, help and encouragement during the
journey of preparing this thesis. So, I will attempt to give them their due here, and I sincerely
apologies for any omissions.
I offer my humblest thanks to the last prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH), who is
forever source of guidance for mankind.
First and foremost, I would like to convey my heartfelt gratitude and sincere appreciation to my
research supervisor ‘‘Dr. Muhammad Zahir Iqbal’’ of Faculty of Engineering Sciences
GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology, Topi, District Swabi, KPK, Pakistan
and local coordinator “Dr. Muhammad Javaid Iqbal” of the Center of Excellence in Solid State
Physics at The University of the Punjab. In addition to being an excellent supervisor, he is a man
of principles and has immense knowledge of research in general and his subject in particular. Under
this dynamic supervision, this research work has been carried out.
I would like to thank my Local Coordinator, for this patience, guidance, encouragement
and advice. He has provided throughout my time as his student.
I am also very grateful to the Director, Dr. Saira Riaz, Centre of Excellence in Solid
State Physics, for providing all facilities and pleasant atmosphere during my stay for M. Phil.
Study.
Now for most important, I would like to thank my PARENTS and My Brothers,
whose love and guidance are with me in whatever I pursue. They are the ultimate role models.
So special thanks to Ali Raza, Rizwan Ilyas and Muhammad Azam. I am also thankful to the
clerical and library staff for their cooperation and gentleness. At the end, I wish to thank, other
people who cooperate and gave precious suggestions during my research work.
Muhammad Aleem
M.PHIL Thesis Page iv

ABSTRACT
Organic phototransistors (OPTs) have shown great potential for future electronic technologies
due to their low-cost solution processing, mechanical ﬂexibility and potential applications for
large-area displays. Low voltage OPTs based on Poly[[2,3,5,6-tetrahydro-2,5-bis(2-
octyldodecyl)-3,6dioxopyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-diyl]-2,5-thiophene-diylthieno[3,2b] thio-
phene-2,5-diyl-2,5-thiophenediyl] DPPDTT and ([6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester)
PCBM blend has been studied in this work. OPT was fabricated by solution processing spin
coating technique. The blend solution of DPPDTT/PCBM was spin coated onto highly doped
silicon substrate which had 400nm thick pre-grown silicon nitride as a dielectric layer. Drain
and source contacts were made using gold (Au) and molybdenum oxide (MoO3) which were
deposited by thermal evaporation through the shadow mask. To study the photosensivity and
photoresponsivity of the device, I-V measurements were performed in dark and under
illumination. The OPT showed good stability in ambient environment.
M.PHIL Thesis Page v

Table of Contents
CERTIFICATE ......................................................................................................................... i
Dedication ................................................................................................................................ iii
To .............................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................v
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................... x
List of figures ........................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 01 .................................................................................................................................1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1. Types of organic materials according to conductivity: ............................................................ 2
1.1.1. Organic Semiconductors (OSCs): ........................................................................................ 3
1.1.1.1. ℼ-conjugated Organic semiconductor: ......................................................................... 3
1) ℼ-conjugated polymer: ............................................................................................................. 4
I. Homo-polymer: ........................................................................................................................ 5
II. Hetro-polymers: ....................................................................................................................... 5
2) Small molecule: ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.1.2. Types of organic semiconductor ...................................................................................... 6
1) Organic semiconductors in P-type: .............................................................................................. 6
2) Organic semiconductors in N-type: ............................................................................................. 7
1.1.2. Organic Conductors (OCs): ................................................................................................. 8
1.1.3. Organic Dielectrics (ODs): .................................................................................................. 9
Properties of Organic Dielectrics: ........................................................................................................ 9
1.1.4. Organic Light emitting Diodes (OLEDs): ........................................................................... 9
OLEDs Applications: ....................................................................................................................... 9
Advantages of OLEDs: .................................................................................................................. 10
Polymer science advantages: ......................................................................................................... 10
1.2. Deposition techniques of Organic Semiconductors: .............................................................. 10
1.2.1. Thermal evaporation: ..................................................................................................... 10
Advantages:.................................................................................................................................... 11
Disadvantages: ............................................................................................................................... 11
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1.2.2. Solution processing technique: .......................................................................................... 11
1.2.2.1. Spin-coating: .................................................................................................................. 11
Advantages:.................................................................................................................................... 12
Disadvantages: ................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2.2. Drop-coasting:................................................................................................................ 12
1.3. Organic FET (field effect transistor):..................................................................................... 14
1.3.1. OFET structure: ................................................................................................................. 14
1.3.2. Working of organic field effect transistor (OFET): ........................................................... 16
1.3.2.1. Operation of OFET: ....................................................................................................... 16
1.3.3. Applications: ...................................................................................................................... 18
Advantages:.................................................................................................................................... 18
1.4. Organic Phototransistor (OPTs):............................................................................................ 19
1.4.1. Organic PTs performance parameters: ............................................................................... 20
Carrier-mobility (𝝁): ...................................................................................................................... 20
Threshold Voltage (𝑽𝑻𝒉): ............................................................................................................. 21
Swing-threshold Slope (SS): .............................................................................................................. 22
1.5. Investigated Materials: ........................................................................................................... 23
1.5.1. Properties PCBM: .............................................................................................................. 23
1.5.2. Properties of DPPDTT ....................................................................................................... 25
1.5.3. DPPDTT:PCBM Blend:..................................................................................................... 27
1.6. Our phototransistor performance parameters: ........................................................................ 30
Photo-current (𝑰𝒑𝒉): .......................................................................................................................... 30
Responsivity (R): ............................................................................................................................... 30
Photosensivity (P): ............................................................................................................................. 30
Detectivity (D*): ................................................................................................................................ 31
Gain (G): ............................................................................................................................................ 31
External Quantum Efficiency: ........................................................................................................... 31
1.7. Our Device architecture: ........................................................................................................ 32
Advantage: ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Disadvantage: ................................................................................................................................. 33
CHAPTER 02 ..........................................................................................................................34
Literature Review............................................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 03 ..........................................................................................................................45
M.PHIL Thesis Page vii

Introduction. ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Appropriate selection of substrate: .................................................................................................... 45
3.2 Substrate cutting: ......................................................................................................................... 46
3.2.1 MR 100 Micro Diamond Scriber: ............................................................................................. 46
3.3 Substrate cleaning: ....................................................................................................................... 46
3.3.1 Contamination Types: ............................................................................................................... 46
3.3.2 Effects of the contamination: .................................................................................................... 47
3.4 Acetone: ....................................................................................................................................... 47
3.5 Isopropyl alcohol (IPA): .............................................................................................................. 47
Deposition of polymer: ...................................................................................................................... 48
3.6.1 Spin coating: ............................................................................................................................. 48
Advantages:.................................................................................................................................... 49
Disadvantages: ............................................................................................................................... 49
3.7 Deposition parameters: ................................................................................................................ 49
3.8 Deposition of polymer: ................................................................................................................ 49
3.9 Deposition of contacts: ................................................................................................................ 50
3.9.1 PVD (physical vapor deposition): ............................................................................................. 50
3.9.2 Types of PVD: .......................................................................................................................... 50
3.9.3 Thermal Evaporation: ............................................................................................................... 51
Materials of Contents: .................................................................................................................... 52
Parameters of thermal evaporation: ............................................................................................... 52
3.10 Characterization Techniques:..................................................................................................... 53
3.10.1 Kiethley SCS-4200 parameter analyzer: ................................................................................. 53
Components of probe station: ........................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER 04 ..........................................................................................................................56
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION .............................................................................................56
4.1 Fabrication of phototransistor: ..................................................................................................... 57
4.1.1 Cleaning of substrate: ........................................................................................................... 57
4.1.2 Preparation of Organic layer: .................................................................................................... 57
4.1.3 Deposition of Organic polymer: ............................................................................................... 57
4.1.4 Deposition of contacts: ............................................................................................................. 58
4.2 I-V characterization: .................................................................................................................... 58
4.3 Output curves: .............................................................................................................................. 59
M.PHIL Thesis Page viii

4.5 Threshold voltage: ....................................................................................................................... 61
4.6. Transistor response to illumination: ............................................................................................ 63
4.6.1 Effects of illumination: ......................................................................................................... 63
4.7 Photo response of transistor: ........................................................................................................ 63
Comparison of photresponse with different drain voltages and same gain voltage at intensity of
146µW/cm2 ........................................................................................................................................ 65
4.8 Ion/Ioff current ratio: ...................................................................................................................... 67
4.9 Effects of exposure on mobility: .................................................................................................. 69
4.10 DPPDTT: PCBM Phototransistor parameters: .......................................................................... 71
Photosensitivity (P): ....................................................................................................................... 71
Photoresponsivity (R): ................................................................................................................... 72
Conclusions ..............................................................................................................................75
Reference: ................................................................................................................................76
M.PHIL Thesis Page ix

List of Tables
Table 1. 1: N-type and P-type performance: ............................................................................ 7
Table 1. 2: Organic phototransistor parameters and standard units: .......................................22
Table 1. 3: Properties of PCBM……………………………………………………………..24
Table 1. 4 Properties of DPPDTT: ..........................................................................................27
Table 4. 1: Comparison of threshold voltage b/w dark and light. ............................................62

Table 4. 2: Comparison of on/off current ratio b/w dark and light. .........................................67
Table 4. 3: Variation of mobility in saturation region. ............................................................71
M.PHIL Thesis Page x

List of figures
Figure 1. 1 Types of semiconductor devices..............................................................................3

Figure 1. 2 π-conjugated polymers. Adopted from “Designing ℼ-conjugated polymers for
organic electronics” by Guo et al. 2013. .....................................................................................4
Figure 1. 3 Polypropylene: homo- polymer type structural form. .............................................5
Figure 1. 4 Hetro-polymer structural form (Acrylic acid-2-hydroxypropyl Acrylate
copolymer). .................................................................................................................................5
Figure 1. 5 Small molecule. .......................................................................................................6
Figure 1. 6 N-type or P-type Organic materials .........................................................................7
Figure 1. 7 Some organic conductors (a) polypyrrole, (b) polyaniline and (c) poly(3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT). ...........................................................................................8
Figure 1. 8 Schematic of OLEDs ...............................................................................................9
Figure 1. 9 Spin coating technique process..............................................................................12
Figure 1. 10 Drop-casting technique ........................................................................................13
Figure 1. 11 Photograph of dip-coting setup............................................................................13
Figure 1. 12 Schematic illustration of dip-coating. Adopted from “a-b) are the photographs of
surfactant and semiconductor solutions, respectively. d) The enlarge images of the inset in b).
e) The optical image of aligned ultrathin microstripes by two-phase dip-coating. ..................14
Figure 1. 13 Schematic diagram of Organic field-effect Transistor ........................................15
Figure 1. 14 BGBC, BGTC, TGBC, TGTC configuration for organic field-effect transistor. 15
Figure 1. 15 Schematic work principles of OFETs: a linear regime; b start of saturation
regime at pinch-off; c saturation regime and corresponding current–voltage characteristics ..17
Figure 1. 16 Schematic of Organic Phototransistor .................................................................20
Figure 1. 17 Molecular structure of PCBM. ............................................................................24
Figure 1. 18 Corresponding thickness of PCBM layer ............................................................25
Figure 1. 19 transfer characteristics of pure DPPDTT in dark. ...............................................26
Figure 1. 20 Atomic structure of DPPDTT. .............................................................................26
Figure 1. 21 Energy level diagram of DPPDTT:PCBM blend. ..............................................28
Figure 1. 22 DPPDTT:PCBM blend in dark. ...........................................................................28
Figure 1. 23 Absorption spectra of pure DPPDTT:PCBM. .....................................................29
M.PHIL Thesis Page xi

Figure 1. 24 DPPDTT:PCBM based organic phototransistor ..................................................32
Figure 3. 1 Spin coating technique with all major steps. .........................................................48

Figure 3. 2 Thin film deposition techniques ............................................................................51
Figure 3. 3 R.F Sputtering Unit................................................................................................52
Figure 3. 4 Kiethley SCS-4200 semiconductor characterization system: ................................54
Figure 3. 5 Kiethley SCS-4200 semiconductor characterization probe station system: ..........54
Figure 4. 1 Schematic of highly doped silicon substrate .........................................................57

Figure 4. 2 Schematic of deposited Organic layer DPPDTT: PCBM on substrate. ................58
Figure 4. 3 Final schematic picture of top-contact bottom-gate phototransistor based of
DPPDTT: PCBM polymer. .......................................................................................................58
Figure 4. 4 Output curves of Organic phototransistor. ............................................................59
Figure 4. 5 Transfer Characteristics of transistor under dark. .................................................60
Figure 4. 6 Transfer Characteristics of transistor under light. .................................................61
Figure 4. 7 Transfer curve of transistor with base threshold under dark .................................62
Figure 4. 8 Transfer curve of transistor with base threshold under light. ................................62
Figure 4. 9 Photo response of transistor at Vg= 0V, Vd= -5V. ...............................................64
Figure 4. 10 Photo response of transistor at Vg= -10V, Vd= -80V. ........................................65
Figure 4. 13 Several curves of photoresponse of transistor in one graph at same intensity ....66
Figure 4. 14 On/Off current ratio under dark ...........................................................................68
Figure 4. 15 On/Off current ratio under illumination. .............................................................68
Figure 4. 16 mobility (a) lower slope region, (b) high slope region, and (c) single slop region
under dark. ................................................................................................................................69
under light .................................................................................................................................70
Figure 4. 18 Trend of photosensitivity with gate voltage. .......................................................72
Figure 4. 19 Trend of photoresponsitivity with gate voltage. ..................................................73
M.PHIL Thesis Page xii

Chapter 1 Introduction
CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
M.PHIL Thesis Page 1

Chapter 1
Introduction
Organic semiconductors were discovered in the late 19th century. These
materials had low performance such as mobility. So interest in organic semiconductor devices
remained finite to certain number for educational groups approximately more than 10 years
due to low-performance of the earliest devices. More efforts in researches were devote to
enhance the charge-carrier mobility and other performance parameters [1]. Organic polymer
have been a great field of interest due to their ease of processing, a large number of applications
and low cost for researchers in the past few decades [2]. Electronic devices become more
transparent, light-weight, bendable, environment friendly, low-cost, and biodegradable with
the time by time. So that’s the reason the uses of organic devices increase day by day [3].
Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) [4], Organic solar cells (OSCs) [5], Organic field effect
transistors (OFETs) [6], Organic photodiodes (OPDs) [7], and Organic photo transistors
(OPTs) [8] are well known examples of organic micro-electronic devices. Every devices
requires substance/materials with discrete physical properties. Those substances should have
higher mobility used to FETs, at least 0.5cm2/Vs to emulate with silicon in amorphous shape.
Those materials having lower mobility typically <10-2cm2/Vs are use in electrophoretic display
[9]. Scientists, engineers, chemists and physicists still working for making advance organic
materials/substance to utilized electronic system. Nowadays, Optoelectronic researchers had
tried for the pursue to replace ordinary inorganic PDs by low cost device [10]. Favorable
polymer as compared to inorganic polymer were more-flexible, light-weight and less
expansive.
1.1. Types of organic materials according to conductivity:

Organic electronics can be divide in three types according to their conductivity. These are:
 Organic Semiconductors (OS)  Organic Dielectrics (ODs)

 Organic Conductors (OCs)

Difference between energy gap of LUMO and HOMO energy levels is called band gap.
Ideal organic semiconductors have energy band gap approximately greater than 3eV and
organic insulator greater than 4eV. Some factors alter the energy band gap values are
temperature, pressure and electronic structure of the material [11].
1.1.1. Organic Semiconductors (OSCs):

First OSCs device were invented by Dr. J McGnness in 1973. Organic semiconductors
were hard in shape, small size and having optical and electrical properties their structure
contain 𝜋 −bonded molecules/polymers contain of carbon & hydrogen atoms due to have very
weaker van-der Waals forces (~meV) than covalent bonds. However, due to inter-molecular
space the electrons move freely and have not strong molecular interactions. That’s way the
bandgap of OS is conventionally 2.5- 4eV. Organic molecules have higher energy level and
produce a very large potential well compared to an isolated molecule, when the molecules of
organic compound collide together. Semiconductor in organic form are dissolve at
comparatively low-temperature [12-13]. Electrical and optical behavior are significantly
observed only in conjugated polymers, organic semiconductors and oligomers. While the
dielectric organic semiconductors show good mechanical properties [14]. N or P-type
properties improbability just because of the electrons accepting and donating properties of the
polymer. OSCs are commonly possessed 𝜋-conjugated system, 𝜋-conjugated system classified
in two categories based on weight.
Figure 1. 1 Types of semiconductor devices
1.1.1.1. ℼ-conjugated Organic semiconductor:

Organic semiconductors (OS) are classify into two categories:

1) 𝜋-conjugated polymer.
2) Small molecules/ oligomers.
1) ℼ-conjugated polymer:
When a large amount of monomers attached together and form a long chain is called
polymers. Polymers attached in a chain and joined together through chemical reaction known
as polymerization. Chains may be branched network and linear structure 𝜋-conjugated
vertebral column of the polymer that consist of carbon atoms and linked with unsaturated units
connected with single/double bonds called 𝜋-conjugated polymers. These are called
conjugated polymers because they have alternate single and double bond in their structure. 𝜋-
conjugated polymer are the main subject of charge transportation. 𝜋-conjugated EL polymer
are very active because their film-farming propensity through spin coating. Their properties of
tunable luminescence made an excellent organic devices [15]. If discrete functional groups
attached with carbon atoms then chemical properties of reactions can be varied. Reactions
(side-chain) are conduct by different ways:
i. Make the substance soluble in organic solutions.

ii. Polymer chains separated at particular distance by chain reaction when substance
deposit on substrate.
Figure 1. 2 π-conjugated polymers. Adopted from “Designing ℼ-

conjugated polymers for organic electronics” by Guo et al. 2013.
The chains interact electronically by chain reaction. By using different chain reactions,
the luminesce efficiency and carrier mobility of OLED & OFET can be varied. Prepare the
solution via solution processing because these polymers are easily soluble in Organic-

solvents. Solution processing techniques are ink-jet printing, brush coating and spin-
coating. Polymers can be classified into two categories:
I. Homo-polymer
II. Hetro-polymer
I. Homo-polymer:
Polymers are arranged with a same type of atom with same sequence are called homo-
polymers. Only single type monomers are used for formation of homo-polymers. Homo-
polymerization are created by homo-polymers.
Example:
Figure 1. 3 Polypropylene: homo- polymer type structural form.
II. Hetro-polymers:
Polymers are arranged with discrete type of atoms with different sequence are called
hetro-polymers. For production of hetro-polymer used different types of monomers. Co-
polymerization are created by hetro-polymers.
Example:
Figure 1. 4 Hetro-polymer structural form (Acrylic acid-2-

hydroxypropyl Acrylate copolymer).

2) Small molecule:
Molecules are attached in lattice point by periodic manner and making a structure called
molecular structure, when small organic molecules arrange in this way then they are called
small molecules.. Oligomers processed electrically neutral because their outer orbit are filled
completely. Molecules are usually big, flat and aromatic. Small molecules are crystalline so
they exhibit excellent performance in FET. Oligomers are used in devices such as pentacene
used in the many FETs and SCs. Small molecules have a great tendency in crystalline packing
structure. Oligomers have high vapour pressure. Oligomers are used to fabricate the highly
order, well-defined crystalline films [9]. The forces of covalent bonding are not present in
oligomers. Oligomers prepared via thermal evaporation. Non-polar and neutral molecules are
attached by weak van-der walls forces and oligomers are not soluble in solutions (organic).
Adopted from “Organic field effect transistors: theory, fabrication and characterization.
Figure 1. 5 Small molecule.

Springer science & Business Media” by Kymissis et al. 2008.
1.1.1.2. Types of organic semiconductor

1) Organic semiconductors in P-type
2) Organic semiconductors in N-type
1) Organic semiconductors in P-type:

P-type OS are those polymer which have ability to donate the electron and have to
occupied large HOMO energy state is known as p-type organic semiconductors. P-type
semiconductors manifest hole mobility (> 0.6 cm2 V-1s-1) [16].

Examples:
 pathalocyanine,  P3HT
 DPPDTT  PBDB-T
 MDMO-PPV
2) Organic semiconductors in N-type:
N-type OS are those in which electrons are injected easily compare to the holes present
in the material. OS (n-type) manifest high electron mobility (>0.5 cm2V-1s-1). Organic polymer
like moisture and oxygen are highly sensitive in ambient conditions. Organic compounds
having mobility approximately few tenths (1cm2V-1s-1) are air-stable compounds [1].
Examples:
 Perylene,  CN-MEH-PPV
 F8BT  ITIC
 PCBM
Figure 1. 6 N-type or P-type Organic materials

Table 1. 1: N-type and P-type performance:
Comparisons between N-type and P-type performances:
N-type Performance: P-type performance:
Poor mobility (~10-2 cm2/Vs) High mobility (>1.0 cm2/Vs)
Poor air-stable (tested in N2) Good air-stable
No soluble / printable Full printed transistors
Acceptors Donors
1.1.2. Organic Conductors (OCs):

Electrons or holes have moving behavior in one way via conjugated chains of 𝜋-conjugated
bond known as organic conductors. Most organic semiconductor exhibit layered structure
consist of molecule anion/cation. Organic semiconductor show simple-damped harmonic
oscillations. Their amplitude extends half or more than half total conductivity of the material.
Organic conductors have large electronic anisotropy, excellent crystal quality and strong
magnetic quantum oscillations [17].
Figure 1. 7 Some organic conductors (a) polypyrrole, (b) polyaniline and

(c) poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT).
Adapted from “Organic Field Effect Transistors: Theory, Fabrication and Characterization
Ioannis Kymissis ISBN 978-0-387-92133-4”

1.1.3. Organic Dielectrics (ODs):

Organic dielectric materials are those who have relationship between Electromagnetic
(EM) waves and polymers (in range of RF to micro waves). ODs predominantly depends on
dipole moment and electrical conductivity at higher and lower frequency respectively.
Dielectric constant is defined as the parameter of the material which depends on the
behavior/characteristics of dipole and depend chemical and physical properties also [18]. For
determining the dielectric properties of the polymer moisture-content is a greatest important
factor. OD have some important properties:
Properties of Organic Dielectrics:

1) Frequency Dependent
2) Temperature Dependent
3) Density & Field orientation dependence
4) Dielectric modelling
1.1.4. Organic Light emitting Diodes (OLEDs):

OLED is TF electroluminescent device, radiate electromagnetic radiations to an exterior
electric field b/w cathode and anode from organic polymer sandwiched. Organic materials
considered as insulator due have large resistance at very low EF. It consist on two electrodes,
HTL, ETL and emission layer. OLEDs are very thinner, flexible and lighter. Some effective
organic layers are used in advanced OLED architecture to improve the life time and efficiency
of the device. Some effective layers are EBL, HBL ETL, HTL, HIL, ELL and EML [19].
OLEDs have many application, advantages and polymer science advantages.
Figure 1. 8 Schematic of OLEDs
OLEDs Applications:
 Smart watches  Telecommunications
 Digital camera  Computer monitors
 Medical equipment  Airport runway lighting

 Lighting  TVs
 Automatic lighting (Interior &
Exterior)
Advantages of OLEDs:
 Small size  High durability
 Very thin  Utilize less-power
 Lightweight  Wide-viewing angles
 High ability  Transparent Ability
 Very flexible  Doesn’t require backlight
Polymer science advantages:

 Eco-friendly facility  Lower lead times
 Short order quality  Excellent in field technical & house
 Advanced architecture available supply
1.2. Deposition techniques of Organic Semiconductors:

By using deposition of material on the substrate we can determined the chemical properties the
material.
I. Thermal evaporation.
II. Solution processible or wet process
1.2.1. Thermal evaporation:

In this technique small molecule OS can be purified and deposit to the material. Those
materials are deposited via this technique which are required to have smooth and defect free
film. Substrate put into vacuum and heated the material. The material condense and evaporates
on heated surface when the vapour pressure overreach to back-ground pressure on the piping
hot material. Heavy weight molecule OSCs are not deposited via this technique. They have
much heavy weight to decompose and evaporates semiconductor material and they are usually
discharge under ultra-high vacuum process through thermal evaporation. Thermal evaporation
is done by considering these terms:
1. Partial pressure of gases (oxygen, nitrogen and etc.) reduce the chamber for evacuation.

2. Vapour pressure of moiety is low, the reason is that vacuum evaporates low-vapour
pressure solids easily.
3. Mean-free path (λ) expanded to larger between evaporated material and source-substrate
dimensions. Which permit to the evaporent material to move towards substrate without
diversion.
An ideal vacuum pressure for thermal evaporation is (10-6-10-8 torr) and normally
mean-free path (λ) is 10-8 torr in meter order and ideal λ is 5km approximately. Micro-structure
film thickness can be control through thermal evaporation.
Advantages:
Good structural properties.
Excellent homogeneity
Disadvantages:
Deposition required for long time.
Expansive.
High vacuum is required
1.2.2. Solution processing technique:

In this technique, the solution of material is used to deposit onto the substrate. Those
organic materials which dissolve in more than one solvents can be deposited by this technique.
Several organic materials can be deposit by these solution processing techniques.
Different deposition techniques are:
 Spin coating  Blade coating

 Drop coating  Roll coating
 Dip coating  Spray coating
1.2.2.1. Spin-coating:
A technique which is used to fabricate the thin and uniform organic film on flat
substrate through centri-fugal force called spin-coating. Spin-coating used in photo-

lithography for deposit the layer of photo-resist about thickness 1𝜇𝑚, and also used in
ceramics, sol-gel and planarizing purpose. Thickness of the substrate can be determined by
calculating the rate of solvent evaporation, spinning speed, wt% of moiety, surface tension and
viscosity. This technique prepared the film in range of nm-𝜇𝑚. An ideal spin-coating system
including in in four steps, as shown in diagram below. Coating fluid moiety dispensed on the
upper layer of the substrate. Spin-coater spun at very high speed. When spinning process was
complete solvent can be removed partially. Spin-coating have some advantages and
disadvantages in operation:
Figure 1. 9 Spin coating technique process
Advantages:
1. Light ability of the film to get progressively more uniform.
2. Low-cost.
3. Fast in operation system.
4. Controllability and repeatability
5. Nano-scale and macroscopic consistency.
Disadvantages:
1. 90% material waste during operation only 10% is used for fabrication of the material.
2. One substrate used at a time.
1.2.2.2. Drop-coasting:
Deposition through this method is very sample through this method we can easily deposited
thin film on any substrate. In this method we use single drop of solution which we want to
deposit on the substrate. As drop uniformly distributed on the substrate which is usually a
homogeneous solution. After some time when solvent from the solution is evaporated then
only thin film is remain behind on the substrate. Long range film is obtain by the effect of

coffee-ring and dewetting. In CVD it is and major technique which achieve highly order
homogeneous film by this drop casting method.
Figure 1. 10 Drop-casting technique
1.2.2.3. Dip coating:
Dip-coating is a deposition technique, substrate deposited on to substrate (mostly in tiny

slabs). A homogeneous TF of liquid coated on to substrate for purification. Essential movement
of molecule is continuous and thickness of film can be arranged according to the capillary
force, gravity and adhesive force. Homogeneity and thickness can be perceptive to flow
circumstances in liquid bath [20]. Dip coating is easier to use instead of drop coating or
Figure 1. 11 Photograph of dip-coting setup

spin coating. In this method if solution have proper ratio and time and speed is controlled then
thin film easily obtain through this coating method. Monolayer TF are obtain through this
method. Thickness of TF on substrate and it’s depend upon coating speed.
Figure 1. 12 Schematic illustration of dip-coating.

Adopted from “a-b) are the photographs of surfactant and semiconductor solutions,
respectively. d) The enlarge images of the inset in b). e) The optical image of aligned
ultrathin microstripes by two-phase dip-coating.
1.3. Organic FET (field effect transistor):
An electronic device that control its movement of the current by using electric field called
FETs. FET is a desirable manifesto for the fast and precise detection of different analytical
functions. Its feasibility has been displayed for recognize the target in water [21] and gas [22-
23]. FETs have many applications like MOSFET, JFET, OFET and OPTs. OFETs are
mechanically flexible at high degree and used for fabricate the material required low-thermal
temperature. OS moiety can be exploited using an active input because no covalent-bonds
needed to be reformed as in case of thermal evaporation. Easy for use, low-cost and fast
response are the advantages of FET sensors. Specific bio-molecules accomplish high
selectivity and high sensitivity in FET biosensors [24].
1.3.1. OFET structure:

OFETs consist on a dielectric layer, OS layer and it has also three electrodes which are
(gate, drain and source). In-organic insulator commonly used layers are such as Al2O3, SiO2
etc. organic layers are consisting in one polymer or bulk-hetrojunction polymers. S-D and gate
layers are commonly used silver or gold. Gold is used for contents because gold is not easily
oxidized but other materials are easily oxidized.
Four vital components of OFETs are:

1) Substrate 3) Organic semiconductor

2) Dielectric 4) Metal contacts
Source Drain
Organic Semiconductor
Dielectric
Gate
Figure 1. 13 Schematic diagram of Organic field-effect
Transistor
There is no limitation to use the substrate, using substrate may be flexible or not. OS layer
in the configuration of OFETs use single layer or bulk hetro-junction layer. Charge carrier
moves parallel to the di-electric gate surface in device. Under bias-condition source-drain
electrodes give the path to channel arrange well and inject the charge. OFET divided into four
discrete type based on electrodes posteriority.
 Bottom-gate Bottom-contact (BGBC)

 Bottom-gate Top-contact (BGTC)
 Top-gate Bottom-contact (TGBC)
 Top-gate Bottom-contact (TGTC)
Figure 1. 14 BGBC, BGTC, TGBC, TGTC

configuration for organic field-effect
transistor.

Adapted from “Molecular Self-Assembly in Mono- to Multilayer Organic Field-Effect Transistors”

by Li M. et al. 2013.
OFETs have two configurations device architecture. In the preparation of OFETs we

can select one or more than slides
1. Co-planner configuration.
2. Stagger configuration.
If source-drain deposit the OS layer before, called co-planner configuration while S-D
deposit the OS layer after, called stagger configuration. On the basis of two configuration
device more split in 2 more types, bottom-gate and top-gate. Following configuration proposed
discrete characteristics for same semiconductor polymer [25].
1.3.2. Working of organic field effect transistor (OFET):

There are three mainly components of OFET drain gate and source, a very thin
insulating layer and a semiconductor P-type material are very favorable Now-a-days (Tinvella
et al., 2011). The useful part of an organic field effect transistor is the current channel (Sh; W.
Zheng, 2017). For sway amount of current passed among drain and source Vg must be applied.
Due to high mobility, the most usual variety of P-type OFET is organic semiconductors, when
more negative gate voltage is applied then Vth move towards positive (Joy C. Perkinson et al,
2007). The P-type channel form at semiconductor dielectric by applied this voltage VGS< -Vt.
The applied gate source voltage is responsible for the value of saturation current.
1.3.2.1. Operation of OFET:

Working region of OFET
 Linear regime
 Saturation regime
Linear regime
The regime in which Id flowing through mechanism/devices was proportional to voltage (Vd)
until approached to break down region.
Saturation regime

When the Vd voltage reached a value where the drain current (Id) passing through the device
not change (constant) and change only with gate voltage (VGs), this region is known as
saturation region VG-VT= VD a point reaches when channel pinches off by increasing Vd.
Figure 1. 15 Schematic work principles of OFETs: a linear regime; b

start of saturation regime at pinch-off; c saturation regime and
Adopted From “Organic Semiconductors
corresponding current–voltage Transistors” by W. Zhang et al. 2015.
characteristics
for Field-Effect
Equations for calculate current

 For linear region

𝑊
Ids = 𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑛 Cin (VGS – Vth) VDS
𝐿
∵ |VDS| <|Vg –Vth|

 For saturation region:
𝑊
Ids = 𝜇𝑠𝑎𝑡 Cin (VGS – Vth)2
2𝐿
∵ |VDS| >|Vg –Vth|
 Cin is the capacitance of insulator

 Vth is the threshold voltage
 W = width of channel
 L = length of channel
 VGS = gate-source voltage
 VDS = drain-source voltage
 𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑛 = mobility of linear region
 𝜇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = mobility of saturation regime
1.3.3. Applications:
OFETs have many prospective applications. OS have strong van-der-waals in solids that’s
why they don’t require any growing arrangements of solids. Some OFETs operate at low-
thermal budget, easy assembling process.
These applications are
1) Mechanical sensors
2) Displays
3) Imagers
4) RFID and logic
Advantages:
o High stability
o Flexibility

o Large area fabrication

o Low cost
o Excellent in ambient environment
o Immaterial threshold voltage (Vth)
o High mobility
o Small sub-threshold voltage
High current on/off ratio of about 106 (Yamashita et al. 2009)
1.4. Organic Phototransistor (OPTs):

They are suppose as realistic organic field-effect transistor, due to its huge absorption
properties and superb auto- conversion efficiency. They are suppose as realistic organic field-
effect transistor, due to its huge absorption properties and superb auto- conversion efficiency.
Opto-electronic devices based on organic material are the theme of investigation beneath active
research due to its special advantages. Organic photo-transistor device used to execute signal
amplification and perception at a time without any noise. Light absorption and gate voltage
command the conductance of the channel in OPTs. To enhance properties of OPTs, both
semiconductor and insulator blend plays an important role. Organic PTs can swape into photo-
conductive mechanism by changing the gain. They are suppose as realistic organic field-effect
transistor, due to its huge absorption properties and superb auto- conversion efficiency. Opto-
electronic devices based on organic material are the theme of investigation beneath active
research due to its special advantages. Organic photo-transistor device used to execute signal
amplification and perception at a time without any noise. Light absorption and gate voltage
command the conductance of the channel in OPTs. To enhance properties of OPTs both
semiconductor and insulator blend plays an important role. Organic PTs can swape into photo-
conductive mechanism by changing the gain voltage. OPTs in the region of visible, infrared
an ultra violet can detect electrical signal. OFETs are OPTs schematic is approximately same.

Schematic of OPTs is shown below.
Figure 1. 16 Schematic of Organic Phototransistor

Adopted from “Monolayer organic field effect phototransistors: photophysical characterization
and modeling” by Trukhanov et al. 2016.
1.4.1. Organic PTs performance parameters:

 Current-ratio (Ion/Ioff).
 Sub-threshold Slope (SS).
 Carrier mobility (𝜇).
 Threshold voltage (VTh).
There are parameters which used for determine the performance of OPTs. Not all these
parameters performance can be obtained by electrical characterization.
Carrier-mobility (𝝁):
Carrier velocity accelerates in solid material applied force perform constant speed in
electric field and is dependent on field, linearly. Its micro-electronic unit cm2 (Vs)-1. Mobility
is produced in two regions:
Mobility in saturation and linear region
2
2𝐿𝑐ℎ 𝜕√|𝐼𝐷𝑆 |
𝜇𝑆𝑎𝑡 = ( )
𝐶𝑖 𝑊𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐿𝑐ℎ 1 𝜕√|𝐼𝐷𝑆 |
𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑛 = ( )( )
𝑊𝑐ℎ 𝐶𝑖 𝐷 𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆

Where,
𝑊𝑐ℎ = Channel width, 𝐿𝑐ℎ = Channel length
𝐶𝑜𝑥 = Gate capacitance, 𝐶𝑖 = incident capacitance
𝑉𝐷𝑆 = Drain to source voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆 =Gate to source Voltage
𝐼𝐷𝑆 = Drain to source current 𝐼𝐺𝑆 = Gate to source Voltage
In saturation, charge-carrier density isn’t uniform in channel because in length channel

𝜇 not constant but we can determined the mean value by this Equation. 𝜇𝑆𝑎𝑡 Equation used for
determine the mobility of the material.
Threshold Voltage (𝑽𝑻𝒉 ):

The voltage in which MIS/MOS capacitor is attained the inversion point called 𝑉𝑇ℎ . OS
doesn’t attain the inversion point so that’s why OS not explicit threshold voltage. Terminology
of 𝑉𝑇ℎ is normally used OFETs to particularize the VG which current arise to flow [31].
Generally transistors are switched on when 𝑉𝐺 obtain the threshold voltage point. 𝑉𝑇ℎ can be
changed by oxidation treatment. Scaling factor which used to retain the efficiency power.
Threshold voltage can be determined by this formula:
𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑇𝑑 − ∆𝑉𝑇 ;
𝐴𝐾𝑇 𝜂𝑞𝑝
Where ∆𝑉𝑇 = ln (1 + )
𝑞 𝐼𝐷𝑑 ℎ𝑣
In the above equation,
A = Empirical Constant
𝑉𝑇𝑑 = Threshold Voltage, 𝐼𝐷𝑑 = Drain current under dark condition.
K = Boltzmann constant, T = Temperature.
𝜂 = Quantum efficiency, hv = photon energy.

Swing-threshold Slope (SS):

A slope inverse in between log 𝐼𝐷 and gate-source voltage determined under the Vth,
values called sub-threshold slope. Its unit ~mV/decades, excellent SS can be perceived in FETs
at 60mV/decade at room temperature.
Its mathematical equation is:
∂log 𝐼𝐷𝑆 −1
𝑆𝑆 = ( )
𝜕𝑉𝐺
SS is a great parameter of FET which can helps to determine the hysteresis effects of
complicated data [31].
Table 1. 2: Organic phototransistor parameters and standard units:
Name Parameter Units
Drain current ID A
Source current IS A
Gate current IG A
Drain voltage VDS V
Gate voltage VGS V
Channel Width W 𝜇𝑚
Channel Length L 𝜇𝑚
Mobility (effective) 𝜇 cm2(Vs)-1
Threshold voltage VT V
Gate capacitance COX F(cm)-2
Sheet charge density Q C/cm2
Temperature T ℃ or K
On/off ratio Ion/Ioff unitless

1.5. Investigated Materials:

We fabricated an organic photo-transistor based on which organic semiconductor layer
DPPDTT and PCBM. DPPDTT is an p-type moiety, its act as a acceptor-donor material
because DPPDTT prepared by two polymers DPP and DTT. DPP is an acceptor material and
DTT is donor material. That’s why DPPDTT show the behavior p-type when hole transporting
strength is high and then the material have high hole transportation and DPPDTT show the
behavior n-type when electron transporting strength is high and then the material have high
electron transportation. Polymer show the mobility in 0.1cm2/Vs into 2cm2 /Vs. and PCBM is
an electron acceptor (n-type) material. We prepared a blend depend on DPPDTT:PCBM. The
resulting blend used in organic photo transistor
1.5.1. Properties PCBM:

PCBM is electron acceptor (n-type) material and is usually used in organic based
devices. Efficiency of the moiety can be increase by decrease the thickness of PCBM layer
[26]. PCBM used as ETL. Photo-current increased in solar cells if PCBM concentration high
in active layer and also electron transportation and charge carrier separation improved. PCBM
used in photovoltaic devices because after light appropriation, device manifest charge
separation thermodynamically suitable [27]. PCBM moiety increase the electron-mobility
while decrease the hole-mobility slightly by increase the concentration of PCBM in blend
form. Optical absorption moderately increase by increase the wt% of PCBM. By adding C60 in
PCBM, PCBM shows high mobility in the blend. In blend increasing wt% of PCBM some
improvements exhibit in solar cell and photo-current.
1. SC active layer produced.

2. p-n hetrojunction photoactive sites increase and charge separation created
40% fullerene added in the PCBM blend then PCBM attained Voc is 0.26V, 1.1mAc-
1
m-2 of Jsc, 0.1% of PCE and field factor is 0.36 [28].

Figure 1. 17 Molecular structure of PCBM.
Adapted from “A-high sensitive near-infrared phototransistor based on an organic bulk

hetrojunction” by Xu et al. 2013.
Table 1. 3: Properties of PCBM: [29]
Molecular formula C72H14O2
Molecular weight 910.9gmol-1
Mobility 0.21cm2/Vs
Melting point 280°𝐶, 536°𝐹, 553K
HOMO -6.0
LUMO -4.2
Fullerene purity ≥99.5% by HPLC
Lattice constant 𝛼 = 𝛾 = 90°, 𝛽 = 106.9° a=1.347nm, b=1.51nm, c=1.901nm
Soluble Organic solvents

Adapted from “Benefits of very thin PCBM and LiF layer for Solution-processed P-I-N
Figure 1. 18 Corresponding
thickness of PCBM layer
Peroveskite Solar Cells” by Seo et al. 2014.
1.5.2. Properties of DPPDTT

DPPDTT is a solution-processed polymer. DPPDTT is common name of the polymer [30].
DPPDTT solution consist of conjugated changing Donor-Acceptor polymer of comparatively
intense donor material, (DTT) and relatively week acceptor moiety DPP. A DPP moiety based
on Donor/Acceptor polymer (p-type) semiconductor. DPPDTT used as an active layer moiety.
PDPP2T-TT-OD is a second name of the DPP-DTT blend. The resulted polymer is D-A co-
polymer and is ambipolar in normal environment. The material act as a p-type if the strength
of hole transport is high and act as a n-type if the electron strength is high. The resulted polymer
is a high acceptor and low donor material. DPP polymer having a broad range of mobility 0.1
to 2 cm2/V-1s-1. By synthesis and draining optimization a stable and simple solution-processing
moiety developed that is called DPPDTT. The resulted polymer exhibit excellent hole mobility
(> 10cm2V-1s-1), drain current (~mA) and on/off current ratio (≥106) [31].

Figure 1. 19 Atomic structure of DPPDTT.

Adapted from “A stable solution-processed polymer semiconductor with record high-
mobility for printed transistor” by Li et al. 2012.
Figure 1. 20 Transfer characteristics of pure

DPPDTT in dark.
Adapted from “A high-sensitivity near-infrared phototransistor based on an organic bulk

Table 1. 4 Properties of DPPDTT:
Chemical formula (C60H88N2O2S4)n
HOMO level -5.2 eV
LUMO level -3.5 eV
Molecular weight High
Band gap 1.7 eV
Packing distance 18.5 A°
Interlayer spacing 18.4 A°
𝝅 − 𝝅 stacking distance 3.43 A°
Chemical stability Under normal pressure and temperature.
Solubility Chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzene and chloroform
Classification family OS material, low bandgap material, OFETs,

organic photovoltics,
1.5.3. DPPDTT:PCBM Blend:

DPPDTT moiety and (PC61BM) blend manifest great responsivity of ~5×105AW-1 further
more exhibit broad tenability of >1×104 in photo-current gain G. Resulted blend exhibit that
the mingle effect of the moiety , show that fast hole-transporting give high responsivity. These
results are coming by using photocurrent and I-V measurements. DPPDTT and PCBM blend
amplify hole and electron mobility differences 𝜇 p is ~0.14 cm2/Vs and 𝜇 n is ~0.06cm2/Vs.
Resulted blend exhibit responsivity ~8×105 AW-1 at gate voltage VG= −30V, Id,ph/Id,dark is
1.6×104 and mobility is 0.3cm2V-1s-1 in a phototransistor [32].

Figure 1. 22 Energy level diagram of

DPPDTT:PCBM blend.
Adopted from “ A high-sensitivity near-infrared phototransistor based on an organic bulk
Figure 1. 21 DPPDTT:PCBM blend in dark.
Adopted from “A high-sensitive near-infrared phototransistor based on an bulk hetrojunction”

by Xu et al. 2013.

Figure 1. 23 Absorption spectra of pure

DPPDTT:PCBM.
Adopted from “ A high-sensitivity near-infrared phototransistor based on an organic bulk

1.6. Our phototransistor performance parameters:
Threshold voltage, carrier-mobility, Ion /Ioff ratio and sub-threshold voltage are the major
performance parameters of transistors but photosensitivity (P), Photoresponsivity(R),
Detectivity(D*), Photocurrent Iph, Gain (G), optical Gain (Gph), External quantum
efficiency(EQE), and NEP.
Photo-current (𝑰𝒑𝒉 ):
The electron beam generated by photo electric effect is photocurrent.
𝑰𝒑𝒉 = 𝑰𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌
Responsivity (R):
Responsivity manifest the decreasing behavior and in order to generate photocurrent it is

necessary to compare with fundamental condition, i.e. the energy gap should be greater than
the energy of incident photon.
The equation is:
𝑰𝑷𝒉 𝑰𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌

𝑹 = =
𝑷𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝑷𝒊𝒍𝒍
𝐼𝑝ℎ = photo current , 𝐼𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = drain current under

illumination
𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌 = Dark Current , 𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑙 = Illumination (incident)
Photosensivity (P):
Photosensivity is the quantity of object that act on the receiving photon mainly use visible
light for this purpose.
The mathematical equation is given by:


𝑷= =
𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌
Detectivity (D*):
Detectivity is the signal which detect the minor signal in the performance of the device with
discrete structure and materials. Dectivity calculated by this formula:
𝐴
𝐷∗ = R√
2𝑒𝐼𝐷𝑆
Gain (G): Two-port circuit device which increase the amplitude from input-port to output-
port and convert the energy to power-supply is called gain. It’s expressed in logarithmic decibel
units.
It’s given as:
𝒉𝒗
𝑮= 𝑹
𝒆
And optical Gain is:
𝑰𝒑𝒉⁄ (𝑰𝒅(𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒖) − 𝑰𝒅(𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌) )
𝒒
⁄𝒒
𝑮𝒑𝒉 = =
𝑷𝒊𝒏 ( 𝟏 − 𝑻 − 𝑹)/𝒉𝒗 𝑷𝒊𝒏 ( 𝟏 − 𝑻 − 𝑹)/𝒉𝒗
External Quantum Efficiency:
EQE known as a key parameter that analysis performance of OPTs, the ratio of total hole-
electrons and photo-generated current involved with photoresistivity.
𝒉𝒄
𝑬𝑸𝑬 = 𝑹
𝒆𝝀

1.7. Our Device architecture:

We prepared bottom-gate top-contact (BGTC) transistor based on DPPDTT moiety and
PCBM polymer blend together these both polymers are available in powder form and mixed
into a solvent chloroform and resulted blend deposit on the Silicon nitride. Contents (gold and
molybdenum) in the shape of shadow mask deposit on organic layer through thermal
evaporation. After that we apply negative voltage on gate-terminals because our material
behave as P-type. It show us excellent response to light on same and various intensity in
different period of time. And the results show excellent optical, electrical characterization and
advantages given below.
Figure 1. 24 DPPDTT:PCBM based organic

phototransistor
Adapted from “ A high-sensitivity near-infrared phototransistor based on an organic bulk

Advantage:
Mechanical flexible.
Easy and Cheap Processing.
Light Weight.
Chemical modifications are possible

Disadvantage:
Poor crystalline
Low-mobility
Low speed of device
Conceivable degradation under nature.

Chapter 2 Literature Review
CHAPTER – 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 02
Literature Review
H A. Hadi et al. (Hadi et al., 2019) successfully prepared high performance, low cost
and simple polystyrene/porous silicon (PS/Psi) hetro-junction photodetector via
electrochemical technique and doped PS film on Psi. UV-Vis spectrometer, Fourier transformed
infrared (FT-IR), SEM and (XRD) technique was used to find optical properties, structure and
characteristics of PS/Psi. Polystyrene film, porous silicon, amorphous and crystalline nature
was confirmed via X-ray diffraction. Optical properties exhibit that, the mean optical energy
gap 3.2eV and optical transmittance 80% of polystyrene. Properties of Au/Psi Schottky
compared by polystyrene/porous silicon photodetector have revealed. Electrical properties
exhibit that, mobility and electrical resistivity values are 4.5×10-5cm2(Vs)-1 and 3 × 104 Ω
respectively of polymer polystyrene film. Hetrojunction of polystyrene / porous silicon
prepared with an engraving time of 5min showing better rectified results and characteristics
compared to the hetrojuntion PS / PSi prepared at 10 min, clear comparison shown in the
characteristics of dark I-V. PS/PSi hetrojunction on/off ratio were greater than 8.1 factor of
Au/PSi. Etching time of photodetector increasing from 5-10min exhibit the on/off ratio
decreasing. Etching at 5min three peaks located at 540nm, 740nm and 900nm having the
responsivity 412, 475 and 495mAW-1 respectively of PS/PSi. Au/PSi photodetector have peak
responsivity (315mAW-1) at 480nm via etching of 5min, while etching at 5min Au/PSi
photodetector was found at 575nm with responsivity (225mAW-1) but minority carrier lifetime
has largest value of PS/PSi photodetector that prepared via 10min etching[33].
Y. Zhai et al. (Zhai et al., 2019) investigated that the photoresponse spectra in visible
region have been extensively used wideband in semiconductor because the effect of hot electron
induced surface plasmon, metallic nanostructrure and photosensitizer. Scientist are working
how to increase the injection efficiency of hot electron and upgrade photoresponse spectra,
some researches have reported that, which effect is produced by hot electron via injection
process on the photocurrent by temporary variant. Indium gallium zinc oxide phototresponse
spectra in phototransistor studied and observed the expanded photoresponse spectra in visible
region by embellish the channels with nanoparticles of Au. Photo current transitory curves of
nano particles of Au embellish indium gallium zinc oxide phototransistor under dissimilar

illumination conditions (405, 532 and 658 nm) especially studied the injection process of hot
electrons in the impact of plasmon. Nano particles of Au embellish indium gallium zinc oxide
exhibit an exceeded peak at high-rise edge (falling edge) under 658nm dark of the photocurrent
curve. Hot electrons dynamic transportation model proposed to explain the generation, hot
electron injection efficiency is strongly based on the improvement of the electric field location
and magnitude. All these observations were helped to understand the transfer process of hot
electron induced plasmon, semiconductor interface and optoelectronic devices dependent on
hot electrons mechanism [34].
J Li et al. (Lo et al., 2012) developed high performance, ambient stable TF

semiconductor based on DPPDTT polymer for organic TFT applications via solution process
method. Optimization and processing of semiconductor polymer under ambient atmosphere
operating stabilities show high current on/off ratio ( ≥106), very large field-effect mobility ( >
10.5 cm2V-1s-1), outstanding mean life of a TFTs. Transporting behavior of resulting polymer
with small activation energy, semiconductor explicit verified to the transporting mechanism by
hopping mode of the temperature dependent characteristics. Effective oscillator circuit and
high-gain PMOS inverters fabricated by this reported polymer semiconductor and exhibit its
wide-range potential and high valued technological uses. Results show that a remarkable
attainment in the field of organic semiconductors and produce high-speed printing
microelectronic arrays by virtue of conventional photolithographic process to provide a
desirable approach to create long-sought, low-cost, large-area and flexible electronic device.
In theoretical point of view, polycrystalline semiconductor has ability to attain the deficiency
of a single-crystal like charge-carrier transformation. DPP-DTT High mobility polymer-
semiconductor has an essential constituent of organic electronics and electronic semiconductors
[35].
C. Lee et al. (Lee et al., 2018) fabricated bulk hetrojuncton organic phototransistor
which based on derivative of difluorinated diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP), (EHD3FV), and also
studied its applications such as photosensing electron acceptor. EHD3FV manifest optical
absorption (>850nm) and its HOMO energy (-5.87eV) in pure thin film of EHD3FV. Molecules
of EHD3FV assorted with P3HT and this bulk hetrojunction sensing-channel layer
(P3HT:EHD3FV) used in organic phototransistors. Fabricated organic phototransister display

appreciable responsivity upon illumination for different wavelength values of light (550nm and
700nm). Photoresponse (responsivity) highest value of the material composition
(P3HT:EHD3FV) were achieved by ratio (8:2), while the performance of the transistor became
decreased via increased the content of EHD3FV in the dark. Given results show the capability
of EHD3FV. So, this material is used in the bulk hetrojunction OPTRs as a photosensing [36].
M J. Ford et al. (Ford et al., 2019) studied improvement Organic TFTs operational
stability while Additives of fullerene convert ambipolar to p-type transport. Organic field effect
transistors show the instability in PCDTPT material. DTS-treated SiO2 having thickness 300nm
used as dielectric layer. Semiconductor blade-coated layer on bottom-gate bottom-contact,
Ni/Au of thickness (5/50 nm) used as source/drain contacts. Configuration of active layers high
charge carrier µ shows non-linear I-V characteristics, inconsistent mobility values for Organic
FETs. Given “Double-slope” curve in the suppression of Id1/2 vs Vg improve the current ratio,
operational stability, hole mobility and stable the values of threshold voltage. PCDTPT a
polymer with PC61BM blend. Higher concentration of PC61BM may be not increase the electron
transportation because low intrinsic electron mobility. Those devices in which PCDTBT:
PC61BM blend were used, these devices are more stable, cycled significant performance without
any changes ( >14.5h) , Vg = 100V and mobility achieve (> 5cm2 V-1 s-1). In future, these results
are favorable in execution of consumer-ready electronic appliances [37].
M. J Iqbal et al. (Iqbal et al., 2019) successfully fabricated low-cost, stable,

mechanically flexible organic FETs based on bottom-gate top-contact (DPPDTT) via solution
processing and characterized their electrical properties in the medium environment to test the
stability of the material and to retable the life. Polymer OFETs exhibit threshold voltage (Vth)
and Ion/Ioff ratio in vary with value -15V, 106 respectively and charge carrier mobilities
(0.2cm2V-1s-1). A big drawback in the fabrication of OFETs is the appreciating reasonable
applications are intrinsic at low atmosphere. Initially, medium atmosphere degenerate the
execution parameters and caused unreliability. After the device operation observed that the
transistor became stable and slightly changes performance parameters of transistor. In start
performance of device decreased due to the penetration in organic active condutive-layer and
moisture absorption were confirmed by the Fourier transformation infra-red spectrum. At the
start device parameters displayed changes in their observations and then initial degradation

became stable at the aging after (~20%). These results exhibit that the given blend of the
material make OFETs stable in the medium conditions for the practical appliances [38].
H. Xu et al. (Xu et al., 2014) fabricated a bulk hetrojunction (BHJ) structure near-
infrared (NIR) phototransistor having a small bandgap based on polymer DPP-DTT and PCBM
via using a solution process and mass mingle ratio of material is (1:1). Photoconductive gain
of the device manifest broad tunability (> ×104) and ultrahigh responsivity (~5 × 105). Domains
of isolated PCBM showed high responsivity because of slow electrons detrapping and mingle
effect of fast holes transport in polymer matrix by using temporary photocurrent and current-
voltage measurements. Under light illumination wavelength 420nm and 850nm the specific
detectivity D* are 1.5×1013 jones and 3.5 ×1012jones respectively. Noise current efficiency
(NCE) suppression and broad gain tunability are attained the value by tunable optical gate
terminal. NIR transistor used to PPG sensor unit for non-invasive and also used to measure the
fingertip pulse continuously. Phototransistor of high sensitivity permit to use light source in
low power and easy to read-out circuit so the sensor reduce the power consumption.
Simultaneously using basic device structure (easily integrated with ordinary ROCs) and
solution process technique, in future construction of phototransistor made favorable devices,
low-cost, m-health applications, customized health care and biomedical devices for next
generation[39].
K. Yeliu et al. (Yeliu et al., 2019) thin-film transistor having vertical based structure
organic phototransistors (n-type) were fabricated via solution process. Transistor manifest
magnificent current density (15.4mA/cm2 ) because of small channel length (approximately
130nm) and vertical structure in the presence of high current ratio(𝐼𝑜𝑛 /𝐼off ) up to105 . Dielectric
layer used as substrate, doped n-type Si/Si𝑂2 thin film having thickness (100nm). Solution of
Ag nano-wires added isopropanol of 0.6mg/ml then deposited on substrate (2000rpm for 60s.).
Au (50nm) source electrode deposited on the solution of Ag nano-wires by thermal evaporation
heated at 100ºC for 600s, and heated at 120ºC for 60min. P(NDI2OD-T2):PMMA blend film
in ratio (25:1) was coating on Si/Si𝑂2 at 1000rpm for 60s. An organic semiconductor layer
having thickness approximately 130nm formed. After completing this transistor working
vertical organic photo transistor (VOPT) transfer characteristics calculated by using
semiconductor parameter analyzer (keysight B2902A), which shows excellent performance of

photo-sensing and transistor characteristics. The vertical structure of channel length allows
downscale to nanoscale. This is convenient for exciton separation and charge transfer. Under
illumination (400nm) with light intensity (200µWc𝑚−2) exhibit high responsivity (34.8A/W),
D* is (3.95×1013 jones), EQE is (1.1×104%) good photosensitivity (4.78×104 ). This Organic
transistor (n-type) fabrication strategy showed excellent result and this organic phototransistor
comparatively expressed excellent results [40].
M. Zhu et al. (Zhu et al., 2016) investigated single-component NIR D-A phototransistors
which based on ambipolar OS, characterized photoelectronic properties and also compared with
the corresponding thin-film values. NW-OPTs exhibit responsitivity (440mA/W) and
photocurrent/dark-current (1.3 × 104) for p-type channel and NW-OPTs showing responsivity
(70mA/W) and dark-current/photo current (3.3 × 104) for n-type channel under near-infra red
illumination have an intensity (47.1 mW/cm2). Near-IR organic phototransistor having the hole
mobility (0.02cm2 (Vs)-1) and hole mobility (0.04 cm2 (Vs)-1). NWs leads to a giant surface-to-
volume ratio and precise surface effects due to their unique properties and their geometry and
extreme size. NW-OPTs exhibited more raise respositivity, enhanced photocurrent/dark-
current ratios with thousands time, 7 times higher responsitivity and 20 times high photo-
switching ratio compared to the TF analogue. Normal mobility of NW-OPTs was increased
upto 4 times with intensity (47.1mW/cm2) upon near IR illumination in the dark. NW-OPTs
have very higher counterparts in comparison of the TF analogue. Nano wires OPTs
demonstrated to improve N-IR photoresponce to extend new opportunities in future [41].
M. Yasin et al. (Yasin et al., 2014) successfully demonstrated and fabricated first time
organic (BHJ) photosensitive organic EFTs by using metal-semiconductor FETs configuration.
Fabrication shows that the blend (P3HT) and (PCBM) based on active layer of the Organic
FETs. Silver (Ag) were used as S/D contacts and Aluminum (Al) on active layer were used as
gate contacts. Bottom-drain and top-gate initiator contacts were fabricated in metal-
semiconductor FETs type structure on glass (substrate). Device illustrates the am-bipolar
properties. Schottky-contacts are made with gate-electrode and ohmic-contacts are made with
source/drain electrodes. P-type form I-V characteristics were found very similar to the normal
am-bipolar low voltage photo-organic FETs. Field effect mobility and responsitivity
observations were found greater values as compared to Single-organic semiconductor which

based on metallic-semiconductor FETs. Photovoltaic effects and photoconductive values

observed that the values under illumination were increase appropriate. Device showed under
illumination low-voltage operation accompanied by low saturation trend and humidity,
frequency and temperature variation also changed. In coming times, low voltage, low power,
flexible array and low cost electronic devices were helped to the development of large areas.
Instrument can be simply organize on flexible substrate (PET)[42].
SE Ahn et al. (Ahn et al., 2012) were examined the photosensors characteristic
responsitivity based on an ordinary bottom-gate TF a-MeO semiconductor. Thin-film is a most
important parameter of the device like as a building block which provide the read-out functions
driving and switching in the active material layer which are used in OLEDs or liquid crystal.
Device configuration provides the valuable structure appropriate with display of the extensive
active matrix. a-MeO photo-TFT exhibit high EQE compared to a-Si based photo-TF transistor
and under illumination the screening effect Vo++ value increased the responsitivity and in dark
state charge carrier-mobility also increased. High speed range operation was used for the unique
suitable sensing scheme. An easy method of structure configuration was used for large-area
correlative display. The resultant device cross-sectional schematic images exhibit that the yield
saturation µ a-MeO (38cm2 /Vs) and a-Si (0.21cm2 /Vs). The threshold Voltage was recorded
a-MeO (2.5V) and a-Si (0V) and sub threshold voltage are 0.31V/decade and 0.8 V/decade.
Hence the maximum current were measured at -5V for both devices 0.37µA and 46pA at a light
source (260µW/cm2)[43].
Y. Lee et al. (Lee at al., 2015) fabricated near-IR touch sensor based on thin-film
phototransistor with polymer α-Si:H. Broad-band spectrum of response from infrared to UV-
region shows the small bandgap of α-Si, and visible light permit to infrared bandpass sifter layer
to the α-Si:H phototransistor to counter to the given infrared light undisturbed. The observations
of near infra-red (α-Si:H) PTs under illumination power 785nm as a function shows that the
transfer current-voltage characteristics and time-resolved responsitivity. These observations
also shows that the high EQE (7.52) at Vgs=1V, high photoresponse and quick responsitivity
(τ~0.1ps) at 785nm. Resulted polymer phototransistor used as amplifier, switch and sensor due
to the unit pixel design and structure. All the results demonstrate that the resulted
phototransistor provide individual possibilities for low-cost, large-area optical touch-sensors

and user-friendly. Lee et al analyzed that the given phototransistor shows different photoresonse
for different wavelength values of 405,532,638 and 852nm. These values under NIR sensitivity
were 0.51W/cm2 and 3.05W/cm2. Calculated photoresponsivity under illumination
(0.02W/cm2) is 4.75 at Vgs= 1V[44].
S Faraji et al. (Faraji et al., 2016) demonstrated high-k dielectric gate low voltage OFET
based on cyanoethyl cellulose (CEC) with tiny molecules and polymeric blend OS
nanocomposites via solution process. BST (barium strontium titanate) nanoparticles were
corresponding disseminate in CEC to made nano-composites insulator layer with high-k value
of 18.0 ±0.2 at 1kHz. Pure DPPDTT (p-channel) were prepared with high yield value greater
than 90%. Perfect DPPDTT (p-channel) OFETs operate as a gate dielectric with
nanocomposites of BST-CEC with the small amount of hysteresis and show field effect µ in
excess amount (1cm2V-1s-1) at 3V, own current on/off ratio > 103 and dominate low S-threshold
curve 132±8mV dec-1. Gate outflow current significantly decrease 10-7A cm-2 by adding 40-
50nm layer PVP cross-linked on the exterior layer of the nanocomposites at ±3V and at 1.5V
enabling operation of organic FETs show threshold voltage less than 0.7V. Reported solution-
processed OFET were suitable for low-power and bilayer BST-CEC/PVP dielectric useful
unconventionally for fabrication of low voltage devices[45].
Zhe Qi et al. (Qi et al., 2015) fabricated high-performance organic photosensors for
ultraviolet and visible photodetection based on (PSeTPTI) and acceptor material (PC61BM).
PSeTSI have wide range light-absorption from ultraviolet region to visible region and under
ambient condition device exhibit high electrical stability and excellent carrier mobility.
PC61BM in dissolved form deposit on the interior layer of PSeTPTI, so improve the response
speed and photoresponse. Blend of hetrojunction PSeTPTI/PC61BM provide photocurrent ratio
in a better mechanism and PC61BM in scattered form doesn’t affect the photogain and the
performance of the organic FETs. Ultra-violet photodetection investigated beyond the visible
light. The large UV sensitivity in OPTs with photosensitivity P (7.3×107), Gain G (7.5×104),
Detectivity D* (3.1×106jones) and responsitivity R (2.2×104 A/W). OPTs are very stable and
exhibit high potential working at high temperature (>200º C). These results show that resulting
blend should be vastly revitalized in investigation of high-performance [46].

J.G. Labram et al. (Labram et al. 2010) fabricated low-voltage ambipolar OFETs based
on pentacene/PC61BM hetrostructure. Pentacene/PC61BM demonstrated the gate-dielectric and
act as self-assembled monolayer or a semiconductor layer. LUMO of PC61BM is (-3.7eV) and
HOMO value of PC61BM is –6.1eV. The S/D current values were established and permit to use
a low-voltage PTs under optical illumination. Transistor exhibit holes mobility (10-3cm2/Vs)
and electron mobility (0.1cm2/Vs) below the operating voltage 3V with ambipolar OFETs
having length 50µm and width 1mm of the device. Low-power PTs were calculated response
time (210-220ms) and EQE (~0.8%). Using two ambi-polar TRs with equal dimensions,
demonstrated light-sensitivity, low-voltage supportive inverters. Consequently, The device
characteristics in operation circuit depends on the light intensity, biasing conditions and
enabling to use reponsitivity as tunble-optical sensors [47].
Guiheng Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2019) prepared low bandgap D-A, low-voltage, n-
type and flexible IR-OPTs conjugated polymer based on insulating layer as semiconductor and
improved layer of AlOx/ODPA by a low-cost and simple solution process. PTs display the
prototypical (n-type) properties below 5V. Using polymer AlOx/ODPA three layers were
prepared with discrete densities for discrete time via self-assembling solution with discrete
shallow traps, result in an interface. Phototransistors photosensitivity can be increased by
synchronize packing density of self-assembled monolayer of ODPA. Magnify OPTs display
high photosensitivity 808-980nm near-IR, dark current ratio of the material (>5×103) and
photosensitivity is 20mA W-1. OPTs show high mechanical flexibility, light-irradiance power,
and high-speed optical switching characteristics with rise/fall time 20/30ms. Indeed, NIR OPTs
exhibit high mechanical flexibility and offering new development of wearable electronics [48].
Y Lei et al. (Lei et al., 2019) demonstrated high-performing ultra violet to near infrared ray
broadband PTs empowered by integrating a bi-layer of methyl-ammonium lead triiodide
(MAPbI3) NIR/perovskite energy absorbing polymer diketopyrrolopyrrolo-dithienylthieno[3,2-
b]thiophene (DPPDTT). Bi-layer polymer channel exhibit high charge-transport efficiency and
completely absorption of the medium. MAPbI3/DPPDTT bi-layer polymer of phototransistors
transfer characteristics in the on-off state were analyzed in the occupancy of discrete source of
near-infrared, ultra-violet and visible light. MAPbI3/DPPDTT bi-layer channel of
phototransistors own certain detectivity D* (>107 jones) and detectivity D* >109 jones above

the NIR light and UV-visible wavelength range respectively. Broadband of phototransistors
work at very low-voltage -1V without broadcasting the behavior or photoconductivity.
MAPbI3/DPPDTT bi-layer polymer OPTs results are very fruitful and may be it is expected
that the bi-layer (perovskite/NIR light) absorbing polymer concept is very favorable to maintain
high-performance light broadband of OPTs[49]

Chapter 3 Experimental and Characterization
CHAPTER-3
EXPERIMENTAL AND CHARACTERIZATION

CHAPTER 03
Introduction.
In this chapter we studied and discussed about the apparatus and processing techniques
which are used to fabricate the organic photo-transistor based on the polymer DPPDTT: PCBM
blend. There are various steps that are followed for the fabrication process of organic photo-
transistor (OPTs) these are given below:
 Substrate Cutting
 Substrate Cleaning
 Deposition of di-electric
 Deposition of OS Polymer
 Deposition of drain and source(electrodes)
Spin-coating technique is used for deposition of active channel layer. Spin-coating is the
Permissive and broadly technique from all of them that can easy to deposited into substrate.
This chapter includes all the fabrication steps which are followed to demonstrate the OPT based
on DPPDTT/PCBM blend. The electrical characterization to check the performance of the
fabricated devices are also described in the last section.
Appropriate selection of substrate:

Most important and basic key is to choose more suitable substrate for the fabrication of
device. Its major function is to supply the mechanical-baking. A perfect substrate have a lot of
advantages like smooth, non-reactive, flat, good conductor and high dielectric constant.
Substrate are present in form of single and poly crystalline or amorphous form. Mostly Si used
as substrate because it belongs to single-lattice crystalline. Glass has no regular structure
because it belongs to amorphous family and glass also used for substrate. Similarly, different
types of substrates are used according to requirements.
Silicon has fascinating and captivating properties and used since 1960 as a substrate. It
available in many sizes, and different structures. Below mention are different properties of
silicon.
 High band gap 1.12eV.

 Highest resistivity 1×10-3 to 2×103ohm-cm

 Excellent mechanical surface.

 Highest young modulus of 190 Gpa.
These properties make silicon as dominant candidate to be used as substrate.
3.2 Substrate cutting:

Substrate has available in the form of a disc which has “4” inch diameter and it can be
cut into any required able size though (MR 100) micro-scriber. Substrate disc, we cut into
“15mm”in length and “15mm” in width for fabricating a device. During cutting of substrate,
required extra vigilance to cut in appropriate size.
3.2.1 MR 100 Micro Diamond Scriber:

This device is use for cutting of glass substrate and Si accurately.it exhibit the results
>10 µm. Scriber’s major parts are given below.
 Eye piece
 Screw gauge
 Vacuum chuck
 Sliding sage
 Diamond scriber
 Manual cross-table.
3.3 Substrate cleaning:

Fabrication of a device, cleaning of substrate is mandatory that’s why we clean the
substrate precisely and make sure that our device must be free of contamination.
3.3.1 Contamination Types:

Contamination have various types that may present on the exterior layer of substrate.
In-organic contamination are those which have involve in heavy slats, heavy metals and atoms.
The contaminations which includes in solvent vapor, skin-oil, monomers, smoke and lubricants.
These contaminations that involve in particles have size of 0.1µm to 20µm in diameter like
dust, bacteria and clothing particles. These contaminations which occurs during preparation or
TF deposited into substrates.

3.3.2 Effects of the contamination:

These contaminations types may effect on result.
Crystalline defects may just because of this contamination, the ground layer may produce
irregular manner.
We can minimize these abnormalities by following steps:
 For the impurity free device substrate must be cleaned very carefully before deposition
of device materials.
 Etching must be used to remove the oxide layer present on substrate.
 Both dry and wet cleaning may be remove the contaminations. For dry cleaning
normally these technique are used sputter cleaning, plasma etching and epitaxial reactor.
Ar+, plasma and anhydrous HF. UV photons, Cl2, O3 and plasma are used to remove the
metal particles.
 On the other hand for wet cleaning method usually de-ionized water, acetone and iso-
propyl alcohol are used. But in this method chemicals are used in a large amount and
constantly.
3.4 Acetone:
Acetone is used to remove organic impurities from surface of the substrates because it is a
polar solvent but it is volatile so it gets evaporated after removing the contaminations.
The substrates were cleaned by placing them in acetone filled beaker, the beaker was heated at
40oC and then ultra-sonication was performed in ultra sonic bath for 15 minutes.
3.5 Isopropyl alcohol (IPA):

All contaminations remained after washing with acetone and all non-polar contaminations
are removed by IPA (Iso-propyl alcohol).
In this study we used wet cleaning process. Si substrate was first placed in acetone are 15
minutes and was exposed to ultra-sonic ways. Thus organic impurity on all organic and dust
particles are removed, and after 15 minutes took out from acetone, substrate put on the another
beaker that already filed with isopropyl alcohol, after all put on ultra-sonic bath and holds for

15 minutes again. Isopropyl alcohol may remove the contamination particles on the same time
we dry the substrate by nitrogen gun. We hope that all the contamination will remove.
Deposition of polymer:
The deposition of polymers can be done by various techniques among which spin
coating is very effective and commonly used technique. That is described below
3.6.1 Spin coating:

This technique is very common and widely used for depositing thin film on any
substrate, it produces a few nanometers to few micrometers thick coating layer, the solution of
containing desire material can be cast on the surface of substrate. The solution is dispensed
equally throughout the surface of substrate. In this method the substrate was rotated with high
speed, So desired material spread on the surface equally due to the combination of centripetal
force and surface tension. After this the solvent evaporate and we get a uniform polymer film.
Thickness of film related to spin speed as follows:
𝑇 ∝ 1⁄
√𝑤
Where T is the thickness of film and w is the spin speed.
By this equation we can see that the thickness is reduces by the factor of 1⁄2 as the
spin speed increases four times. The spin coated film thickness also depends on the material
concentration and solvent evaporation rate. A good quality film is obtained at 500 to 600 rpm.
At a spin greater than 1000 rpm, a film can be deposit but by careful dealing.
Figure 3. 1 Spin coating technique with all major steps.

Advantages:
 Easy to use
 Simplicity
 Low cost
 Macroscopic and nanoscale consistency
Disadvantages:
 Only one substrate can be deal at a time
 A large amount of material is waisted.
3.7 Deposition parameters:

We prepared organic blend DPPDTT and a PCBM. DPPDTT and PCBM are available in
powder form. For making a organic blend we use a solvent chloroform.
Mixing parameter:
 Revolution per min = 800 RPM

 Temperature =60°C
 Time = 15 hours
Spin-coating parameter:
 Revolution per min = 2000 RPM

 Time = 60 sec.
Annealing parameter =
 Temperature = 110℃ (under nitrogen flow 200 L/hour)

 Time = 30 min.
3.8 Deposition of polymer:
DPPDTT and PCBM make a blend of both polymers. This blend was used as a organic
semiconductor layer for the fabrication of phototransistor. DPPDTT and PCBM found in
powder form and mixed into chloroform. We use stirring consistently just because to get a better
blend of DPPDTT and PCBM. We have used magnetic stirrer for this experiment.

Mixing parameter:
Revolution per min = 800 RPM
Temperature =60°C
Time = 15 hours.
Spin-coating parameter:
Revolution per min = 2000 RPM
Time = 60 sec.
After used of this technique we annealed the purpose of this to removal of all remaining
solvents. The polymer crystallinity enhanced the performance parameters in this annealing
experiment [50]. Additionally, the grain size of polymer likewise enhanced up to a specific
temperature as the result, it decrease the thickness of polymer grain limits defiantly impacts on
the charge transport [51]
3.9 Deposition of contacts:

PVD is to use for the deposition of contacts upon device.
3.9.1 PVD (physical vapor deposition):

It also belongs to vacuum coating technique. It also involved to deposition on to atomic
level in very controlled environment. These techniques are mention below.
1. Evaporation.
2. Transportation.
3. Deposition.
3.9.2 Types of PVD:

There are lot types of PVD.
 Thermal evaporation
 Sputtering
 Arc vapor deposition.

We have used the RF heating technique that technique belong to thermal evaporation.
Figure 3. 2 Thin film deposition techniques
3.9.3 Thermal Evaporation:

Thermal evaporation is used to deposite the metal contacts of FET. In this technique,
the desire material is placed in boat, the resistive heating is performed to evaporate the material
from the boat. This evaporated material then get deposited onto the target substrate. For
deposition we changed the material from solid state to vapor phase. And then substrate can be
condenses by this process. Apply the vacuum 10-5 to 10-9 torr and all the material extract in this
operation. Various heating methods are used to evaporate the material. Almost the beam of
electron bombard to the device with resistive heat. Resistive heating is the simplest technology
of thermal evaporation [52].In this method we apply the current on the boat which contained
the depositing polymer. When high beam of electron bombardment to boat then depositing

polymer evaporate. The vapors move in a straight direction without collide the chamber. If the
Figure 3. 3 R.F Sputtering Unit.

temperature of the material as compare to the target is low then the level of energy decreased
and they change their vapor phase state. After all the process material vapor condense and form
a thin-film on to substrate [53].
Materials of Contents:
Molybdenum oxide in 10 %.
Gold in 90 %.
Contacts are deposit via shadow mask on substrate.
Parameters of thermal evaporation:

Pressure = 10-5torr.
Contacts thickness = Approximately 100 nm.
Before the deposition of the metal contacts, the devices are first covered by shadow
mask. This shadow mask has build in source-drain electrode and channel for FET. After
masking the device, it is placed in the thermal evaporation chamber. The gold and molybdenum
oxide metal were then placed in the boat and vacuum was performed within the chamber. The
boat then thermally heated to evaporates the metals. These evaporated metals then get deposited

onto target device. Then the shadow mask were removed and FET device had completed its
fabrication steps.
3.10 Characterization Techniques:

Different characterization techniques are used to check the performance of different
devices. For optical measurement, ellipsometery is usually used. For the measurements of
dielectric properties of the material, the impedance analyzer is used. Similarly, for the electrical
characterization of the FETs, the I-V measurements are taken from the Keithley SCS-4200
parameter analyzer.
3.10.1 Kiethley SCS-4200 parameter analyzer:

After the fabrication of the device, the next step is its characterization. The electrical
characterization of Organic phototransistors were performed by Kiethley SCS-4200 parameter
analyzer. The characterization of OPT is done by getting the characteristic curves for the device
from this technique. The Source measuring unit (SMU) module is used in this technique, which
do not only provide the potential across the three terminals of FET but also it measures the
current at the same time. Two characteristics curves are obtained from this way. One is output
characteristic curve, which is obtained by sweeping the drain voltages and measuring the drain
current by SMU unit at constant gate voltages. The other curve is transfer curve, which is
obtained by sweeping the gate voltages and measuring the drain current at constant drain
voltages. The performance parameters for the device is extracted form these characteristics
curves.

Figure 3. 5 Kiethley SCS-4200 semiconductor characterization system:
Figure 3. 4 Kiethley SCS-4200 semiconductor characterization

probe station system:

Components of probe station:

 Probe Needles.
 Stereo-microscope.
 Vacuum pump.
 Probe positioners.
 Probe holder and Optical probe.
 Micro chamber.
 Platen system.
 Thermo chuck platform.
 Mechanical stages.

Chapter 4 Results and Discussions
CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION

This section, I will talk about the major steps that involved in the fabrication of
phototransistor based on which DPPDTT and PCBM blend and also we discuss about the
properties, I-V characterization, phototransistor parameters such as photoresponsivity (R),
photosensivity (P), mobility (𝝁), threshold voltage (Vth) and illumination effect.
4.1 Fabrication of phototransistor:
4.1.1 Cleaning of substrate:

Substrate that available already deposit silicon nitride layer having 15mm length and
15mm width was cleaned, given substrate was firstly put in acetone beaker for 15 minutes and
vulnerable to ultrasonic bath. All the organic impurities and dust are removed by ultrasonic
ways after 15 minutes substrate took out from acetone beaker. Again substrate put on another
beaker that filled with iso-propyl alcohol. Substrate again put on the ultrasonic-bath for 15
minutes. IPA may remove all the contaminations that’s are present on the external layer of the
substrate then dry the substrate using nitrogen gun.
4.1.2 Preparation of Organic layer:

Organic layer based on DPPDTT and PCBM moiety. The concentration of DPPDTT
and PCBM 9.8 and 12.4 used for the solution Both moiety are available in powder form, and
put into chloroform solvents then DPPDTT and PCBM blend stirred consistently to get an
perfect solution. Chloroform quantity was 2ml. The material mixed continuously stirring at 800
RPM for 15 hours at 60℃.
Si3N4
Si++
Figure 4. 1 Schematic of highly
doped silicon substrate
4.1.3 Deposition of Organic polymer:

Organic material was deposited on substrate via spin-coating technique. The speed of
spin coater was 2000 rpm. After the deposition, we annealed the sample for alignment of the

molecule to molecule. The annealing process enhanced the performance of the device. In my
case, the annealing temperature was 110℃ under nitrogen flow at 200 liters/hour.
DPPDTT: PCBM
Si3N4
4.1.4 Deposition of Si++ contacts:
Figure 4. 2 Schematic of deposited
Organic layer DPPDTT: PCBM on
substrate.
PVD used for the deposition of contacts on devices. Contacts deposited via thermal
evaporation in which 10% molybdenum oxide and 90% of the gold used. During Thermal
Au/MoO3 Au/MoO3
DPPDTT: PCBM
Si3N4
Si++
Figure 4. 3 Final schematic picture of top-contact

bottom-gate phototransistor based of DPPDTT:
PCBM polymer.
evaporation, atmospheric pressure was (10-5 Torr) and contacts thickness (~100 nm).
Contacts deposited through a shadow mask on the substrate.
4.2 I-V characterization:

Performance parameters of device can be extracted by the analysis of output and
transfer curves. Performance parameters of phototransistor such as drain current, threshold
voltage, Ion/Ioff ratio, and mobility calculated from transfer curves [54].These parameters are
extracted from output and transfer graphs.

4.3 Output curves:

The output graph is plotted between drain voltage vs drain current with different gate
voltage steps.
7
Vg=0V
Vg=10V
6 Vg=20V
Vg=30V
5 Vg=40V
|Id|(A)
0
-40 -20 0
Vd(V)
Figure 4. 4 Output curves of Organic phototransistor.
For the fabrication of phototransistor DPPDTT and PCBM blend have been utilized as
organic polymer. PCBM is n-type moiety whereas DPPDTT is p-type moiety. The type of
polymer was confirmed by the output curves. The response of transistor was obtained from
output curves as shown in the above figure. Due to un-availability of accumulation region there
was no current drawn found as the gate voltage Vg= 0V, Vg= -10V, were applied. At
approximately -20V the current begins to flow through transistor. And at this voltage channel
was formed. With the further increase in the voltage the current also increases because in the
channel region there become a high concentration of accumulated carriers. There are two
regions, one is linear and other is saturated in every curve. For small values of Vd, the current

and voltage are linear and follows the ohm’s law. At large values of Vd the saturation region is
obtained due to pinching off channel near the electrodes of drain. So at electrodes the channel
depletion is formed and by the electric field that is present in depletion region the saturation
current is drawn.
4.4 Transfer characterization:
The transfer characteristics curves of phototransistor can be plotted b/w gate-voltage Vg

and drain current Id. Most parameters performance can be obtained from transfer characteristics
curves. The transfer prototypical curves under dark and under light shown in fig. 4.5 and fig.
4.6. Both transfer prototypical graph consist of two curves, black and blue. The black curve in
this graph expressed in log scale of Id while the blue curve expressed in scale of square root of
Id. By using the curve of square root we can calculate the threshold voltage by linear
computation and also calculate the mobility of the device through this curve. From graph it is
seen that no current flow from 0 to 30V under dark while in under light seen that no current
flow from 0 to 2V, because at this voltage in the channel was not formed for both characteristics.
8
Vd= -40V
Vd= -40V 7
6
10-5
5
|-Id | (mA )
1/2
|-Id| (A)
4
1/2
10-6 3
10-7 0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
Vg (V)
Figure 4. 5 Transfer Characteristics of transistor under dark.

10
9x10-5
Vd= -40V
-5 Vd= -40V 9
7x10
8
5x10-5
|Id| (A)
7
|Id1/2| (mA1/2)
6
3x10-5
10-5 2
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
Vg (V)
Figure 4. 6 Transfer Characteristics of transistor under light.
The current increases with the increase in the Vg. large amount of charge carrier induced is the
cause of high current. Due to trapping of charge carriers negative threshold is appeared. Hence,
the charge carriers which are now appeared fill the traps present b/w the interface of
semiconductor and insulator, and then conduction is started by the remaining charge carriers.
To compensate these filled trapped states, gate voltage greater than threshold voltage is applied.
This is the reason of negative threshold. With the help of this threshold other parameters can be
found.
4.5 Threshold voltage:

To investigate the effect of light on the phototransistor we can determined the
performance parameters predominantly on threshold voltage, with respect to dark transfer
curves and light transfer curve. In fig. 4.7 and 4.8 exhibit that the value of threshold voltage
without illumination and with illumination Vth = -2.17 V and Vth = -3.54 respectively.

5
Vd= -40V
|Id1/2| (mA1/2)
3
Vth= -2.17 V
1
-40 -20 0
Vg (V)
Figure 4. 7 Transfer curve of transistor with base threshold under dark
7
Vd= -40V
6
|-Id1/2| (mA1/2)
4 Vth= -3.54 V
-40 -20 0
Vg (V)
Figure 4. 8 Transfer curve of transistor with base threshold under light.
Table 4. 1: Comparison of threshold voltage b/w dark and light.
Threshold voltage Threshold voltage Intensity µW/cm2

under dark under light
-2.17 V -3.54 V 146

4.6. Transistor response to illumination:

We can calculate the threshold voltage and other parameters of the transistors after
calculating the transfer curves and output curves in the light and without light exposure. After
that we calculate the shift in threshold voltage and other parameters related to the illumination
in the transistor. We can examine or calculate the OPT for various value of intensity of
exposure.
4.6.1 Effects of illumination:

The electrical properties of the device are very affected by the illumination [55]. The
main steps are present in illumination for the transistor is given by.
o Light having energy equal to or greater than band gap of material will be absorbed by the material,
and this absorption of light will result in creation of excitons.
o With the presence of electric field the low binding excitons are then separated into holes
and electrons which are proportional to the applied voltage of drain Vd.
The electrons and holes in the p-type and n-type polymer filled out the states of trapping and
after these trapped carriers increase the conduction through the source to drain increase the
conduction through the source to drain[56-57-58-59-60].
4.7 Photo response of transistor:

There are two main factors after illumination to recover to its initial state.[61]. The
essential parameters of phototransistors are response time. Now in our phototransistors shows
the good photoresponse under the illumination with the value of intensity is (58.4µW/cm2).
Figure 4.9 showed our phototransistor. This shows that it is possible due to slow recombination
rate after turning off the illuminations [61]. The photo response curve of phototransistor can be
plotted between time and drain current Id. This graph’s horizontal values expressed time in
seconds while vertical expressed in “mili Ampere,s” Fig. 4.9 shows the photo response at Vd =
-5V and Vg = 0V.

Vd= -5 V
0.8 on Vg= 0 V
0.7 Intensity = 58.4 uW/cm2
0.6
|-Ids1/2|(mA1/2)
0.5 off
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time(sec)
Figure 4. 9 Photo response of transistor at Vg= 0V, Vd= -5V.
Fig. 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13 are also showing the photoresponse of the transistor at same intensity
of 146µW/cm2. Fig.4.11 Results calculate at the Vg= -10V, Vd= -80V while fig 4.12 results
can be calculated at Vg= -40V, Vd= -80V and fig 4.13 results at Vg= -80V, Vd= -80V. All the
curves showed discrete values. We observe the comparison between three photoresponse at
same intensity but different voltages. The results obtained from the curve shown in fig 4.13
are much better than the results obtained from curves in fig 4.11 and fig 4.12.

Comparison of photresponse with different drain voltages and same gain

voltage at intensity of 146µW/cm2
1.4
Vd=-10 V
Vg=-80 V
1.2
Intensity =146 uW/cm2
|-Ids1/2|(mA1/2)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
100 150 200 250 300
Time(sec)
Figure 4. 10 Photo response of transistor at Vg= -10V, Vd= -80V.
2.4 Vd= -40 V

Vg= -80 V
2.2 Intensity= 146uW/cm2
2.0
|Ids1/2|(mA1/2)
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
100 150 200 250 300

Time(sec)

Vd= -80 V
3.0 Vg= -80 V

Intensity = 146uW/cm2
2.5
|-Ids1/2|(mA1/2) 2.0
1.5
1.0
100 150 200 250 300 350

Time(sec)
Vd=-10V, Vg=-80V
3.0 Vd=-40V, Vg=-80V
Vd=-80V, Vg=-80V
2.5
|-Id1/2| (mA1/2)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
100 150 200 250 300
Time (sec)
Figure 4. 13 Several curves of photoresponse of transistor in one graph at same intensity

From the curve plotted between drain current and time for photoresponse of transistor
it is extracted that, at same intensity of light 146µW/cm2 and gate voltage -80V, the maximum
drain current obtained is 3mA1/2, 2.5mA1/2, 1.5mA1/2 when drain voltage applied was -80V, -
40V, -10V respectively and repeated pulses are obtained with a small difference in peak values
of drain current. This change is occurred due to increase in temperature, because the resistance
may vary and hence, this is the main cause of change in the current. As new pulse of light is
introduced then almost same behavior is seen for different values of time. It is also seen from
above curves that the drain current starts decreasing at first and then it suddenly increased to its
peak value and then decrease for short interval of time and then suddenly reaches to its lowest
value and so on. The same trend is seen in above three curves. But for each curve the initial
value of drain current is not same. This starting value depends on the drain voltage. For greater
value of drain voltage, the large value of starting and peak value of drain current is seen. It is
also seen in the above curves that, at the end of each pulse the drain current decreases non
linearly and reaches at its lowest value and then suddenly reaches to its peak value.
4.8 Ion/Ioff current ratio:

The ratio between two currents value one is on drain current and second is off drain
current. The black curve in this graph expressed in log scale of Id while the blue curve expressed
in scale of square root of Id. When gate voltage is maximum then the period is called Ion and
when Vgs= 0V the value is Ioff. High performance phototransistor need to the large value of
current on/off. These graph values can be calculated by the transfer characteristics curve under
dark and illumination curve.
Table 4. 2: Comparison of on/off current ratio b/w dark and light.
On current Off current Current ratio (on/off)
Under dark 4.40×10-5 2.87×10-7 0.15×103
Under illumination 6.67×10-5 1.026×10-5 0.0065×103

8
Vd= -40V
Vd= -40V 7
on current
6
10-5
(mA1/2)
|-Id|(A)
1/2
Id
10-6 3
off current
2
10-7 0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
Vg (V)
Figure 4. 14 On/Off current ratio under dark
9
Vd= -40V
Vd= -40V 8
on current
7
Id1/2 (mA1/2)
|-Id| (A)
off current 5
10-5
4
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
Vg (V)
Figure 4. 15 On/Off current ratio under illumination.

4.9 Effects of exposure on mobility:

The mobility is one of the important parameters of the transistors. There are various
techniques used for the extraction of mobility. The mobility value in the region of saturations
and linear are given by the equation is,
2
2𝐿𝑐ℎ 𝜕√|𝐼𝐷𝑆 |
𝜇𝑆𝑎𝑡 = ( )
𝐶𝑖 𝑊𝑐ℎ 𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐿𝑐ℎ 1 𝜕√|𝐼𝐷𝑆 |
𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑛 = ( )( )
𝑊𝑐ℎ 𝐶𝑖 𝐷 𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆
Here Wch and Lch are the width and length of the channel; and Cox is the insulating capacitance.
8 8
(a) mobility under dark (b) mobility under dark
7 Vd=-40 V 7 Vd=-40 V
6 6
|-Id1/2| (mA1/2)
|-Id1/2| (mA1/2)
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 -80 -60 -40 -20 0

Vg (V) Vg (V)
8
(c) mobility under dark
7 Vd=-40 V
6
|-Id1/2| (mA1/2)
-80 -60 -40 -20 0

Vg (V)
under dark.

Transfer curves have the slopes different slopes in the higher and lower Vg regions, and also
with single slope fit for comparisons. Without illumination and with illumination the mobility
of the transistor shown in table below:
After illuminating process the transistors with intensity 58.4µW/cm2. The value of mobility at
different regions is given in table (table 4.2).
9 9
a mobility under light b mobility under light
Vd=-40 V Vd=-40 V
8 8
|-Id1/2| (mA1/2)
|-Id1/2| (mA1/2)
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 -80 -60 -40 -20 0
Vg (V) Vg (V)
c 9
mobility under light
8
Vd=-40 V
Id1/2 (mA1/2)
-80 -60 -40 -20 0

Vg (V)
Figure 4. 17 mobility (a) lower slope region, (b) high slope region, and (c) single slop
region under light

Table 4. 3: Variation of mobility in saturation region.
Mobility Under dark Mobility Under illumination Intensity of light

(µW/cm2)
𝜇 sat (higher 0.049cm2/V.s 𝜇 sat (higher 0.007cm2/V.s 146
slope region) slope region)
𝜇 sat (lower 0.089cm2/V.s 𝜇 sat (lower 0.046cm2/V.s 146
slope region) slope region)
𝜇 sat (single 0.057cm2/V.s 𝜇 sat (single 0.022cm2/V.s 146
slope) slope)
4.10 DPPDTT: PCBM Phototransistor parameters:
Photosensitivity (P):
The formula of the photosensitivity is given by,

𝑷= =
𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌
The formula to calculate photosensitivity is given in above equation. Idark and Iill are the
drain current in dark and under illumination respectively.
As shown in the graph that photosensitivity (P) is decreased by increasing gate voltage. after
that it start to decreasing for the higher value of Vg because the reason behind that actually
the ratio of photo current over the dark current. at very low value of gate voltage channel was
not induced in the transistors and hence the current due to injected carries was low and
photogene rated was dominant in the phototransistor [62].

35
30
Photosensitivity
P= 34
Photosensitivity (P)
25
20
15
10
-80 -60 -40 -20 0

Vg (V)
Figure 4. 18 Trend of photosensitivity with gate voltage.
Photoresponsivity (R):
The formula of the Photoresponsivity is given by,

𝑹= =
𝑷𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝑷𝒊𝒍𝒍
𝐼𝑝ℎ = photo current , 𝐼𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = drain current under illumination
𝑰𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒌 = Dark Current , 𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑙 = Illumination (incident)
Figure 4.19 at low value of gate voltages responsivity is increasing. With the increasing
of gate voltage the transport of carriers in the channel and photo-generation which leads to
enhanced the higher responsivity (R) at Vg =-47 V and the calculated higher photoresposivity
is R = 4.13×10-5(AW-1) Here R is the ratio of photo current and optical power. And optical
power Pill is the product of optical intensity and area of the channel. Figure 4.19 represent the
photoresponsivity exhibited by our transistors. In this graph the gate voltage is increased, the
responsivty is decreased at low intensity and then the responsivity constant. It is due to the
photocurrent which is greater than the dark current. The decreased in responsivity is due to
variation in the concentration of holes and electrons

4.5x10-5
4.0x10-5
Photoresponsivity (R) AW-1
3.5x10-5
3.0x10-5
2.5x10-5
Photoresponsivity
-1
4.13´10-5(AW )
2.0x10-5
1.5x10-5
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
Vg (V)
Figure 4. 19 Trend of photoresponsitivity with gate voltage.

Chapter 4 Conclusions
Conclusion

Chapter 4 Conclusions
Conclusion
In this work, we have fabricated and characterized bottom-gate top-contact solution processed
organic phototransistor based on a narrow band gap polymer DPPDTT and PCBM blend. For
the channel, the organic material (DPPDTT:PCBM) was deposited onto highly doped silicon
(Si++) substrate with pre-grown silicon nitride (Si3N4) by spin coating technique, while for
the deposition of contacts, gold (Au) and molybdenum oxide (MoO3) were deposited through
thermal evaporation by using shadow mask. The polymer of DPPDTT acted as a p-type while
the PCBM acted as n-type. The I-V characteristics of the device were investigated under dark
and illumination. The resulted OPT showed dominantly p-type response. It was due to the
ambient conditions that restricted the electron transport in the blend film. . The device showed
the variation in photosensitivity (P) on/off ratio, mobility, threshold voltage and Responsivity
(R) under dark and various illumination intensities. The maximum values of P and R were
measured 34 and 4.13 x 10-5 AW-1 corresponding to the intensity values of 58.4uW/cm2 and
146uW/cm2 respectively at Vg= -12.5V. The calculated mobility was 0.049 cm2/V s and 0.007
cm2/V s under dark and light respectively. Threshold voltage (Vth) is -2.17 and 3.54 under dark
and light respectively. The on/off ratio of the device was measured 0.15×10 3 and 0.0065×103
under dark and illumination.

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Photoresponse of Organic Phototransistor based on

Master of Philosophy (M.Phil)

Solid State Physics

Roll No. M.PHIL-SSPR26S18

Academic Session: 2017- 2019

Centre of Excellence in Solid State Physics

UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, QUAID-E-AZAM CAMPUS

A thesis submitted to the University of the Punjab in the partial

Master of Philosophy (M.Phil)

Roll No. M.PHIL-SSPR26S18

Centre of Excellence in Solid State Physics

UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB LAHORE

M.PHIL Thesis Page i

I ask you for knowledge that is benefit”

M.PHIL Thesis Page ii

This thesis has been dedicated to my heaven, I

And to the fragment of this heaven “My brothers.”

M.PHIL Thesis Page iii

M.PHIL Thesis Page iv

M.PHIL Thesis Page v

M.PHIL Thesis Page vi

M.PHIL Thesis Page vii

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M.PHIL Thesis Page ix

Table 4. 1: Comparison of threshold voltage b/w dark and light. ............................................62

M.PHIL Thesis Page x

Figure 1. 1 Types of semiconductor devices..............................................................................3

M.PHIL Thesis Page xi

Figure 3. 1 Spin coating technique with all major steps. .........................................................48

Figure 4. 1 Schematic of highly doped silicon substrate .........................................................57

M.PHIL Thesis Page xii

M.PHIL Thesis Page 1

1.1. Types of organic materials according to conductivity:

 Organic Semiconductors (OS)  Organic Dielectrics (ODs)

M.PHIL Thesis Page 2

1.1.1. Organic Semiconductors (OSCs):

Figure 1. 1 Types of semiconductor devices

1.1.1.1. ℼ-conjugated Organic semiconductor:

M.PHIL Thesis Page 3

i. Make the substance soluble in organic solutions.

Figure 1. 2 π-conjugated polymers. Adopted from “Designing ℼ-

M.PHIL Thesis Page 4

Figure 1. 3 Polypropylene: homo- polymer type structural form.

Figure 1. 4 Hetro-polymer structural form (Acrylic acid-2-

M.PHIL Thesis Page 5

Figure 1. 5 Small molecule.

1.1.1.2. Types of organic semiconductor

1) Organic semiconductors in P-type:

M.PHIL Thesis Page 6

Figure 1. 6 N-type or P-type Organic materials

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Table 1. 1: N-type and P-type performance:

Comparisons between N-type and P-type performances:

N-type Performance: P-type performance:

Poor mobility (~10-2 cm2/Vs) High mobility (>1.0 cm2/Vs)

Poor air-stable (tested in N2) Good air-stable

No soluble / printable Full printed transistors

1.1.2. Organic Conductors (OCs):

Figure 1. 7 Some organic conductors (a) polypyrrole, (b) polyaniline and

M.PHIL Thesis Page 8

1.1.3. Organic Dielectrics (ODs):

Properties of Organic Dielectrics: