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EE6703 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES LT P C

3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVES:
✓ To impart knowledge on Construction, principle of operation and performance of
synchronous reluctance motors.
✓ To impart knowledge on the Construction, principle of operation, control and performance of
stepping motors.
switched reluctance motors.
permanent magnet brushless D.C. motors.
✓ To impart knowledge on the Construction, principle of operation and performance of
permanent magnet synchronous motors.
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UNIT I SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS 9
Constructional features – Types – Axial and Radial flux motors – Operating principles – Variable
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Reluctance Motors – Voltage and Torque Equations - Phasor diagram - performance characteristics –
Applications
UNIT II STEPPER MOTORS
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Constructional features – Principle of operation – Variable reluctance motor – Hybrid motor – Single and
multi stack configurations – Torque equations – Modes of excitation – Characteristics – Drive circuits –
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Microprocessor control of stepper motors – Closed loop control-Concept of lead angle– Applications.
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UNIT III SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS (SRM) 9
Constructional features – Rotary and Linear SRM - Principle of operation – Torque production – Steady
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state performance prediction- Analytical method -Power Converters and their controllers –78 Methods of
Rotor position sensing – Sensor less operation – Characteristics and Closed loop control
UNIT IV PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS D.C. MOTORS
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Permanent Magnet materials – Minor hysteresis loop and recoil line-Magnetic Characteristics – Permeance
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coefficient -Principle of operation – Types – Magnetic circuit analysis – EMF and torque equations –
Commutation - Power Converter Circuits and their controllers – Motor characteristics and control–
Applications.
UNIT V PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS (PMSM)
et 9
Principle of operation – Ideal PMSM – EMF and Torque equations – Armature MMF – Synchronous
Reactance – Sine wave motor with practical windings - Phasor diagram – Torque/speed characteristics -
Power controllers - Converter Volt-ampere requirements– Applications. TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Ability to model and analyze electrical apparatus and their application to power system
TEXT BOOKS:
K.Venkataratnam, ‘Special Electrical Machines’, Universities Press (India) Private Limited, 2008. 2. T.J.E.
Miller, ‘Brushless Permanent Magnet and Reluctance Motor Drives’, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989. 3. T.
Kenjo, ‘Stepping Motors and Their Microprocessor Controls’, Clarendon Press London, 1984.
REFERENCES:
ii

1. R.Krishnan, ‘Switched Reluctance Motor Drives – Modeling, Simulation, Analysis, Design and
Application’, CRC Press, New York, 2001.
2. P.P. Aearnley, ‘Stepping Motors – A Guide to Motor Theory and Practice’, Peter Perengrinus London,
1982.
3. T. Kenjo and S. Nagamori, ‘Permanent Magnet and Brushless DC Motors’, Clarendon Press, London,
1988.
4. E.G. Janardanan, ‘Special electrical machines’, PHI learning Private Limited, Delhi, 2014.
EE6703 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

1. Aim and Objective of the Subject
OBJECTIVES:
✓ To impart knowledge on Construction, principle of operation and performance of
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synchronous reluctance motors.
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stepping motors.
switched reluctance motors.
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permanent magnet brushless D.C. motors.
✓ To impart knowledge on the Construction, principle of operation and performance of
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permanent magnet synchronous motors.
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2. Need and Importance for Study of the Subject:
➢ To understand the special electrical machines and its dynamic responses.
➢ To review the role of power electronics in modern special machines.
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➢ To analyze and evaluate the feasibility of switching controllers for the closed loop control.
3. Course outcomes:
At the end of the semester students will be able to g.n
➢ Identify and differentiate various electrical machines.
➢ Know the operation of stepper motor to implement for robotic applications.
➢ Know the various operating modes SRM.
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➢ Know the operation of conventional DC and BLDC.
4. Industry Connectivity and Latest Developments
Industry Connectivity:
➢ The following companies (Industries) are connectivity to FACTS: Power plants, Textile industries,
Paper mills, Spinning mills.
5. Latest Developments:
➢ Revolution of power electronics makes machines faster, and sharper.
➢ Robotics and machinery industries using special electrical machines.
iii

LESSON PLAN: EE6703 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Sl.no Unit Topic Name No.of Cumulative
Books
No Hours Hours
Referred
Required
Constructional features 1 1 T1
1.
Types 1 2 T1
2.
Axial and Radial flux motors 1 3 T1
3.
Operating Principles 1 4 T1
4.
UNIT I
Variable Reluctance 1 5 T1
5.
Hybrid motors 1 6 T1
6.
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7. SYNREL motors 1 7 T1
8.
9.
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Phasor diagram, Charactristcs

1
1
8
9
T1
T1
10. asy
Constructional Features 2 10 T2
11.
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Principle of operation 1 11 T2
12.
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Variable Reluctance motor 2 12 T2
13.
Hybrid Motors
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13 T2
UNIT II
Single and Multi stack Configurations 1 14 T2

14.
15. Torque Equation 1

g.n 15 T2
16.
17.
Modes of Excitation
Characteristics and Drive circuits

1
1
et 16
17
T2
T2
Microprocessor control of stepping motor

1 18 T2
18. Closed Loop Control
19. Constructional features 1 19 R1

UNIT III
20. Rotary and Linear SRMs 1 20 R1
21. Principle of operation and Torque Production 1 21 R1
22. Steady state performance 1 22 R1
iv

23. Power converters and their controllers 1 23 R1
24. Methods of Rotor position sensing (optical) 1 24 R1
25. Methods of Rotor position sensing (hall) 1 25 R1
Sensorless operation 1 R1
26. 26
27. Closed loop control of SRM Characteristics 1 27 R1
28. Permanent Magnet Materials 1 28 T1
29. Magnetic Characteristics 1 29 T1
30. Permeance coefficient 1 30 T1
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31. Principle of operation 1 31 T1
UNIT IV
32. Types 1 32 T1
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33. Magnetic circuit analysis 1 33 T1
34.
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EMF and Torque equations 1 34 T1
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35. Commutation 1 35 T1
Power controllers ,Motor Characteristics and

36. control
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37.
38.
Principle of operation
Ideal PMSM
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1
37
38
T1
T1
39. EMF nad Torque equations 1

g.n 39 T1
40. Armature reaction MMF 1

et 40 T1
UNIT V
41. Synchronous Reactance 1 41 T1
42. Sine wave motor with practical windings 1 42 T1
43 Phasor Diagram 1 43 T1
44 Torque/Speed Characteristics 1 44 T1
Controllers, Converters and ampere

45 1 45 T1
requirements

INDEX
PAGE
UNIT Q.NO TITLE
NO
1 - 14 PART A 1
PART B
1 Constructional features of Synchronous Reluctance Motor 3
Distinguish between axial and radial airgap motors
I 2 8
Working principle of Synchronous reluctance motor
3 Torque speed characteristics of synchronous reluctance motor 9
4 Steady state phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance motor 10
5 Constructional features of Vernier motor 12
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1 - 14 PART A
PART B
15
II w.E
1
2
3
Construction and various modes of excitation of VR stepper motor
Torque equation of Stepper Motor
Operation of Hybrid stepper motor
16
19
23
4
5 asy
Characteristics of stepper motor
Operation of driver system and control circuitry for stepper motor
24
26
1 - 14
En PART A
PART B
30
1
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Construction and operation of SRM wit neat diagram
Derive the voltage and torque equation of SRM
33
III
2
3
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Torque-speed characteristics of SRM with neat sketch
Closed loop control analysis of SRM
Sensor-less operation of SRM
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39
43
4
5
Microprocessor based control of SR motor drives
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Various converter topologies for a three phase SRM with merits and
45
47
1 - 14
1
demerits of each
PART A
PART B
Construction and operating principles of PMBLDC
et 59
60
Comparision the Electronic commutator and Mechanical
2 63
commutator
IV BLDC motor with 1800 magnet arcs and 1200 square – wave phase
3 64
currents
BLDC Motor With 120o Magnet Arc And 180o Square Wave Phase
4 69
Currents
Power controller for BLPM SQW DC Motor
5 73
Torque equation of PMBLDC and its characteristics
1 - 14 PART A 82
V
PART B
vi

1 Construction and principle of operation of PMSM 83

Torque equation of blpm sine wave motor Ampere conductor
2 87
density distribution
3 Torque-speed characteristics 89
4 Concept of vector control of blpm snw motor 91
Self control of PMSM
5 93
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UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION
1. What is synchronous reluctance motor?(May/June 12)

A reluctance motor is a type of synchronous electric motor which induces non-permanent
magnetic poles on the ferromagnetic rotor. Torque is generated through the phenomenon of
magnetic reluctance. The stator consists of multiple salient (i.e. projecting) electromagnet poles,
similar to a wound field brushed DC motor. The rotor consists of soft magnetic material, such as
laminated silicon steel, which has multiple projections acting as salient magnetic poles through
magnetic reluctance. The number of rotor poles is typically less than the number of stator poles,
which minimizes torque ripple and prevents the poles from all aligning simultaneously a position
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which cannot generate torque.
2. Define the characteristics of synchronous reluctance motor.
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The synchronous reluctance motor is not self starting without the squirrel cage. During run up
it behaves as an induction motor but as it approaches synchronous speed, the reluctance torque takes
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over and the motor locks into synchronous speed.
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3. Write the applications of syrm.(Nov/Dec 12)
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Used where regulated speed control is required in applications such as metering pumps and
industrial process equipment.
➢ Axially laminated
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4. What are the classifications of syrm? (May/June 13, April/May 17)
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➢ Radially laminated
5. What are the primary design considerations of syrm? (Nov/Dec 12) g.n
➢ High o/p power capability
➢ Ability of the rotor to withstand high speed.
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➢
High reliability
➢ Low cost
➢ High efficiency
6. Define power factor of syrm
PF max=(Ld/Lq-1)/(Ld/Lq+1)
Higher Ld/Lq ratios yield higher power factors, which corresponds to reduced I^2R losses and

reduce volt ampere ratings of the inverter driving the machine.

7. What are the applications of the torque – speed characteristics of syrm?
➢ Comparable power density but better efficiency than induction motor
➢ Slightly lower power factor
➢ Sensor less control is much easier due to motor saliency.
8. What are advantages of syrm over pm machine?
➢ More reliable than PM machine
➢ There need not be any excitation field as torque is zero, thus eliminating electromagnetic
spinning losses.
9. What are applications of syrm? (Dec 2016, April 2017)
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➢ Synthetic fiber manufacturing equipment
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➢
Wrapping and folding machine
➢
Auxiliary time mechanism
➢ Synchronized conveyors
➢ Metering pumps asy
10. What is vernier motor? En
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It is an unexcited reluctance type sync.motor.the peculiar feature of this motor is that a small
permeance. ee
displacement of the rotor produces a large displacement of the axis of maximum and minimum
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UNIT I
SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS
1. Explain the constructional features of Synchronous Reluctance Motor.(Nov/Dec 12, Dec 16,
April 17)
The structure of reluctance motor is same as that of salient pole synchronous machine as shown in
fig. The rotor does not have any field winding .The stator has three phase symmetrical winding,
which creates sinusoidal rotating magnetic field in the air gap, and the reluctance torque is
developed because the induced magnetic field in the rotor has a tendency to cause the rotor to align
with the stator field at a minimum reluctance position
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Fig. Idealized Three Phase Four Pole Synchronous Machine (Salient Pole)
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Fig . Cross Section of Synchronous Reluctance Motor.
The rotor of the modern reluctance machine is designed with iron laminations in the axial direction
separated by non-magnetic material. The performance of the reluctance motor may approach that of
induction machine. With high saliency ratio a power factor oh 0.8 can be reached. The efficiency of
a reluctance machine may be higher than an induction motor because there is no rotor copper loss.
3

Because of inherent simplicity, robustness of construction and low cost. The synchronous
reluctance motor has no synchronous starting torque and runs up from stand still by induction
action. There is an auxiliary starting winding. This has increased the pull out torque, the power
factor and the efficiency. Synchronous reluctance motor is designed for high power applications. It
can broadly be classified into
➢ Axially laminated and
➢ Radially laminated.
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Fig. Cross section of axially laminated
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Reluctance motors can deliver very high power density at low cost, making them ideal for
many applications. Disadvantages are high torque ripple (the difference between maximum and
minimum torque during one revolution) when operated at low speed, and noise caused by torque
ripple. Until the early twenty-first century their use was limited by the complexity of designing and
controlling them. These challenges are being overcome by advances in the theory, by the use of
sophisticated computer design tools, and by the use of low-cost embedded systems for control,
typically based on microcontrollers using control algorithms and real-time computing to tailor drive
waveforms according to rotor position and current or voltage feedback. Before the development of
4

large-scale integrated circuits the control electronics would have been prohibitively costly.
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Fig. Cross section of radially laminated
The stator consists of multiple projecting (salient) electromagnet poles, similar to a wound field
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brushed DC motor. The rotor consists of soft magnetic material, such as laminated silicon steel,
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which has multiple projections acting as salient magnetic poles through magnetic reluctance. The
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number of rotor poles is typically less than the number of stator poles, which minimizes torque
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ripple and prevents the poles from all aligning simultaneously—a position which cannot generate
torque.When a rotor pole is equidistant from the two adjacent stator poles, the rotor pole is said to
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be in the "fully unaligned position". This is the position of maximum magnetic reluctance for the
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rotor pole. In the "aligned position", two (or more) rotor poles are fully aligned with two (or more)
stator poles, (which mean the rotor poles completely face the stator poles) and is a position of
minimum reluctance.When a stator pole is energized, the rotor torque is in the direction that will
reduce reluctance. Thus the nearest rotor pole is pulled from the unaligned position into alignment
with the stator field (a position of less reluctance). (This is the same effect used by a solenoid, or
when picking up ferromagnetic metal with a magnet.) In order to sustain rotation, the stator field
must rotate in advance of the rotor poles, thus constantly "pulling" the rotor along. Some motor
variants will run on 3-phase AC power (see the synchronous reluctance variant below).

ROTOR DESIGN
Salient rotor (Segmental)
Salient rotor shape such that the quadrature air gap is much larger than the direct air gap. This
yields reactively small Ld/Lqrations in the range of 2.3.
Fig. Salient rotor
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Salient rotor design is as shown. The low Ld. /Lqratios are largely the result of circulating flux in the
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pole faces of the rotor. However the ruggedness and simplicity of the rotor structure has encouraged
for high speed applications.
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Radially Laminated Rotor (Flux Barrier)
Another approach is to use laminations with flux barriers punched into the steel for a 4 pole
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machine. The flux barriers and the central hole of the lamination required for the shaft weaken the
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rotor structurally and thus make this approach a poor choice for high speed design.
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Fig. Radially Laminated Rotor
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Axially Laminated Rotor
Fig. Axially Laminated Rotor

Two pole phase axially laminated rotor with a Ld. /Lqratio of 20, the maximum efficiency is 94%
6

has been reported in the literature. It is observed that torque ripple and iron losses are more axially
laminated rotor than radially laminated rotor. Another rotor design as shown in fig. The rotor
consists of alternating layers of ferromagnetic and non-magnetic steel. If choose the thickness of the
steel such that the pitch of the ferromagnetic rotor segments matched the slot pitch of the stator.
Fig. New rotor design
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Special rotor laminations make it possible to produce the same number of reluctance path as there
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are magnetic poles in the stator. Synchronous speed is achieved as the poles lock in step with
magnetic poles of the rotating stator field and cause the stator to run at the same speed as the
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rotating fields. The rotor is pressures with end rings similar to induction motor .Stator winding are
similar to squirrel cage induction motor.
ROTOR CONSTRUCTION En
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Explosion bonding technique as shown in fig. Other joining techniques such as brazing roll
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bonding, or diffusion bonding may also appropriate for rotor construction. First sheets of
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ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic steel are bonded. The bonded sheets are then cut into
rectangular blocks h\which are machined into the desired rotor. The rotor shaft can also be
machined out of the same block as the rotor. g.n
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Fig. Explosion bonding
The rotor joining technique known as explosion bonding. Explosion bonding uses explosive
energy to force two or more metal sheets together at high pressures. Conventionally the high
pressure causes several atomic layers on the surface of each sheet to behave as a fluid. The angle of
collision between the two metals forces this fluid to jet outward. Effectively cleaning the metal
7

surface, these ultra clean surfaces along with the high pressure forcing the metal plates together
provide the necessary condition for solid phase welding. Experimental tests on a stainless steel/mild
steel bond indicate that the tensile and fatigue strengths of the bond are greater than those of either
of the component materials due to the shock hardening which occurs during the process. The bond
was also subjected to 10 cycles of temperature variation from 20° C - 70°C, with no significant
reduction in tensile strength.
2. a) Distinguish between axial and radial airgap motors.(May/June 13)
b) Explain the working principle of Synchronous reluctance motor.
S.No Axial air gap motors Radial air gap motors
1. Low speed applications High speed applications
2.
wwLamination is axial Lamination is radial
3.
4. w.E
Less mechanical strength
The axially laminated rotor in general
More mechanical strength
The radially laminated rotor has the best
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gives the best performance. But the potential for economic production.
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mass production difficulties with
folding and assembling the
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laminations make its adoption by
industry unlikely.
WORKING OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR ee rin
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When a piece of magnetic material is located in a magnetic field, a force acts on the material
tending to bring it into the desert portion of the field. The force tends to align the specimen of the
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material in such a way that the reluctance of the magnetic path that passes through the material will
be minimum. When supply is given to the stator winding, the revolving magnetic field will exert
reluctance torque on the unsymmetrical rotor tending to align the salient pole axis of the rotor with
the axis of the revolving magnetic field, because in this position, the reluctance of the magnetic path
would be minimum. If the reluctance torque is sufficient to start the motor and its load, the rotor
will pull into step with the revolving field and continue to run at the speed of the revolving field.
Actually the motor starts as an induction motor and after it has reached its maximum speed as an
induction motor, the reluctance torque pulls its rotor into step with the revolving field, motor now
runs as synchronous motor by virtue of its saliency.
8

Reluctance motors have approximately one third the HP rating they would have as induction motors
with cylindrical rotors. Although the ratio may be increased to 9one half by proper design of the
field windings, power factor and efficiency are poorer than for the equivalent induction motor.
Reluctance motors are subject to cogging, since the locked rotor torque varies with the rotor
position, but the effect may be minimized by skewing the rotor bars and by not having the number
of poles.
ww Fig. Rotor Position due to Revolving Magnetic Field
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3. Explain the torque speed characteristics of synchronous reluctance motor.(May/June 12)
The torque speed characteristic of synchronous reluctance motor is shown in fig. The motor
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starts at anywhere from 300 to 400 percent of its full load torque (depending on the rotor position of
the unsymmetrical rotor with respect to the field winding) as a two phase motor. As a result of the
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magnetic rotating field created by a starting and running winding displaced 90° in both space and
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time. At about ¾th of the synchronous speed a centrifugal switch opens the starting winding and the
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motor continues to develop a single phase torque produced by its running winding only. As it
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approaches synchronous speed, the reluctance torque is sufficient to pull the rotor into synchronism
with the pulsating single phase field. The motor operates at constant speed up to a little over 20% of
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its full load torque. If it is loaded beyond the value of pull out torque, it will continue to operate as a
single phase induction motor up to 500% of its rated speed.
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Application Characteristics:
Comparable power density but better efficiency than induction motor.
Slightly lower power factor than induction motor.
Slightly small field weakening range than induction motor.
High cost than induction motor but lower than any type of PM motors.
Need speed synchronization to inverter out frequency by rotor position sensor sensor less
control.
Sensor less control is much easier due to motor saliency.
By adding squirrel cage induction motor to synchronous reluctance motor one obtains line
starting reluctance moors.
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Line started reluctance motors can be parallel with open loop control if the load does not
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change suddenly.
4. Draw the steady state phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance motor.( May/June 13, Dec
2016, April 2017)
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The synchronous reluctance machine is considered as a balanced three phase circuit, it is
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sufficient to draw the phasor diagram for only one phase. The basic voltage equation neglecting the
effect of resistance is
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Fig. Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Reluctance Motor
V = E – j IsdXsd – j Isq Xsq …………(1.1)
V is the Supply Voltage
Is is the stator current
E is the excitation emf
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Ȣ is the load angle

Φ is the phase angle
Xsd and Xsq are the synchronous reactance of direct and quadrature axis
Isd and Isq are the direct and quadrature axis current
I = Isd + Isq…………….(1.2)
Isd is in phase quadrtur with E and Isq is in phase with E.
V = E – j IsdXsd – j IsqXsq From phasor diagram
V cosȢ = E + Isd Xsd ………………(1.3)
Isd = ( V cosȢ - E ) / Xsd
IsqXsq = V sinȢ
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Isq = V sinȢ / Xsq ………………..(1.4)
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Is cos Φ = Isq cosȢ - Isd sinȢ……………(1.5)
Where
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Xsd and Xsq are synchronous reactance of d and q axis.
Sub (3) and (4) in Equ (5)
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Is cos Φ = ( E sinȢ / Xsd ) + V ( Xsd - Xsq ) / 2 Xsd Xsq …………………(1.6)
P = 3 V Is cos Φ ………………….(1.7)
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Sub equ (6) in equ (7)
Pm = T ωs
T = Pm / ωs
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Sub E = 0 g.n
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T = 3 / ωs V2 ( ( Xsd - Xsq ) / 2 Xsd Xsq ) sin2Ȣ -------------- ( 1.8 ).
Fig. Torque Angle Characteristics of Salient Pole Machine

11

5. Explain the constructional features of Vernier motor.

A Vernier motor is an unexcited (or reluctance Type) inductor synchronous motor. It is also
named because it operates on the principle of a vernier. The peculiar feature of this kind of motor is
that a small displacement of the rotor produces a large displacement of the axes of maximum and
minimum permeance. When a rotating magnetic field is introduced in the air gap of the machine,
rotor will rotate slowly and at a definite fraction of the speed of the rotating field.This rotating field
can be produced either by feeding poly phase current to the stator winding or by exciting the stator
coil groups in sequence. AS the rotor speed steps down from the speed of the rotating field, the
motor torque steps up. A vernier motor works as an electric gearing. This kind of motor is attractive
in applications which require low speed and high torque and where mechanical gearing is
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undesirable.
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The stator of a vernier motor has slots and a distributed winding just like the stator of an
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ordinary poly phase induction motor. The rotor is a slotted iron core without winding. A 2 – pole
machine with 12 stator slots and 10 rotor slots.
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Fig. Vernier motor
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The stator and rotor teeth are facing each other in the vertical axis. The stator teeth are facing
rotor slots in the horizontal axis. At this position therefore, the maximum permeance is along the
vertical axis and the minimum permeance is along the horizontal axis. When then rotor is rotated
one half of its slot pitch, the rotor slots will face stator teeth in the vertical axis. The rotor and stator
teeth will face each other in the horizontal axis. The axis of maximum permeance is now horizontal
and the axis of minimum permeance is now vertical. Thus the rotor movement of one –half rotor
slot pitch results in a 90 degree displacement of the permeance axis.
12

Suppose that a magnetic field is rotating in the machine. Whenever the rotating field rotates 90
degrees, the rotor will rotate one half of its slot pitch. When the rotating field completes one
revolution, the rotor will rotate through an angle corresponding to two rotor slot pitches.
Air – Gap permeance Distribution
The fluxes in the air gap are assumed all in the radial direction. The permeance of air space
between stator and rotor at any location is inversely proportional to the radial length of air space at
that location. The stator and rotor slot depth are much larger in comparison with air gap length, the
permeance of airspace can be considered as zero, where stator tooth surface is facing rotor tooth
surface. The width of rectangular blocks is the widths of overlap between the stator and the rotor
teeth. These widths of overlap vary linearly from a maximum and back to a minimum. The area of
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overlap is reduced a constant amount for each successive stator tooth until a minimum is reached.
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The permeance distribution curve is not convenient to use because it cannot be represented by
simple mathematical function. When the rotor rotates, this permanence wave rotates at a much
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faster speed. Five times the rotor speed for the machine. The axes at which maximum and minimum
permeance occur are tge direct and quadrature axes respectively of the vernier motor.
Design of Vernier Motor En
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In a poly phase reluctance motor the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator mmf
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wave. Similarly in a vernier motor the air gap permeance wave should have the same number of
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poles as the stator mmf wave. When the rotor rotates through an angle corresponding to one rotor
slot pitch, the permeance wave rotates through an angle corresponding to one pole pitch. The pole
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pitch of the permeance wave is the same as the pole pitch of the stator mmf wave, because they
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have the same number of poles. Also in a reluctance machine, the speed of the permeance wave is
the speed of rotating mmf. The rotor speed is independent of the number of poles of the machine
when the speed of rotating magnetic field is reduced by increasing the number of poles of the
machine. It cannot be expected that the speed of the rotor be reduced proportionately because when
P is increased the difference between N2 and N1 should also be increased, and the electric gear
ratio is reduced in the inverse proportion. Thus the rotor speed is not affected by the number of
poles but depends on the number of rotor slots. The main step in design is to calculate the direct and
quadrature axes reactance‘s Xd and Xq.
Xd = X1 +Xad
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Xq = X1 + Xaq
Where X1 is the stator leakage reactance and Xad and Xaq are the direct and quadrature axes
reactance of armature reaction.Xad is the ratio of the fundamental component of reactive armature
voltage, produced by the mutual flux due to the fundamental direct axis component of armature
current, Similarly Xaq is the ratio of the fundamental component of reactive armature voltage
produced by the mutual flux due to the fundamental quadrature axis component of the armature
current, to its component under steady state conditions and at rated frequency.
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14

UNIT – II - STEPPER MOTORS

1. What is stepper motor? (May/June 14)
A stepper motor is a digital actuator whose input is in the form of programmed energization
of the stator windings and whose output is in the form of discrete angular rotation.
2. Define step angle. (May/June 13)
Step angle is definrd as the angle through which the motor rotates for each command pulse.it
is denoted as β. β=(Ns-Nr/Ns.Nr)360 (or)360/(mNr)
3. Define slewing
The stepper motor operates at very high speed is called slew angle.i,e (25000 steps per
sec).
ww
4. Define resolution
w.E
It is defined as the no.of steps needed to complete one revolution of the shaft. Resolution
= no . of steps /revolution
asy
5. Mention some applications of stepper motor. (April 2017)
i.floppy disc drives
ii. qurtz watch En
gin
iii. camera shutter operation
v. small tool application

vi. robotics
ee
iv. dot matrix and line printers
rin
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of stepper motor? Advantages: g.n
1. It can be driven in open loop without feedback
2. It is mechanically simple
et
3. It requires little or no maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1. Low efficiency
2. Fixed step angle
3. Limited power output
15

7. Define holding torque.(Nov/Dec 15)

Holding torque is the maximum load torque which the energized stepper motor can
withstand without slipping from equilibrium position
8. Define detent torque
Detent torque is the maximum torque which the unenergised stepper motor can withstand
without slipping. it is also known as cogging torque.
9. What is meant by full step operation?
Full step operation or single phase on mode is the one in which at a time only one phase
winding is energized, due to which one stator winding is energized and causes the rotor to rotate
some angle.
ww
10. What is meant by two phase mode of operation?
w.E
Two phase on mode is the one in which two phase windings are energized at a time, due to
which two stator windings are energized and causes the rotor to rotate through some angle.
asy Part B
1. Explain the construction and various modes of excitation of VR stepper motor.
(May/June 15, Dec 2016, April 2017)En
Construction:
gin
ee
The VR stepper motor characterized by the fact there is no permanent magnet either on
rin
the rotor or the stator. The construction of a 3-phase VR stepper motor with 6 poles on the stator
and 4-pole on the rotor as shown.
g.n
et
Fig. Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

The Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward projected even or odd
number of poles or teeth. Each and every stator poles carries a field coil an exciting coil. In case
16

of even number of poles the exciting coils of opposite poles are connected in series. The two
coils are connected such that their MMF gets added .the combination of two coils is known as
phase winding
(a).Mode 1 : One phase ON or full step operation
In this mode of operation of stepper motor only one phase is energized at any time. If
current is applied to the coils of phase ‗a‘(or) phase ‗a‘is excited, the reluctance torque causes
the rotor to run until aligns with the axis of phase a. The axis of rotor poles 1 and 3 are in
alignment with the axis of stator poles ‗A‘and ‗A‘‘. Then angle θ = 0° the magnetic reluctance
is minimized and this state provides a rest or equilibrium position to the rotor and rotor cannot
move until phase ‗a‘is energized. Next phase b is energized by turning on the semiconductor
ww
switch S2 and phase ‗a‘ is de –energized by turning off S1.Then the rotor poles 1 and 3 and 2
w.E
and 4 experience torques in opposite direction. When the rotor and stator teeth are out of
alignment in the excited phase the magnetic reluctance is large.
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
The torque experienced by 1 and 3 are in clockwise direction and that of 2 and 4 is in
counter clockwise direction. The latter is more than the former. As a result the rotor makes an
angular displacement of 30° in counterclockwise direction so that B and B‘ and 2 and 4 in
alignment. The phases are excited in sequence a, b and c the rotor turns with a step of 30° in
counter clockwise direction. The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the switching
17

sequence in which are energized and is independent of the direction of currents through the
phase winding.
S1 S2 S3 θ S1 S2 S3 θ
* - - 0 * - - 0
- * - 30 - - * 30
- - * 60 - * - 60
* - - 90 * - - 90
- * - 120 - - * 120
- - * 150 - * - 150
ww *
-
-
*
-
-
180
210
*
-
-
- *
- 180
210
w.E
*
- -
-
*
-
240
270 *
- *
-
-
-
240
270
- * - asy 300 - - * 300
- - *
En 330 - * - 330
* -
Mode II: Two Phase on Mode
-
gin
360 * - - 360
ee
In this mode two stator phases are excited simultaneously. When phases a and b are
rin
energized together, the rotor experiences torque from both phases and comes to rest in a point
g.n
mid-way between the two adjacent full step position. If the phases b and c are excited, the rotor
et
occupies a position such that angle between AA‘ axis of stator and 1-3 axis of rotor is equal to
45°.To reverse the direction of rotation switching sequence is changed a and b,a and c etc. The
main advantage of this type of operation is that torque developed by the stepper motor is more
than that due to single phase ON mode of operation.
S1 S2 S3 θ°
* * - 15 AB
- * * 45 BC
* * 75 CA
18

* * - 105 AB
- * * 135 BC
* * - 165 CA
* * - 195 AB
- * * 225 BC
* * 255 CA
* * - 285 AB
Half step Mode
Table Clockwise Rotation (CW)
ww S1
*
S2
-
S3
-
θ°
0° A
w.E *
-
*
*
-
-
15
30
AB
B
- asy * * 45 BC
-
En - * 60 C
*
* gin -
-
*
-
75
90
CA
A
*
-
ee
*
*
-
-
105
120
AB
B rin
- * * 135 BC
g.n
et
In this type of mode of operation on phase is ON for some duration and two phases are
ON during some other duration. The step angle can be reduced from 30° to 15° by exciting phase
sequence a, a+b, b,b+c, c etc. The technique of shifting excitation from one phase to another
from a to b with an intermediate step of a+b is known as half step and is used to realize smaller
steps continuous half stepping produces smoother shaft rotation.
2. Derive the Torque equation of Stepper Motor.(Nov/Dec 13)
Let
Bg=Magnetic flux density in air gap
According to ampere law,
19

-----------1
-------2
ww ------3
w.E
From 1 and 3
asy
Air gap flux,
En
_______________(4)
Overlapped Area= xω gin

Magnetic flux Φ=
Flux lingage Ψ=n Φ

ee
_______________(5)
rin
= _______________(6) g.n
Assume incremental displacement Δx during time interval Δt. Therefore ΔΨ et
* Δx _______________(7 )
Emf induced is given by,
------------------8
Work done Δ by source is,

20

_______________(9 )
For analysis purpose, coil resistance is zero.
_______________( 10)
Work done by source is coverted partly to mechanical work and rest is spent increasing the magnetic
field energy in the gap.
Increase in the gap field is given by,
ww
From equation 10 and 11
w.E
asy
Eliminating Δx from both sides, En
gin
ee rin
Now using equation 4,
g.n
On the other hand,
et
From equation 13 and 15
F=
21

Case of constant permeability:

Let
L=CoilInductance
= Flux linkage
ww
Magnetic Energy
w.E
Emf induced in coil
asy
En
gin
Work , ee rin
g.n
=I2ΔL_______________(23)
On other hand,
et
From equation 23 and 24, Mechanical work done ,
22

-----------------------(26)
Effect of Mutual Inductance:

The Induced Emf at each phases are,
Work Done by two power supply,

)
ww
On other hand,
w.E
From Equation 29 and 30,
asy
En
Hence Torque gin
. + ee rin
3. Explain the operation of Hybrid stepper motor (16)
g.n
et
Most widely used hybrid motor is the two phase type as shown in fig2.11. This model
has four poles and operates on one phase on excitation.
Fig. one-phase on operation of a two-phase hybrid motor.

23

The coil in pole 1 and that in pole 3 are connected in series consisting of phase A, and
pole 2 and 4 are for phase B. Fig shows the proce3ss of rotor journey as the winding currents are
switched in one phase ON excitation. The poles of phase A are excited the teeth of pole 1 attract
some of the rotors north poles, while the teeth of pole 3 align with rotor‘s south poles. Current is
then switched to phase B, The rotor will travel a quarter tooth pitch so that tooth alignment takes
place in 2 and 4.Next current is switched back to phase A but in opposite polarity to before, the
rotor will make another quarter tooth journey. The tooth alignment occurs in opposite magnetic
polarity to state 1. When current is switched to phase B in opposite polarity (4) Occurs as a result
ww
of quarter tooth pitch journey. The structures of two phase motor considered in fig.2.11 will not
w.E
produce force in a symmetrical manner with respect to the axis. The motor having 8 poles in the
stator shown in fig2.13 considered as the structure in which torque is generated at a symmetrical
position of surface.
asy
4. Draw and explain the characteristics of stepper motor. (16)( May/June 15, Dec 2016)
En
Stepper motor characteristics are divided into two groups
Static characteristics
gin
Dynamic characteristics
Static characteristics ee rin
It is divided into two charteristics. (i)Torque Angle curve (ii)Torque current curve
(i)Torque-Angle curve g.n
et
Torque angle curve of a step motor is shown in fig.2.32. it is seen that the Torque
increases almost sinusoid ally, with angle Θ from equilibrium.
Fig. Torque Angle
24

Holding Torque (TH)

It is the maximum load torque which the energized stepper motor can withstand without
slipping from equilibrium position. If the holding torque is exceeded, the motor suddenly slips
from the present equilibrium position and goes to the static equilibrium position.
Detent torque (TD):
It is the maximum load torque which the un-energized stepper motor can withstand
slipping. Detent torque is due to magnetism, and is therefore available only in permanent magnet
and hybrid stepper motor. It is about 5-10 % of holding torque.
Torque current curve
A typical torque curve for a stepper motor is shown in fig.. It is seen the curve is initially
ww
linear but later on its slope progressively decreases as the magnetic circuit of the motor saturates.
w.E
asy
En
gin
Dynamic characteristics
ee rin
A stepper motor is said to be operated in synchronism when there exist strictly one to one
correspondence between number of pulses applied and the number of steps through which the
motor has actually moved. There are two modes of operation. g.n
Start-Stop mode Also called as pull in curve or single stepping mode.
et
Fig . slewing mode
25

Slewing mode
In start –stop mode the stepper motor always operate in synchronism and the motor can be
started and stopped without using synchronism. In slewing mode the motor will be in
synchronism, but it cannot be started or stopped without losing synchronism. To operate the
motor in slewing mode first the motor is to be started in start stop mode and then to slewing
mode. Similarly to stop the motor operating in slewing mode, first the motor is to be brought to
the start stop mode and then stop.
Start Stop mode
Start stop mode of operation of stepper motor is shown in fig. In this second pulse is
ww
given to the stepper motor only after the rotor attained a steady or rest position due to first pulse.
w.E
asy
En
gin Fig. start stop mode
ee
The region of start-stop mode of operation depends on the operation depends on the
rin
torque developed and the stepping rate or stepping frequency of stepper motor.
5. Explain the operation of driver system and control circuitry for stepper motor (Nov/Dec
15, April 2017)
g.n
et
The stepper motor is a digital device that needs binary (digital) signals for its operation
Depending on the stator construction two or more phases have to be sequentially switched using
a master clock pulse input. The clock frequency determines the stepping rate, and hence the
speed of the motor. The control circuit generating the sequence is called a translator or logic
sequencer.
26

Fig. Block Diagram of the drive system of a stepping motor.

The fig shows the block diagram of a typical control circuit for a stepper motor. It consists
of a logic sequencer, power driver and essential protective circuits for current and voltage
limiting. This control circuit enables the stepper motor to be run at a desired speed in either
direction. The power driver is essentially a current amplifier, since the sequence generator can
supply only logic but not any power. The controller structure for VR or hybrid types of stepper
motor
LOGIC SEQUENCER
The logic sequencer is a logic circuit which control the excitation of the winding
sequentially, responding to step command pulses. A logic sequencer is usually composed of a
ww
shifter register and logic gates such as NANDs, NORs etc. But one can assemble a logic
w.E
sequencer for a particular purpose by a proper combination of JK flip flop, IC chips and logic
gate chips. Two simple types of sequencer build with only two JK-FFs are shown in fig for
asy
unidirectional case. Truth tables for logic sequencer also given for both the directions.
Power Driver Circuit
En
The number of logic signals discussed above is equal to the number of phases and the
gin
power circuitry is identical for all phases. Fig. 2.44(a) shows the simplest possible circuit of one
ee
phase consisting of a Darlington pair current amplifier and associated protection circuits. The
rin
switching waveform shown in fig. 2.44(c) is the typical R-L response with an exponential rise
followed by decay at the end of the pulses. In view of the inductive switching operation, certain
g.n
protective elements are introduced in the driver circuit. These are the inverter gate 7408, the
et
forward biased diode D1 and the freewheeling diode D. The inverter IC provides some sort of
isolation between the logic circuit and the power driver.
(a) Resistance drive (L/R drive)
Here the initial slope of the current waveform is made higher by adding external
resistance in each winding and applying a higher voltage proportionally. While this increases the
rate of rise of the current, the maximum value remains unchanged as shown in fig.
27

Fig. L/R drive
wwThe circuit time constant is now reduced and the motor is able to develop normal torque
even at high frequencies. The disadvantage of this method is Flow of current through external
w.E
resistance causes R losses and heating. This denotes wastage of power as far as the motor is
concerned. In order to reach the same steady state current as before, the voltage required to be
asy
applied is much higher than before. Hence this approach is suitable for small instrument stepper
En
motor with current ratings around 100 mA, and heating is not a major problem.
Chopper drive
gin
Here a higher voltage 5 to 10 times the related value is applied to the phase winding as
ee
shown in fig. and the current is allowed to raise very fast. As soon as the current reaches about 2
rin
g.n
et
to 5% above the rated current, the voltage is cut off, allowing the current to decrease
exponentially. Again as the current reaches some 2 to 5% below the rated value, the voltage is
applied again. The process is repeated some 5-6 times within the ON period before the phase is
28

switched off. During this period the current oscillates about the rated value as shown in fig. A
minor modification is to chop the applied dc voltage at a high frequency of around 1khz, with the
desired duty cycle so as to obtain the average on-state current equal to the rated value.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
29

Unit – III
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS (SRM)
Part – A
1. What is SRM and state the reluctance principle (April/May 2015)
The Switched Reluctance motor is electromagnetic and electro dynamic equipment that converts
the electrical energy into mechanical energy. When the voltage is applied to the stator phase, the
motor creates torque in the direction of increasing inductance. When the phase is energized in its
minimum inductance position, the rotor moves to the forth coming position of maximum
inductance. The profile of the phase current together with the magnetization characteristics defines
the generated torque and thus the speed of the motor.
ww
2. List the characteristics of SRM (April/May 2015)
w.E
• Lowest construction complexity, many stamped metal elements
• Like a BLDC or stepper without the magnets
asy
• High reliability (no brush wear), failsafe for Inverter but...acoustically noisy
• High efficiency
En
3. Give the advantages of sensor-less operation of SRM (April/May 2016)
gin
In recent years, there have been extensive research activities to eliminate direct rotor position
ee
sensors, simply by indirectly determining the rotor position. To avoid additional cost size and
rin
unreliability associated with external position sensors, developing a reliable, precise and low cost
position sensor-less control seem necessary
g.n
4. What are the essential difference between SRM and stepper motor? (April/May 2014)
SRM
SRM is designed for continuous rotation
Stepper Motor
et
Stepper motor is designed to rotate in step
by step rotation
SRM requires a rotor position sensor It does not require rotor position sensor
5. What is the significance of closed loop control in SRM? (Nov/Dec 2013)
SRM is always operated with closed loop control. Normally, we have to use a rotor position
sensor for commutation and speed feedback. Here, the phase windings are energized by using power
semiconductor circuit. The turning ON and OFF operation of the various power semiconductor
30

devices are influenced by signals obtaining from rotor position sensor. It is the main significance of
closed loop control in SRM.
6. List out the advantages and disadvantages of SRMs (Nov/Dec 2013, April 2017)
Advantages:
• Construction is very simple
• Rotor carries no winding
• No brushes and requires less maintenance
Disadvantages:
• It requires a position sensor
• Stator phase winding should be capable of carrying magnetizing currents
ww
7. Why SR machines popular in adjustable speed drives? (Nov/Dec 2012)
w.E
• SRM is simple in construction with no winding on rotor and simple concentrated coils on
stator
asy
• It can run successfully at high speeds (about 2 x 105 rpm) because of no winding on rotor and
rugged rotor construction
En
• Stator windings can be cooled easily and efficiently
gin
• Because of effective stator cooling, the motor dimensions decrease for a given machine rating
electronics is reduced
ee
• SRM can be operated from unidirectional drive circuits, so cost of micro and power
rin
g.n
• SRM operates successfully though at reduced output, even if one or more phases are out of
circuit due to some fault.
et
Due to the above features of SRM drive, it is used for the general purpose adjustable speed drives.
8. What is the significance of rotor position sensor which is essential for the SR motors?
(Nov/Dec 2012), (Nov/Dec 2011)
It is necessary to use a rotor position sensor for commutation and speed feedback. The
turning on and off operation of the various devices of power semiconductor switching circuit are
influenced by signals obtained from rotor position sensor.
9. State the applications of SRM (Nov/Dec 2011, Dec 2016, April 2017)
• Domestic applications like food processors, vacuum cleaners and Washing machines etc.
31

• General purpose industrial drives upto 50-100 kw.

• Low cost, brushless drive applications with wide speed range.
• Office and business equipment
• Aerospace applications
• Fan
• Robotics control applications
10. Write the characteristics of SRM and draw the speed-torque characteristics of SRM
(April/May 2010), (April 2017)
• Lowest construction complexity, many stamped metal elements
• Like a BLDC or stepper without the magnets
ww
• High reliability (no brush wear), failsafe for Inverter but...acoustically noisy
w.E
• High efficiency
Speed-torque characteristics of SRM
asy
En
gin
ee rin
11. What is meant by energy ratio? (April/May 2008) g.n
Energy ratio = Wm/ (Wm+R) = 0.45
Where Wm = Mechanical energy transferred
et
R = Energy stored in the magnetic field
12. What are the types of power controllers used for SRM? (Nov/Dec 2007)
• Using two power semi conductors and two diodes per phase
• Phase windings and bifilar wires
• Dump – C converter
• Split power supply converter
32

13. Write the torque equation of SRM (April/May 2013)
Where T = motor torque

i = current
Change of inductance with respect to rotor angle
14. Mention some position sensors used in SRM (April/May 2013)

• Optical sensor
• Hall sensor
15. What are the two types of current control techniques? (Nov/Dec 2013)
ww
• Hysteresis type current regulator
w.E
• PWM type current regulator
Part - B
asy
1. Construct and demonstrate the operation of SRM wit neat diagram (April/May 2017),
(April/May 2015) (April/May 2008), (Nov/Dec 2007)
En
The Switched Reluctance motor is electromagnetic and electro dynamic equipment that converts
gin
the electrical energy into mechanical energy. This motor is more than a high speed stepper motor.
Constructional details:
i. ee rin
The Switched Reluctance motor is a singly-excited, doubly salient machine in which the
ii. g.n
electromagnetic torque is developed due to variable reluctance principle.
The motor has salient poles on both stator and rotor but only one member (usually the stator)
iii.
carries windings.
et
The rotor has no windings, magnets and cage but it is built from a stack of salient pole
laminations.
iv. In order to have self starting capability and bidirectional control, the rotor of Switched
Reluctance motor has lesser poles than the stator.
v. As rotor has no windings, a SRM is even more rugged squirrel cage induction motor.
vi. In SRMs, though various combination of stator and rotor pole numbers are possible, the
commonly used are8/6 and 6/4.
33

vii. The stator has concentrated coils and the diametrically opposite coils are connected in series
or parallel to form one phase.
viii. Thus, motors with pole numbers 8/6 and 6/4 will have 4 and 3 phases respectively.
ix. The constructional feature of Switched Reluctance motor with six stator pole and four rotor
poles can be explained in Fig.3.1.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Stator ee
Fig.3.1. Cross sectional view of SRM
rin
• The stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward projected poles. The number of
g.n
stator poles may be even or odd number. Most of the available motors have even number of
poles. These poles carry field coils.
et
• The field coils of opposite poles are connected in series, so their mmf are additive. They are
known as phase windings.
• The ends of the phase windings are connected to the terminals of the motor. These terminals
are connected to the outputs terminals of power semiconductor circuitry, whose input is a dc
supply.
• The stator is simple to wind; the end-turns are short and robust and have no phase-phase
crossovers.
34

• Long narrow poles tend to produce the best design by reducing the effects of end-winding
inductance and resistance, but this also has the effect of reducing the flux and inductance.
The Motor (SRM) typically requires more turns of thinner wire than an AC motor wound for
the same voltage.
Rotor
• The rotor is also made up of silicon steel stampings with outward projected poles. Rotor
carries no winding or magnet.
• The number of poles of the rotor is different from that of the stator. Usually the rotor has 4
poles, if stator has 6 and there are 6 poles in the rotor when the number of poles of stator is 8.
ww
• There is no slip ring and brushless maintenance is possible. The shaft carries a rotor position
w.E
sensor.
• The turning ON and turning OFF of the various semiconductor devices in the switching
asy
circuitry is influenced by the signals obtained from the rotor position sensor because the
En
SRM is normally operated with shaft position feedback in order to suitably excite the
required phase windings with respect to precise rotor positions.
Principle of Operation of SRM gin
ee
• A switched Reluctance motor (SRM) is a rotating electric machine, where both stators and
rin
rotor have salient poles. The stator winding is comprised of a set of coils, each of which is
wound on one pole.
g.n
• Switched reluctance motors differ in the number of phases wound on the stator. Each of them
has a certain number of suitable combinations of stator and rotor poles. et
• The motor is excited by a sequence of current pulses applied at each phase. The individual
phases are consequently excited, forcing the motor to rotate.
• The current pulses need to be applied to the respective phase at the exact rotor position
relative to the excited phase.
• The inductance profile of SRM is triangular shaped, with maximum inductance when it is in
an aligned position and minimum inductance when unaligned.
35

• When the voltage is applied to the stator phase, the motor creates torque in the direction of
increasing inductance.
• When the phase is energized in its minimum inductance position, the rotor moves to the forth
coming position of maximum inductance.
• The profile of the phase current together with the magnetization characteristics defines the
generated torque and thus the speed of the motor.
The following Fig.3.2 shows a 6/4 switched reluctance motor (i.e.,) motor having 6 stator poles and
4 rotor poles.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
Fig.3.2 SRM with 6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles
rin
• The above 6/4 has three phases. Each phase comprises two coils wound on opposite poles
g.n
and connected so that their fluxes are additive. They may be in series or in parallel but let us
et
assume for now that they are in series and initially the rotor poles ‘aa’ get aligned with stator
poles ‘AA’ by the excitation of winding A.
• They are in minimum reluctance position so for as the phase winding is concerned. Here the
inductance of phase winding A is maximum and and the inductance of winding B
and C are neither maximum nor minimum. Hence there exist and .
36

ww Fig.3.3
• Now if phase winding B is energized, [phase C will be energized, if the direction of rotation
w.E
is to be reversed] then the rotor develops a torque because of variable reluctance and
asy
existence of variation in inductance .
• The electromagnetic torque developed is equal to

En The direction of this torque is such
that ‘BB’ and ‘bb’ are get aligned. If this torque is more than the opposing load torque and
gin
frictional torque, then the rotor starts rotating.
ee
• When the shaft occupies the position such that ‘BB’ and ‘bb’ are in alignment (the rotor has
rin
already moved an angle of θ=30°) and now no torque is developed as in this position
. Here the inductance of phase winding B is (LB) maximum. g.n

the rotor experiences a torque, as
et
• Now the phase winding c is energized & the remaining windings are kept dc energized. Then
exists. The electromagnetic torque developed is equal
to This condition is depicted by the Fig.3.4
37

ww Fig.3.4
• In the above Fig.3.3, the rotor poles ‘aa’ gets aligned with the stator poles ‘cc’. When the
w.E
rotor rotates further 30°, the torque developed due to winding c is zero since (i.e.,)
asy
the inductance of phase winding C is maximum.
• Then the phase winding C is switched off and phase winding A is energized. Then the rotor
En
experiences a torque and rotates further step of 30° for each step of excitation.
gin
• Note that the switched reluctance motor is a self starting motor. As the speed is increased, the
ee
developed torque requirement also changes.
rin
• When the average developed torque is more than the load torque, the rotor accelerates. When
g.n
the torque developed equals the load torque, the rotor attains dynamic equilibrium condition
(i.e.,) the motor attains a steady speed.
et
• Under this steady state condition, power drawn from the mains is equal to the time rate of
change of energy stored in magnetic circuit and the mechanical power developed.
• When the load torque is increased, the motor speed will decrease in order to maintain the
power balance.
• If the motor speed is to be maintained constant, the developed torque is increased by
increasing the input current.
• The power drawn from the mains is increased and vice versa takes place when the load
torque is reduced. Thus the electrical to mechanical energy conversion takes place.
38

2. (i) Derive the voltage and torque equation of SRM (April/May 2016), (April/May
2014), (April/May 2013),(Nov/Dec 2012)
In SRM, the torque is produced due to variable reluctance principle.
Basic voltage equation of SRM is given by
Where V=input voltage

i=current through the phase winding
R=resistance of the phase winding
ww
λ=flux linkage = Li
w.E
= asy
=
En
Where gin
ee rin
(3.1)
g.n
It is the voltage equation of SRM.
Where
iR = resistive drop
et
= incremental inductance
= emf due to incremental inductance
= e = self emf depends on current, speed and rate of change of inductance with rotor angle.
Multiply equation (3.1) by current ‘i’ on both sides we get,
39

(3.2)
This is the power equation of SRM

Where
= electrical power supplied in watts
= resistive loss
= power associated with incremental inductance
= ei = power due to self emf that is (i) Power associated with change in stored energy (ii)
Power converted into mechanical
ww
Stored energy in the magnetic field
w.E
Power associated with change in stored energy =
asy
En
Since
Power converted into mechanical Pm gin

] (3.3)
ee rin
(3.4)
Substituting equations (3.2) and (3.3) in equation (3.4), we get g.n

et
Torque developed by an SRM
40

(ii) Explain torque-speed characteristics of SRM with neat sketch (Nov/Dec 2012), (Nov/Dec
2007)
The torque developed by switched reluctance motor depends upon the current waveforms of
each phase winding. The current waveform depends upon the conduction period and chopping duty
cycle and speed. Consider a case that the conduction angle 6 is constant and the chopper duty cycle
is 1 (i.e.,) it conducts continuously. For low speed operating condition, the current is assumed to be
almost flat shaped. Hence, the developed torque is constant. For high speed operating condition, the
ww
current waveform gets changed and the average torque developed gets reduced.
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
Fig. 3.5. Torque speed characteristics at constant conduction angle and duty cycle
g.n
The above Fig.3.4 represents the speed-torque characteristics of SRM for constant Ө and duty cycle.
The variation of duty cycle is obtained by suitably operating the semiconductor switches.
Torque-speed capability curve et
Fig. 3.6. General torque speed characteristics of switched reluctance motor

41

• For speeds below ωb, the torque is limited by the motor current (or the controller current,
whichever is less) upto the base speed ωb, it is possible by means of regulators in Fig.3.4 to
get any value of current into the motor, upto the maximum.
• The precise value of current at a given operating point depends on the load characteristics,
the speed and the regulator and control strategy.
• The tiring angles of the converter can be chosen such as to optimize the efficiency or
minimize torque ripple.
• The maximum torque developed in a motor and the maximum power that can be transferred
are usually restricted by the mechanical subsystem design parameters.
• For a given conduction angle, the torque can be varied by varying the duty cycle of the
ww
chopper. However, the maximum torque developed is restricted to a definite value based on
w.E
the mechanical considerations.
• The region ‘AB’ in the figure represents constant maximum torque region of operation. At
asy
operating point B the conduction angle is Ө. It is a constant value. This is a point at which the
En
speed is maximum with constant torque. The power transferred at point B is Tωb .
• The curve BC in the Fig.3.5 represents a maximum permissible torque at each speed without
gin
exceeding the maximum permissible power transfer. This region is obtained by varying ӨD to
ee
its maximum value ӨDmax. ӨD is dwell angle of the main switching devices in each phase.
rin
Point C corresponds to maximum permissible power, maximum permissible conduction angle
and the duty cycle of chopper is maintained unity.
g.n
• Curve CD represents ‘Tω2’ constant. The conduction angle is kept maximum and duty cycle
et
is also maximum by maintaining Tω2 constant. The point D corresponds to maximum ω
permissible.
• The region between the curve ABCD and X-axis is the permissible region of operation of
SRM.
• At very low speeds, the torque/speed capability curve may deviate from the flat torque
characteristics.
42

• If the chopping frequency is limited or if the bandwidth of the current regulator is limited, it
is difficult to limit the current without the help of self emf of the motor and the current
reference may have to be reduced. This is shown by curve (i) of figure 3.5.
• The motor current limits the torque below base speed. The corner point or base speed ω b is
the highest speed at which the maximum current can be supplied at rated voltage with fixed
firing angles.
• If these angles are still kept fixed, the maximum torque at rated voltage decreases with speed
squared. But if the conduction angle is increased, (i.e.,) Ө0n is decreased, there is a
considerable speed range over which maximum current can still be forced into the motor.
This maintains the torque at a higher level to maintain constant-power characteristics. But the
ww
core losses and windage losses increase with the speed.
w.E
• On the other hand, the very low windage and core losses may permit the copper losses to be
increased, so that with higher current a higher torque is obtained, as shown in curve (ii).
asy
3. (i) Explain the closed loop control analysis of SRM. (Nov/Dec 2013), (Nov/Dec 2012)
En
(ii) Discuss the sensor-less operation of SRM (April/May 2013)
(i) Closed loop control analysis of SRM
gin
SRM for variable speed applications is a robust, reliable and almost maintenance free electric
ee
drive suitable for industrial, transport and domestic sector. The SRM is always operated with closed
loop control. Fig 3.6 shows the general closed loop block diagram of SRM.
rin
Current sensor
g.n
Encoder
Vdc
+ Power
Converter
SR
M
et
-
-
Key Controller
Potentiometer
LEDs
Fig 3.7 General closed loop block diagram of SRM drive
43

The block diagram consists of power converter, SRM, controller, current sensor and encoder.
Here, the encoder senses the rotor position and sends it to the controller block. The current sensor
also senses the motor current and sends it to controller. Here, we can set the reference signal by
using potentiometer. This signal is also fed to the controller block.
This controller block processes all the signals and generates the control PWM signals. These
signals are fed to the power semiconductor switching circuit. Depending upon the energization of
phase winding, the SRM rotates according to desired speed.
In the controller block, we can incorporate different control techniques
• Voltage SRM control with speed closed loop
• Motor starts from any position with rotor alignment
ww
• Two directions of rotation
w.E
• Motoring mode
• Minimum speed (set by user)
• Maximum speed (set by user)
asy
• Encoder position reference for commutation
(ii) Sensor-less operation of SRM En
gin
• The fundamental principle of operation of a SRM is based on the variation in flux linkage
ee
with the change in the angular position of the rotor.
rin
• The sensor-less scheme relies on the fuzzy based rotor position estimator model of the SRM
g.n
drive. The dynamics of the SRM drive can be represented by a set of non-linear first order
differential equations.
et
• The block diagram of the sensor-less scheme is shown in figure 3.7. It consists of various
sub-systems necessary for PID speed controlled SRM drive with fuzzy logic used as a rotor
position estimator.
• The flux estimator produces flux linkage by using phase voltage and current as inputs.
• The experimental data of flux linkage and phase current are used as inputs to fuzzy estimator
and map them in fuzzy rule base for estimating the angle as an output.
• The suitable type of low pass filter has been used to produce refined estimated angle for
inverter operation and simultaneously used to obtain estimated speed for comparison.
44

DC
- +
Sign
Reference PID Reference Hysteresis Inverter

Current SRM
Current
Speed Controller Generator Controller
Va,Vb,Vc
Estimated
angle
ww d/dt Filter Fuzzy

Angle
Flux
estimator
, V0
w.E estimator
asy
Fig. 3.8 Sensor-less control of SRM
En
1. Discuss in detail about the microprocessor based control of SR motor drives
gin
(April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2016), (Nov/Dec 2012), (Nov/Dec 2011), (April/May 2010)
ee
Today in industrial places there is high demands on control accuracies, flexibility, ease of
rin
operation, repeatability of parameters for many drive applications. Nowadays switched reluctance
motor is increasingly used in industries. To meet the above requirements, use of microprocessor has
become important. g.n
et
Fig. 3.9 Microprocessor or computer based control of SRM.

45

• Fig. 3.9 shows the block diagram of microprocessor based control of SRM drive. This control
system consists of power semiconductor switching circuit, SRM with rotor position sensor
and microprocessor system.
• In this system microprocessor acts as a controller for the switched reluctance motor and
generate control pulses to the power semiconductor switching circuits.
• The input DC supply is fed to the power semiconductor switching' circuits. Different type of
power semiconductor switching circuits is used for different application.
• Normally the circuits are inverter circuit configuration. The power semiconductor devices are
turned on and off by controller circuit.
• Here the controller circuit is microprocessor or computer based control system. In the SRM
ww
drive shown in fig. 3.6, the rotor position sensor gives the information about the rotor with
w.E
respect to the reference axis to the microprocessor or computer control.
• The controller also receive the status of current, flow through the phase Winding and
reference signal.
asy
• The microprocessor or computer compare the signals obtained from the RPS and reference
En
and generate square pulses to the power semiconductor devices.
gin
• This signal is fed to the inverter circuit. The phase winding of the SRM is energized
ee
depending upon the turning on and off of the power semiconductor- switching circuit.
rin
The microprocessor or computer controller can perform the following functions.
(a) Control the feedback loops.
(b) PWM or square wave signal generation to inverters. g.n
(c) Optimal and adaptive control.
(d) Signal monitoring and warning.
et
(e) Estimation of feedback signals.
(f) General sequencing control.
(g) Protection and fault overriding control.
(h) Data acquisition.
• The superiority of microprocessor or computer control over the conventional hardware based
control can be easily recognized for complex drive control system.
46

• The simplification of hardware saves control electronics cost and improves the system
reliability.
• The digital control has inherently improves the noise immunity which is particularly
important because of large power switching transients in the converters.
• The software control algorithm can easily be improved without changing the hardware.
Another important feature is that the structure and parameters of the control system can be
altered in real time making the controller adaptive to the plant characteristics.
Applications of SRM
• Domestic applications like food processors, vacuum cleaners and Washing machines etc.
• General purpose industrial drives upto 50-100 kw.
ww
• Low cost, brushless drive applications with wide speed range.
w.E
• Office and business equipment
• Aerospace applications
• Fan
asy
• Robotics control applications
En
gin
5.Discuss the various converter topologies for a three phase SRM with merits and demerits of
each. Explain any two of them (April/May 2017 (Nov/Dec 2016).
ee (Or)
rin
Write a note on power controllers used in SRM. (April/May 2013), (April/May 2008) (Or)
Enumerate different operation modes of SRM with neat sketch (Nov/Dec 2012)
g.n
The selection of power semi conductor devices in switching circuits depends upon the
et
application of SRM. One of the main aspects of the research in SRM drives has been the type of
power semi conductor device in switching circuits and the design of power controller based
converter circuit. The main objectives of the thrust on the design of the converter are the
performance and cost of SRM drive.
Basic requirements of power controller circuits:
• Each phase of the SRM should be able to conduct independent of the other phases.
• The power converter should be able to free wheel during the chopping period to reduce the
switching frequency.
47

• The converter should be able to demagnetize the phase before it steps into the generating
region if the machine is operating as a motor and should be able to excite the phase before it
steps into the generating region if operated as a generator.
• The converter should be able to utilize the demagnetization energy from the outgoing phase
[phase which is switched off] in a useful way by either feeding it back to the source or using
it in the next conducting phase.
Types of Power Controllers for SRM
The following are the power controller or power converter circuits available for switched
reluctance motor.
1. Two-power semiconductor switching devices per phase circuit or classic converter circuit.
ww
2. (n + 1) power switching devices for n-phase motor.
w.E
3. Phase winding using bifilar wires or in a nutshell it is called as bifilar windings.
4. Split-link circuit used with even-phase number.
5. C-dump circuit.
asy
1. Two-phase semiconductor switching devices per phase
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Fig. 3. 9. Two power semiconductor switching devices and two diodes
et
• The above circuit is called as two-transistor/phase circuit, as in this type of circuits’ power
transistors are generally used as semiconductor switching devices. It is also called as classic
converter circuit and this is one of the most versatile SRM converter topologies.
• This classic converter circuit is having two power switches and two diodes per phase as
shown in the Fig.3.7. The phase winding A is connected to the DC supply through the power
semiconductor devices T1and T2.
48

• Depending upon the rotor position, in order to energize the phase winding A, the devices
T1and T2 is turned ON. This conduction mode is usually initiated before the process of
overlapping of rotor and stator poles, so that the phase current reaches the references value,
before the phase inductance begins to increase. This helps to reduce the torque ripple.
• When the phase winding is to be disconnected from the supply, the devices T1and T2 is
turned off. The stored energy in the phase winding A tends to maintain the current in the
same direction. This current passes from the winding through D1and D2 to the supply. Thus
the stored energy is fed back to the mains. The phase windings B and C are also switched on
to the supply and switched off similar to the phase winding A during conduction and non
conduction modes. This circuit requires 2 power switching devices and 2 diodes for each
ww
phase winding.
w.E
• It is to be noted that the stored energy is to be fed back to the mains within the available
period, for high speed operation.
asy
• The upper devices T1, T3 and T5, and are turned ON and turned OFF from the signals
En
obtained from the rotor position sensor.
• The lower devices T2, T4 and T6 are controlled by the signals obtained from chopping
gin
frequency [Turn ON and Turn OFF] signal of power semiconductor devices.
Advantages
ee rin
The energy from the outgoing phase is fed back to the source, which results in useful utilization of
the energy.
i. Control of each phase is completely independent of the other phases. g.n
ii.
et
It is possible to vary the effective phase current from a very low value to a high value as the
current in the phase winding is the result of logical AND of the rotor position sensor and
chopping frequency.
iii. Because of the presence of freewheeling, the switching frequency is reduced, which in tum
reduces the switching losses of converter circuit.
Disadvantage
i. Higher number of switches is required in each phase which makes the converter circuit
expensive.
49

2. (n + 1) power semiconductor switching devices and (n+1) diodes per phase
ww
w.E Fig. 3.10. (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes
• The above Fig.3.10 shows an (n + l) power semiconductor switches and (n + 1) diodes per
asy
phase, where ‘n’ is the number of phase windings. The phase winding ‘A’ is connected to
En
supply through the power devices T & T1.This winding is energized by turning ON T1& T.
When this winding is to be disconnected depending on the rotor position, the device T1 is
turned-off. gin
ee
• Now, the energy stored in the winding A is returned (fed back) to the supply through the
rin
diodes D1 & D (i.e.,) the phase demagnetizes through the common diode and the phase diode
when the energy is transferred back to the source.
g.n
• The next phase cannot be turned ON until the outgoing phase has not been completely
et
demagnetized. When the devices T and T2 are turned ON, the phase winding B is energized.
When they are turned off. the stored energy in phase winding B is tied to mains through D &
D2.
• Similarly, the phase winding C is switched on and off from the mains. Thus the phase
windings B and C are connected to and disconnected from the supply by turning on and
turning off the respective devices.
• The cycle is thus repeated.
50

Advantages
i. The number of devices is reduced.
ii. It runs smoothly at low speeds.
Disadvantage
i. It becomes difficult task to deenergize the phase quickly through the diodes during high
speed operation, as the power semiconductor device keeps switching on with long duty cycle.
3. Phase winding using bifilar wires
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig. 3.11. Switching circuit of phase winding using bifilar wires
• The above Fig.3.11 shows the switching circuit of phase winding using bifilar wires. In this
ee
type, each stator pole carries a coil using bifilar wires.
rin
• Each phase group consists of two exactly identical windings that are magnetically coupled
and one winding being excited.
g.n
et
• In order to energize the phase winding A, the power semiconductor device ‘T1’ is turned on
(i.e.,) the DC current passes through the phase winding ‘A’. When the device T1 is turned
off, the stored energy in the magnetic field is fed back to the DC source through the winding
‘A’ and diode D1.
• The operation is similar in the phase windings B and C. The three devices [T1, T2 and T3]
operate in a sequential way depending upon the signals obtained from the rotor position
sensor.
51

Advantages
i. Because of the presence of lower number of switching devices, the cost of the power
controller or converter is reduced.
ii. The converter allows fast demagnetization of phases during commutation.
Disadvantages
i. Though switching devices are lower. the bifilar winding suffers from double the number of
connections.
ii. As the coupling between the two bifilar winding is imperfect, there are presence of voltage
spikes during turn-off
iii. Poor utilization of copper.
iv.
ww
The copper losses associated with the auxiliary winding are high for many applications.
v.
w.E
As the phases realize (-)Vdc , freewheeling is not possible during chopping. This causes high
ripples in current and torque during the chopping period.
asy
4. Split-link circuit used with even-phase number
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Fig.3.12 Split power supply converter et
• The Fig.3.12 shows the split-link converter circuit used with even number of phase windings.
• The above circuit is used either with GTO thyristors or lGBTs in a range of highly efficient
drives from 4 to 80 kW.
• In this type of power controller, the main power supply 2Vdc is split into two halves using
split capacitors.
• During the conduction period, the energy is supplied to the phases by one half of the power
supply.
52

• During the turnoff period, the phases demagnetize into other half of the power supply. When
the power semiconductor device T1 is turned on, the phase winding A is energized by the
capacitor C1.
• When T1 is turned off, the stored energy in the phase winding A, is fedback to the capacitor
C2 through the diode D2.
• When the device T2 is turned on, the phase winding B is energized by the Capacitor C2.
When T2 is switched off, the stored energy is fedback to the capacitor C1through the diode
D1.
• In the remaining phase windings also the similar operation takes place, when the concerned
power devices are turned on and turned off.
ww
Advantages
i.
w.E
Though the number of switching devices are higher [T1 – T6], this circuit is an optimum
choice for highly efficient drives of rating from 4-80 kW.
ii.
asy
This circuit has the capability to compete with circuit having bifilar wires in respect of faster
demagnetization of phases.
Disadvantages En
i.
gin
If fault occurs in one phase, that will affect the other phase connected to it. So, circuit
ii.
imbalance occurs.
ee rin
For low voltage application, the circuit is a poor choice as main power supply is split into two
halves.
g.n
et
53

5. C - dump
circuit
ww
w.E Fig. 3.13 Basic ‘c’ dump converter circuit
asy
• The C-dump circuit shown in Fig.3.13 makes use of (n+1) diodes to feedback the energy
from the dump capacitor to the supply via the step-down chopper circuit.
En
• The power semiconductor device T1 is turned on to initiate' the conduction process.
gin
• Note that the phase winding A is in series with the device T1. Thus the phase winding A is
energized.
ee rin
• During the commutation [turn-off] period, the diode ‘Df’ is forward biased and the energy
g.n
from the machine phase [(i.e.,) phase winding] is transferred to the dump capacitor Cd
• Note that the phases are demagnetized by turning off the respective phase switches. The
et
excess energy from the dump capacitor Cd is transferred into the source through the diode
‘D’ by turning on the power switch "1".
• If any failure occurs in control circuit, that will lead to rapid raise of charge across the
capacitor Cd and if protective measures were not taken. The controller circuit could fail due
to over-vo1tage.
Advantages
i. The circuit uses lower number of switching devices.
ii. The presence of diodes ensures faster demagnetization of phases.
Disadvantages
54

i. The requirement of maintaining voltage across the dump capacitor well above the supply
voltage and the control of the switch ‘T’ makes this converter a complicated circuit.
ii. The use of capacitor and inductor in the dump circuit
Control Circuits for SRM:
• For motoring mode operation of switched reluctance machine, the pulses of the phase current
should accurately coincide with increasing inductance.
• The timing and dwell (i.e.,) period of conductance of the current pulse determine the torque,
efficiency and other parameters.
• For high currents, the torque-current relationship is more or less linear. For higher power
levels, more complex controls are employed. Where wide range of speed is required at
ww
constant power, microprocessor based controllers are employed.
w.E
• At high speeds, the peak current is limited by self emf.
The control methods available for SRM are two types, namely,
asy
a. Hysteresis type current regulator
En
b. Voltage - PWM control or duty cycle control
a. Hysteresis type current regulator
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Fig. 3.14. Hysteresis type current regulator

55

OA - Operational amplifier
RCL - Current limiting resistor
RF - Rotor feed back
T1,T2 - Switching transistors
D1, D2 - Diodes
The Fig. shows the current waveform controlled by the hysteresis type current regulator.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
Fig. Rotor angle (in degrees)
rin
The above current waveform is controlled by a hysteresis type current regulator and it maintains
almost constant current over the entire speed range.
Operating Principle g.n
et
• In the circuit of Fig.3.l0, a transducer [Usually a tacho-generator for this circuit] is connected
from the rotor and then the output signal from the transducer is given as a feedback signal to
the transistor T2.
• This signal in turn is fed at the input of the operational amplifier. The operational amplifier
compares this signal with the reference current and then the amplified signal is given to the
transistor T1.
• This signal in combination with collector current will flow from the emitter of the transistor
T1 through the phase winding A of the machine.
56

• Thus the current through the phase winding A can be controlled depending on the
requirement.
• The current limiting resistor (RCL) limits the current according to the design requirement.
When the reference current increases, the torque developed also increases.
• At low currents, torque is proportional to the square of the current and its relationship
becomes more linear at higher values of current.
• But very high values of current reduce the torque/ampere due to saturation. With loads whose
torque varies monotonically with speed [From example fans and blowers], the speed
adjustment is possible even without feedback.
• But to have accurate speed control, speed feedback is needed. To obtain the speed feedback
ww
signals shaft position sensor, optical encoders are used.
w.E
• The ‘hysteresis type’ current regulator requires current transducer of wide bandwidth, but the
switched reluctance drive has the advantage that they can be grounded at one end with the
asy
other end is connected to the negative terminal of the lower phase leg switch. The sensors
En
used are shunts or hall-effect sensors with built in current sensing. This type of control
produces a constant- torque type of characteristics.
gin
b. Voltage PWM type current regulation
duty-cycle.
ee
The following Fig. shows the regulator using fixed-frequency PWM of the voltage with variable
rin
g.n
et
Fig. 3.16. Voltage PWM byte current regulator

57

OA - Operational amplifier
RCL - Current limiting resistor
RF - Rotor feed back
T1, T2 - Switching transistors
D1, D2 - Diodes
• The mechanical signal (speed of the motor) is converted into electrical signal (current),
through the transducer (tacho-generator), which is fed to the transistor T2.
• The resultant current from the emitter of the transistor T2 flows through the current limiting
resistor (CLR) to the negative of the supply.
• The voltage at phase ‘A’ changes, because of the feedback signal. This feedback voltage is
wwgiven as an input to the operational amplifier, which compares this input signal with the
w.E
reference voltage.
• The difference of these two signals is amplified and fed to the monostable circuit.
asy
• This circuit modulates the pulse width of the incoming signal based on the requirement and
En
the modulated signal is given at the base of T1.
• This signal combines with collector current of T1 and flows through phase A as modulated
current based on the requirement. gin
ee
• Thus the current is regulated or controlled using pulse width modulation and rotor feedback.
rin
g.n
et
58

UNIT -4 - PERMANENT MAGNETS AND BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

1. What are the advantages of brushless dc motors drives? (Nov/Dec 2016)
Regenerative braking is possible Speed can be
easily controllable
2. What are the disadvantages of brushless dc motors drives?
It requires a rotor position sensor
It requires a power semiconductor switching circuits.
3. Define mechanical commutators?
Its arrangement is located in the rotor
ww
No of commutators segments are very high.
4. Define electronic commutators? (April/May 2010)
w.E
Its arrangement is located in the stator
asy
No of switching devices limited to six
5. Mention some applications of PMBL DC motor?
En
Power alternators Automotive applications
Computer and Robotics applications
Textile and Glass industries gin
6. What is conventional Dc motor?
➢ Field magnets on the stator
ee rin
➢ Maintenance is high
g.n
7. What are PMBL DC motors?
➢
Field magnets on the rotor et
➢ Low maintenance
8. Why is the PMBLDC motor called electronically commulated motor?
The PMBL DC motor is also called electronically commutated motor because the phase windings of
PLMBL DC motor is energized by using power semiconductor switching circuits. here the power
semiconductor switching circuits act as a commutator.
9. What are the classifications of BLPM DC motor?
➢
BLPM square wave motor
59

➢ BLPM sine wave motor

10. What are the two types of BLPM SQW DC motor?
180”polerarc BLPM SQW motor
120”polearc BLPM SQW motor
1. Explain briefly about construction and operating principles of PMBLDC.(Nov/Dec 14),
(Nov/Dec 16), (April/May 2017)
Construction
Stator:
The stator of the BLPM dc motor is made up of silicon steel stampings with slots in its
interior surface. These slots accommodate either a closed or opened distributed armature winding
ww
usually it is closed. This winding is to be wound for a specified number of poles. This winding is
w.E
suitably connected to a dc supply through a power electronic switching circuitry (named as
electronic commutator).
Rotor:
asy
Rotor is made of forged steel. Rotor accommodates permanent magnet. Number of poles of the
En
rotor is the same as that of the stator. The rotor shaft carries a rotor position sensor. This position
gin
sensor provides information about the position of the shaft at any instant to the controller which
ee
sends suitable signals to the electronic commutator. This electronic commutator function is similar
to the conventional mechanical commutator DC motor.
rin
g.n
et
Fig Arrangement of permanent magnet in the rotor
This motor posses more advantages over conventional DC motor is given below.
1. As no mechanical commutator and brushes are required, it has longer life.
2. Problems relating to radio frequency and electromagnetic interference are minimized.
3. This motor can run at speeds higher than those obtained in a conventional DC motor.
4. This motor is more efficient.
60

Principles of Brushless PMDC Motor

Starting
When dc supply is switched on to the motor the armature winding draws a current. The current
distribution within the stator armature winding depends upon rotor position and the devices turned
on. An mmf perpendicular to the permanent magnet field is set up. Then the armature conductors
experience a force. The reactive force develops a torque in the rotor. If this torque is more than the
opposing frictional and load torque the motor starts. It is a self-starting motor.
Demagnetization curve
As the motor picks up speed, there exists a relative angular velocity between the permanent magnet
field and the armature conductors. AS per faradays law of electromagnetic induction, an emf is
ww
dynamically induced in the armature conductors. This back emf as per Lenz’s law opposes the cause
w.E
armature current and is reduced. As a result the developed torque reduces.
Finally the rotor will attain a steady speed when the developed torque is exactly equal to the
asy
opposing frictional load torque. Thus the motor attains a “steady state condition”.
Electromechanical Power transfer
En
When the load – torque is increased, the rotor speed tends to fall. As a result the back emf generated
gin
in the armature winding tends to get reduced. Then the current drawn from the mains is increased as
ee
the supply voltage remains constant. More torque is developed by the motor. The motor will attain a
rin
new dynamic equilibrium position when the developed torque is equal to the new torque. Then the
= Pm =ωT and
power drawn from the mains V *I is equal to the mechanical power delivered
g.n
the various losses in the motor and in the electronic switching circuitry and vice versa takes place,
when the load is reduced. Then electrical to mechanical power transfer takes place.
Three- phase three pulse (or half-wave) brushless DC motor.
et
The stator has three-phase winding which is star connected. The neutral or star point of the
winding is connected to positive terminal of the DC supply. A single- phase supply is converted into
DC by using diode bridge rectifier. The capacitor C act as a filter turned on in appropriate sequence
so unidirectional torque is developed.
When transistor TR1 is turned on, phase A is energized; when TR2 is on, phase B is energized
and so on. When phase winding are energized in a sequence ABC the rotor rotation is clockwise.
61

When sequence ACB, the rotor revolves anti clockwise. The rotor- position sensor mounted on the
motor shaft provides a position feedback. It monitors the shaft position and sends signals to the
drive circuitry of the inverter circuit.
ww
w.E
asy
Fig -phase, 3-pulse brushless DC motor
In response of these signals, the inverter allows the flow of current to stator phase windings in a
En
controlled sequence so that motor produces the desired torque and speed.The commonly used rotor-
gin
position sensors are Hall Effect sensors and electro-optical sensors. An electro optical sensor
Operation of Brushless PMDC Motor ee

consists of a light-emitting-diode (LED), photo transistor and a shaft-mounted slotted wheel.
rin
g.n
Fig shows an elementary form of the phase stator winding and the permanent-magnet rotor
with two poles.
et
Fig Elementary form of the phase stator winding
62

When phase A is energized, stator S and N poles are created as shown in fig. Stator S pole repels
rotor S pole and attracts rotor N pole, thus producing clockwise torque. The magnitude of this torque
is given by
Te= K1 Φ s Φ r sinθ
Where
Φ s= Stator field flux Φ r= Rotor field flux
θ= Torque angle K1 = Torque constant
Strength of rotor-field flux ɸr is constant as it produced by permanent magnets. The magnitude of

stator field is proportional to stator current. As the stator current is constant the stator field flux Φ s
ww
can also be treated constant. In view of this, the torque expression for Phase A, from the above
equation can be expressed as
Where
w.E
Tea= K ia sinθ
ia is the constant stator current in phase A
asy
2. Compare the Electronic commutator and Mechanical commutator.( May 15, Dec 16)
S.
Mechanical CommutatorEn Electronic Commutator
No
Commutator is made up of copper gin Power electronic switching device is
1. segment and mica insulation. Brushes
are of carbon or graphite.
ee used in the commutator. It requires a
position sensor. rin
2.
Commutator arrangements are located in
g.n
It is located in the stator.
3.
the rotor.
Shaft position sensing is inherent in et
Separate rotor position sensor is required.
the arrangement
Numbers of commutator segments are Number of switching devices is limited
4.
very high. to 6.
Sliding contact between commutator and
5. No sliding contacts
brushes
Sparking takes place between the There is no sparking in electronic
6.
commutator segments and the brush commutator.
63

7. Regular maintenance is required. It requires less maintenance.

Reliability is improved by specially
8. Highly reliable. designing the devices and protective
circuits.
The voltage available across armature
Difficult to control the voltage available
9. tappings can be controlled by
across the tappings.
employing PWM techniques.
Interpole windings are employed to By suitable operating the switching
10. have devices, better performance can be
Sparkles commutation. achieved.
ww
3. Explain the BLDC motor with 1800 magnet arcs and 1200 square – wave phase currents
w.E
BLPM dc motor with 180° magnet is assumed to produce a rectangle distribution of flux density in
the air gap. Here, assume the phase winding are star connected.
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Fig Motor phase windings are star connected
From the BLDC motor with 180° magnets arcs and 120o square-wave phase currents. Here the rotor
magnet poles are shaded to distinguish north and south. The phase belts are shaded as complete 60o
sectors of the stator bore.
64

Fig. BLDC motor with 180° magnet arc and 120° square wave phase currents
The table shows commutation tables for 3-Φ brushless DC motor for 180o magnet arcs (star
ww
winding) and 120o square wave phase currents.
w.E
Rotor
Position
A B C au(1) aL(4) bu(3) bL(6) cu(5) cL(2)
00-600
600-1200
+ 0 -
asy 1 0 0 0 0 1
1200-1800
+
0
-
-
0
+ En 1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1800-2400 - 0 + gin
0 1 0 0 1 0
2400-3000
3000-3600
-
0
+
+
0
-
0
0
ee 1
0
1
1
0
0
0
rin
0
0
1
g.n
et
65

ww Fig shows 1200 phase currents wave forms
w.E
Rotor position 0o to 60o
asy
From above figure A positive means, current flows from A1 and A2 of the phase winding A. A
negative means current flows from A2 to A1 of the phase winding A. Similarly it is applicable for
En
phase B and C winding (B1, B2 and C1, C2)
gin
During this rotor postiion, phase A and Phase C windings are energized. (A+, C-)
That is IGBT1 (aU), IGBT (cL) is on state. ee rin

a,b,c - Phase windings U- Upper legL- Lower leg
g.n
Rotor Position 60o to 120o
et
Here, phase A(+ve) B (-ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting devices are IGBT1 (aU)
and IGBT6 (bL)
Here, phase B (-ve) and phase C (+ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting devices are
IGBT6 (bL) and IGBT5 (cU)
66

Here, phase A (-ve) and phase C (+ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting devices are
IGBT4 (aL) and IGBT5 (cU)
Here, phase A(-ve) and B (+ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting devices are IGBT4
(aL) and IGBT3 (bU)
ww
Here, phase B (+ve) and phase C (-ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting devices are
IGBT3 (bU) and IGBT2 (cL).
w.E
Due to the rotor position signals, the corresponding devices are turned on. Here, the rotor is
asy
permanent magnet. Depending upon the energization of winding the rotor rotates.
From the figure shows mmf vectors for BLDC motor with 180o magnet arcs.
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
67

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Fig mmf vectors for BLDC motor with 180o magnet arcs.
68

4. EXPLAIN THE PERFORMANCE OF BLDC MOTOR WITH 120O MAGNET ARC AND
180O SQUARE WAVE PHASE CURRENTS
Here we can discuss the ideal brushless machine with 120O magnets arcs and 180O square
wave phase currents. Here rotor pole magnet arc is 120O. Here the phase current waveform is 180O.
Assume, the motor phase windings are delta connected.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Fig. Motor phase windings are Delta connected
Fig shows BLDC motor with 120O magnet arcs and 180O square wave phase current. From this
figure, the rotor magnet poles are shaded to distinguish north and south here, each rotor position,
two devices are conducting. The phase belts are shaded as complete 60O of the stator bore.
69

ww
w.E Fig. BLDC motor with 120° magnet arc and 180° square wave phase currents
The table shows commutation tabels for 3 Ф brushless DC motor for 120O magnet arcs. Here, the
asy
stator is deltal winding are 180O square wave phase currents.
Rotor En ab U ab L bc U bc L Ca U Ca L
Position
A B C
gin
1 4 3 6 5 2
00-600
600-1200
+
+
+
-
-
-
0
1
ee 0
0
1
0
0
0 rin
0
0
1
g.n
1200-1800
1800-2400
+
-
-
-
+
+
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
et 0
2400-3000 - + + 0 1 0 0 1 0
3000-3600 - + - 0 1 1 0 0 0
70

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
Fig shows 1800 phase currents waveforms.
rin
Rotor position 0o to 60o
g.n
From above figure A positive means, current flows from A1 and A2 of the phase winding A. A
et
negative means current flows from A2 to A1 of the phase winding A. Similarly it is applicable for
phase B and C winding (B1, B2 and C1, C2)
During this rotor postiion, three windings are energized, (i.e) phase A positive, Phase B
positive and Phase C negative. Now the conducting devices are IGBT3 (bcU) and IGBT2 (caL)
bc - Windings end connections of B and C( B1and C2 are connected)
ca - Windings end connections ( A2 and C2 are connected)
ab - Windings end connections ( A1and B2 are connected)
71

U- Upper legL- Lower leg
Here, phase A(+ve) B (-ve) and phase C(-ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting devices
are IGBT1 (abU) and IGBT2 (caL)
Here, phase A (+ve), Phase B (-ve) and phase C (+ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting
devices are IGBT1 (abU) and IGBT6 (bcL)

ww
Here, phase A (-ve), phase B (-ve) and Phase C (+ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting
w.E
devices are IGBT6 (bcL) and IGBT5 (caU)

asy
En
Here, phase A(-ve) , B (+ve) and C (+ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting devices are
IGBT4 (abL) and IGBT5 (caU)
gin
ee rin
Here, phase A( -ve) , phase B (+ve) and phase C (-ve) windings are energized. Now the conducting
devices are IGBT4 (abL) and IGBT3 (bcU).
g.n
et
Due to the rotor position signals, the corresponding devices are turned on. Here, the rotor is
permanent magnet. Depending upon the energization of winding the rotor rotates.
From the figure shows mmf vectors for BLDC motor with 120o magnet arcs.
72

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Fig mmf vectors for BLDC motor with 120o magnet arcs.
5 Explain the power controller for BLPM SQW DC Motor(May/June 15) (Nov/Dec 16)
Power Circuit
et
Power Circuit of BLPM de motor is as shown fig consists of six power semiconductor switching
device connected in bridge configuration across a dc supply. A suitable shunt resistance is
connected in series to get the current feedback. Feedback diodes are connected across the device.
The armature winding is assumed to be star connected. Rotor has a rotor position sensor and a
techo-generator is coupled to the shaft to get feedback signal.
73

ww
w.E
asy
Fig structure of controller for brushless PM DC Motor
Control circuit En
gin
The control circuits consist of a commutation logic unit. This gets the information about the rotor
turned off.
Commutation logic circuit
ee
shaft position and decides which switching devices are to be turned on and which devices are to be
rin
g.n
This provides six output signals out of which three are used as the base drive for the upper leg
et
devices. The other three output signal are logically AND with the high frequency pulses and the
resultant signals are used to drive the lower leg devices.
Speed Comparator
A comparator compares the reference speed with the speed feedback signal obtained from the
tachogenerator. The output of the speed comparator
Current Comparator
The Current comparator compares the reference current with the actual current signal obtained
from the current transducer. The resulting error signal is fed to the monostable circuit.
74

Monostable Circuit
The monostable circuit is excited by high frequency pulse signals. The duty cycle of the output of
monostable circuit is controlled by error signal.
Rotor Position sensors for BLPM motor
It converts the information of rotor shaft position into suitable electrical signal. This signal is
utilized to switch ON and OFF the various semiconductor devices of electric switching and
commutation circuitry of BLPM motor.
Two popular rotor sensors are
a. Optical Position Sensor b. Hall Effect Position Sensor.
(a) Optical position sensor
ww
This makes use of six photo transistors. This device is turned into ON state when light rays fall on
w.E
the devices. Otherwise the device is in OFF state the schematic representation is shown in fig.
asy
En
gin
ee
Fig Optical position sensor rin
g.n
The phototransistors are fixed at the end shield cover such that they are mutually displaced by 60
et
degree electrical by a suitable light source. The shaft carries a circular disc which rotates along the
shaft. The disc prevents the light ray falling on the devices. Suitable slot are punched in the disc
such turned into on state suitably turns the main switching devices of electronic commutation
circuitry into on state. As the shaft rotates, the devices of electronic commutation which are turned
into ON are successively changed.
75

(b) Hall effect position sensor

Consider a small pellet of n-type semiconducting material as shown in fig 1.14
ww Fig Hall Effect
w.E
A current icis allowed to pass from the surface ABCD to the surface EFGH. Let the surface ABEF
be subjected to a North pole magnetic field of flux density B tesla. As per Fleming left hand rule, the
asy
positive charge in the pellet get concentrated near surface ADHE and negative charges near the
surface BCFG. Since n-type material has free negative charges, there electrons gets concentrated
En
near the surface BCGF.This charge in distribution makes the surface ADHE more positive than the
gin
surface BCGF. This potential known as Hall emf or emf due to Hall Effect.
VH is given by VH = RH(ic / d) volts

Where ic current through the pellet in amps
ee
It has been experimentally shown that emf due to Hall Effect is
rin
B- Flux density in tesla g.n
d- Thickness of the pellet in m.
et
RH – Constant which depends upon the physical dimensions or physical properties of the pellet.
If the polarity of B is changed from North Pole to South Pole the polarity of the emf due to Hall
Effect also get changed.
Function of the Controller
The rotor position is sensed by a Hall Effect sensor. These signals are decoded by
commutational logic circuit to provide the firing signals for 120o conduction of each of the three
phases. It has six outputs which control the upper and lower phase leg transistors. The
programmable logic arrays, gate arrays, EPROMs are suitable for this function.
76

The PWM signal is applied only to the lower leg transistor. Its not only reduces the current
ripple but also avoids the need for wide band width in the level shifting circuit that feeds the upper
leg transistors. The upper leg transistor need not be of the same type as the lower leg transistors and
need only to be switched at the commutation frequency. The use of ‘AND’ gates is a simple way of
combining both the commutation signals and chopping signals. As already seen, the monostable
circuit which is excited by a high frequency signal, is controlled by the error signal obtained from
the comparator. The output of the monostable circuit and the signal from the commutation logic
circuit influences the conduction period and the duty cycle of the lower leg devices. Thus the desired
current for desired speed is obtained.
5. b. Write the torque equation of PMBLDC & Explain the characteristics(May/June 15)
ww
TORQUE EQUATION OF BLPM SQUARE WAVE MOTOR (April/May 17)
w.E
Power input = VI
The applied voltage
asy
V= [2 eph + 2 I Rph + 2 Vdd]
En
VI = [2 eph + 2 I Rph + 2 Vdd] I
= [2 I eph + 2 I2 Rph + 2 I Vdd] ……………………………. (1)
Where gin
VI = electrical power input
ee
2 I eph= Power converted as mechanical
rin
2 I2 Rph = Power loss in the armature winding
g.n
2 I Vdd = Power loss in the device
Mechanical Power developed = 2 eph I
We know that eph = 2 [2BgrlTphωm] I
et
eph = 4Bgr l Tphωm I ………………………….. (2)
Mechanical Power =
= ωmT
Where
N= Speed in rpm
T= Torque in N-m
77

ωm= Speed in rad/sec

Therefore T = 4Bgr l Tph I …………………………… (3)
T = Kt I ……………………………. (4)
Kt = 4Bgr l Tph = Ke
(a) Case1: Starting Torque
ωm = 0
Istg =
Tstg = 4Bgr l Tph.
ww
Tstg = Kt. ………………. (5)
w.E
Starting torque or stalling torque depends upon V. To vary the starting torque, the supply voltage is
to be varied.
(a) Case2: On load condition
asy
En
From equation (4)
T = Kt I
gin
= 4Bgr l Tph I
We know that I=
2 I Rph = V- 2 eph
ee rin
2 eph = V- 2 I Rph
g.n
Substituting the expression for eph, we get
4Bgr l Tph ωm = V- 2 I Rph et
Ke ωm = V- 2 I Rph
ωm = ………………….(6)
we know
ωm0 =
= . `
78

= 1- …………………. (7)
T = Kt I
Tstg = Kt .
= =
ww Substituting = in the equation (7) we get
or
w.E = 1-
asy = 1-
En
TORQUES- SPEED CHARACTERSISTICS OF BLPM SQM DC MOTOR
gin
Let the supply voltage V be constant. A family of torque speed characteristics for
ee
Various constant supply voltages is as shown in figure
rin
g.n
et
Fig T-ωm curve for various supply voltages

Permissible region of operation in T-ωm plane
Torque speed characteristics of BLPM square wave motor is shown in fig. The constraints are
79

1. The continues current should not exceed the permissible current limit In (i.e) Torques should
not exceed Kt In.
2. The maximum permissible supply voltage = Vn.
3. The speed should not exceed ωmn.
ww
w.E
Line AB asyFig. Torque-speed characteristics
En
Parallel to X-axis represents maximum permissible torque line which corresponds to maximum
permissible current In.
gin
Line FG
ee rin
It represents T-ωm characteristics corresponding to the maximum permissible Vn. B and C are points
in Fg. B is the point of intersection between AB and FG.
Line DH g.n
et
It represents constant maximum permissible speed line (i.e) ωmn is constant. DH intersects FG and x
axis at D. The area OABCDO is the permissible region of operation. To obtain a particular point P
corresponding to given load-torque and speed condition the only way to operate the motor at P is by
suitably adjusting the supply voltage fed to the motor.
80

Fig. Torque speed characteristics of ideal brushless DC motor
wwIf the phase resistance is small as it should be in an efficient design, then the characteristics to
that of a shunt dc motor. The speed is essentially controlled by the voltage V and may be
w.E
changed by changing the supply voltage. Then the current drawn just to drive the torque at
its speed.
asy
As the load torque is increased, the speed drops and the drop is directly proportional to the
En
phase resistance and the torque.
gin
The voltage is usually controlled by chopping or PWM. This gives rise to a family of torque
speed characteristics as shown in fig. 4.22. The boundaries of continuous and intermittent
limits are shown.
ee
Continuous limit - determined by the heat transfer and temperature rise.
rin
g.n
Intermittent limit – determined by the maximum ratings of semiconductor devices in circuit.
et
In practice the torque speed characteristics deviates from the ideal form because of the effects
of inductance and other parasitic influences. Also the speed range can be extended by increasing the
dwell of conduction period relative to the rotor position.
81

UNIT -5 PERMANENT MAGNETS AND SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

1. Define stator
Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings. Stator slots carry a balanced 3phase armature
winding, wound for a specified even number of poles. The ends of the armature windings are
connected to the terminals of the motor.
2. Define rotor
Rotor is made up of forged steel with outward projected poles. The number of rotor poles
must be same as that of stator. These rotor poles carry field coils. They are suitably connected to
form a field winding. The ends of the field windings are connected to the two slip rings which are
ww
also mounted on to the same shaft.
3. What are merits of 3phase BLPM synchronous motor?
➢
➢
w.E
It runs at a constant speed.
asy
No sliding contacts so it requires less maintenance.
4. What are the demerits of 3 phase BLMP synchronous motor?
En
Power factor of operation cannot be controlled as field current can‟t be controlled.
➢ Peripheral gin
5. What are the rotor configurations? (Nov/Dec 16)
➢
➢
Interior
Claw-pole or
ee rin
➢ Lundell
g.n
6. What are the advantages of load commutation?
et
It does not require commutation circuits Frequency of operation can be Transverse higher
7. What are the applications of load commutation?
Some prominent applications of this drive are high speed and high power drives for
compressors, blowers, conveyers, steelrolling.
8. What are advantages of synchronous motor?
Four quadrant operation with regenerative braking is possible High power ratings (up to
100MW) and run at high speeds (6000rpm)
82

9. What are the applications of synchronous drive?

High speed and high power drives for compressors, blowers, fans, pumps, aircraft test facilities.
10. What are the features of permanent magnet synchronous motor?
Robust, compact and less weight High efficiency
PART B
1. Explain the construction and principle of operation of PMSM((Apr /May14) (Apr /May 17)
Permanent magnet synchronous machines generally have same operating and performance
characteristics as synchronous machines. A permanent magnet machine can have a configuration
almost identical to that of the conventional synchronous machines with absence of slip rings and a
field winding.
ww
Construction
w.E
It consists of the stationary member of the machine called stator. Stator laminations for axial
air gap machines are often formed by winding continuous strips of soft steel. Various parts of the
asy
laminations are the teeth slots which contain the armature windings. Yoke completes the magnetic
path. Lamination thickness depends upon the frequency of
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Fig.PMSM stator
the armature source voltage and cost. Armature windings are generally double layer (two coil side
per slot) and lap wound. Individual coils are connected together to form phasor groups. Phasor
groups are connected together in series/parallel combinations to form star, delta, two phase (or)
83

single windings. AC windings are generally short pitched to reduce harmonic voltage generated in
the windings. Coils, phase groups and phases must be insulated from each other in the end-turn
regions and the required dielectric strength of the insulation will depend upon the voltage ratings of
the machines.
In a permanent magnet machines the air gap serves an role in that its length largely
determines the operating point of the permanent magnet in the no-load operating condition of the
machines .Also longer air gaps reduce machines windage losses. The permanent magnets form the
poles equivalent to the wound field pole of conventional synchronous machines. Permanent magnet
poles are inherently ―salient‖ and there is no equivalent to the cylindrical rotor pole configurations
used in many convectional synchronous machines. Many permanent magnet synchronous machines
ww
may be cylindrical or ―smooth rotor physically but electrically the
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee Fig. PMSM rotor rin
g.n
magnet is still equivalent to a salient pole structure. Some of the PMSM rotors have the permanent
et
magnets directly facing the air gap as in fig.Rotor yoke is the magnetic portion of the rotor to
provide a return path for the permanent magnets and also provide structural support. The yoke is
often a part of the pole structure Damper winding is the typical cage arrangement of conducting
bars, similar to induction motor rotor bars and to damper bars used on many other types of
synchronous machines. It is not essential for all permanent magnet synchronous machines
applications, but is found in most machines used in power applications. The main purpose is to
dampen the oscillations about synchronous speed, but the bars are also used to start synchronous
motors in many applications. The design and assembly of damper bars in permanent magnet
machines are similar to the other types of synchronous machines. Synchronous machines are
84

classified according to their rotor configuration. There are four general types of rotors in permanent
magnet synchronous machines. They are
1. Peripheral rotor
2. Interior rotor
3. Claw pole or lundell rotor.
4. Transverse rotor.
Peripheral rotor
The permanent magnets are located on the rotor periphery and permanent magnet flux is
radial.
ww
Interior rotor
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
The permanent magnets
et
are located on the interior of the rotor and flux is generally radial.
Claw pole or Lund ell
The permanent magnets are generally disc shaped and magnetized axially. Long soft iron
extensions emanate axially from periphery of the discs like claws or Lund ell poles. There is set of
equally spaced claws on each disc which alternate with each other forming alternate north and
south poles.
85

Transverse rotor
In this type the permanent magnets are generally between soft iron poles and the permanent
ww
magnet flux is circumferential. In this soft iron poles at as damper bars. Magnetically this
configuration is similar to a reluctance machine rotor, since the permeability of the permanent
w.E
magnet is very low, almost the same as that of a non-magnetic material. Therefore, reluctance torque
as well as torque resulting from the permanent magnet flux is developed.Thus BLPM sine waves
asy
(SNW) motor is construction wise the same as that of BLPM square wave (SQW) motor. The
En
armature winding and the shape of the permanent magnet are so designed that flux density
gin
distribution of the air gap is sinusoidal(i.e.) .The magnetic field setup by the permanent magnet in
the air gap is sinusoidal
ee rin
g.n
et
Fig.PMSM rotor
86

2. Derive the torque equation of blpm sine wave motor Ampere conductor density
distribution (April/May 2017) (Nov/Dec 2016)
Torque equation of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
The figure shows the basic concept of machines with two poles. Stator conductors are distributed as
ww
w.E
a sine distributed conductor around stator bore. So in any angle ‘dθ’ the numbers of conductors is
given by asy
sin pθ dθ. So in angle ‘dθ’ the ampere conductors having positive direction is L x
sin pθ dθ. En
gin
In figure above, the flux direction is more in d axis which is displayed by a positive angle ‘α’ from
‘d’ axis of stator winding. Hence ee rin
B(θ) = cos (pθ – α)
g.n
Where
et
- peak airgap flux density produced y magnet alone [when stator circuit is open]
The force on above mentioned ampere conductor is in circumferential direction and is given by
F= ℓi sin pθ cos (pθ – α) dθ
Similar to this force, another force is being exerted on opposite direction element. Hence total force
exerted over stator conductor is 2F.
87

Since stator is stationary an equal and opposite force acts on rotor and total electromagnetic
torque on rotor is integration of an elementary contribution over pole airgap peripherary [over ‘p’
number of pole pairs]
T =-p θ
T = -p 2r1
For p =1 [one pole pair]
T = -2r1
ww [2sinAcosB = sin (A+B) + Sin (A-B)]
w.E
T = -2r1
T = -2r1 asy
En
T = -2r1
gin
T = -2r1 ee rin
T= N-m
g.n
et
The maximum positive force is produced when α = in above equation (i.e.,) when ‘d’ axis
lags ‘90°’ behind axis of stator ampere conductor distribution.
The above analysis has been made for a stationary stator winding to produce constant torque
with rotor rotating at steady speed, stator ampere conductor distribution must be made to
rotate in synchronism with rotor. Usually 3φ ac supply is given to the stator winding in which
current in each phase differ by 120°
ia = i cos ωt
88

ib = i cos
ic = i cos
The rotating magnetic flux distribution will also get modified as
B(θ) = cos (pθ – - α)
Now the rotating ampere conductor distribution can be written as
i cos ωt sin pθ + i cos sin + i cos sin
ww = (Im/2)
w.E = Im cos
asy
Using the above expressions in torque equation, we get,
T= Im cos x En [where α = 90°]
gin
T= (Ix √2) cos x
ee rin
Expression for torque developed is obtained using same expressions as for stationary winding with
pθ – ωt substituted for pθ and thus torque g.n

T = I √2 sin β π
et
Where β = -α
The angle ‘β’ is the torque angle. The negative term is discarded here just because torque
developed in rotating part in negotiation of stator torque.
3. Draw and explain the torque-speed characteristics (16)(Nov/Dec 14) (Nov/Dec 2016)
The torque-speed characteristics of BLPM sine wave motor is shown in fig
89

Fig Torque-speed characteristics of BLPM sine wave (SNW) motor.

For a given and (i.e) maximum permissible voltage and maximum permissible current,
maximum torque remains constant from a low frequency to (i.e) corner frequency. Any further
increase in frequency decreases the maximum torque. At f= (i.e.) the torque Developed is
ww
zero. Shaded pole represents the permissible region of operation in torque speed characteristics.
w.E
Effect of over speed
In the torque speed characteristics, if the speed is increased beyond the point D, there is a risk
asy
of over current because the back emf continues to increase while the terminal voltage remains
constant. The current is then almost a pure reactive current flowing from the motor back to the
En
supply. There is a small q axis current and a small torque because of losses in the motor and in the
gin
converter. The power flow is thus reversed. This mode of operation is possible only if the motor
ee
‗over runs‘ the converter or is driven by an external load or prime mover.In such a case the reactive
rin
current is limited only by the synchronous reactance. As the speed increase further, it approaches the
g.n
short circuit current which is many times larger than the normal current rating of the motor
winding or the converter. This current may be sufficient to demagnetize the magnets particularly if
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their temperature is high. Current is rectified by the freewheeling diodes in the converter and there is
a additional risk due to over voltage on the dc side of the converter, especially if a filter capacitor
and ac line rectifiers are used to supply the dc. But this condition is unusual, even though in the
system design the possibility should be assessed.
Solution
An effective solution is to use an over speed relay to short circuit the 3υ winding in a 3υ
resistor or a short circuit to produce a braking torque without actually releasing the converter.
90

4.Explain the concept of vector control of blpm snw motor (16)( May/June 15)
Electromagnetic torque in any electrical machine is developed due to the interaction of
current carrying armature conductors with the air gap flux. Consider a two machine whose armature
conductor currents and air gap flux are as shown in fig.Here the flux is in quadrature with the
armature mmf axis.
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Each and every armature conductor experiences a force which contributes the torque. The
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torque contributed by various armature conductors have the same direction even through their
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magnitude may vary. It is observed that the steady state and dynamic (behaviors) performance of a
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most of such an arrangement are better. Consider a second case wherein the armature conductor
current distribution and air gap flux distribution are as shown in fig. 6.26. In this case the angle
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between the axis of the air gap flux and the armature mmf axis is different from 90° elec. In this
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case also each and every armature conductor experiences a force and contributes to the torque. But
in this case the direction of the torque experienced by the conductors is not the same. Since
conduction develops torque in one direction while the others develop in the opposite direction. As a
result, the resultant torque gets reduced; consequently it is observed that both the steady state and
dynamic performance of such a motor is poorer. For a BLPM motor to have better steady state and
dynamic performance, it is essential that the armature mmf axis and the axis of PM are to be in
quadrature for all operating condition.
Principle of vector control
BLPM SNW motor is usually employed for variable speed applications. For this we keep V/f
91

constant and vary V and f to get the desired speed and torque. From the theory of BLPM SNW
motor it is known that as the speed is varied from a very low value up to the corner frequency, the
desired operating point of current is such that Id =0 and I is along the q-axis. Such a condition can be
achieved by suitably controlling the voltage by PWM technique after adjusting the frequency to a
desired value. When the frequency is more than the corner frequency it is not possible to make Id =0,
due to the voltage constraints. In such a case a better operating point for current is obtained with
minimum Id value after satisfying the voltage constraints. Controlling BLPM SNW motor taking
into consideration the above mentioned aspects is known as ―vector Control of BLPM SNW
motor. The schematic block diagram of vector control is as shown in figure 5.13Knowing the value
of the desired torque and speed and also the parameters and the voltage to which the motor is
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subjected to, it is possible to complete the values of id .ref and iq .ref for the desired dynamic and steady
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state performance.
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Fig. Schematic diagram of vector control

RPS – Rotor position sensor, TG – Tachogenerator
92

The reference values of id and iq are transformed into reference values of currents namely ia
ref, i b ref and ic ref. These currents are compared with the actual currents and the error values
actuate the triggering circuitry which is also influenced by the rotor position sensor and
speed.
5. Explain the self control of PMSM
As the rotor speed changes the armature supply frequency is also change proportionally so
that the armature field always moves (rotates) at the same speed as the rotor. The armature and
rotor field move in synchronism for all operating points. Here accurate tracking of speed by
frequency is realized with the help of rotor position sensor.
When the rotor makes certain predetermined angle with the axis of the armature phases the
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firing pulses to the converter feeding the motor is also change. The switches are fired at a frequency
proportional to the motor speed. Thus the frequency of the voltage induced in the armature is
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proportional to the speed.
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Self-control ensures that for all operating points the armature and rotor fields move exactly at
the same speed. The torque angle is adjusted electronically hence there is an additional controllable
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parameter passing greater control of the motor behavior by changing the firing of the semi-
conductor switches of an inverter.
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The torque angle is said electronically hence the fundamental component of phase A needs
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Φf/β, it lies along the direct axis that rotates at a synchronous speed.
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Fig Schematic diagram of self-control

The switches must be triggered by phase A current component when Φf axis is β electrical
degrees behind the phase A axis. This is achieved by firing the switch when direct axis is δ+β
93

behind axis of A as show shown in fig. Self-control is applicable to all variable frequency
converters, the frequency being determined by machine. At high power levels the most common
power converter configuration is the current fed DC link converter which is shown in fig.
Inner current and outer speed loop
The phase controlled thyristor rectifier on the supply side of the DC link has the current
regulating loop and operate as a control current source. The regulated DC current is delivered to the
DC link inductor to the thyristor of load commutator inverter which supplies line current to the
synchronous motor.The inverter gating signals are under the control of shaft-position sensor giving a
commutator less dc motor with armature current controlled. The thyristor of these inverters utilize
load commutation because of the generated emf appearing at the armature. It is ensured by the over
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excitation of synchronous motor, so that it operates at leading power factor hence it reduces
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commutating circuitry, low losses and is applicable to power levels of several megawatts. The shaft
position is sensed by the position sensor. The shaft speed is obtained by converting the position
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information. This speed is compared with the reference speed signal which provides the speed error.
This is the current reference signal for the linear current loop. This reference current is compared
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with the sensed dc link current which provides control signals for the rectifier thyristor. The sensed
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shaft position is used as gating signal for inverter thyristor.
Commutation at low speed
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Load commutation is ensured only at high speeds. Whereas at low speeds the emf generated
is not sufficient for load commutation. The inverter can be commutated by supplying pulsating on
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and off dc link current. This technique produces large pulsating torque but this is not suitable for
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drives which require smooth torque at low speed. The DC link current is pulsed by phase shifting
the gate signal of the supply side converter from rectification to inversion and back again. When the
current is zero the motor side converter is switched to a new conduction period and supply side
converter is then turned on. Time required for the motor current to fall to zero can be significantly
shortened by placing a shunt thyristor in parallel with a DC link inductor. When the current zero is
needed the line side converter is phased back to inversion and the auxiliary thyristor is gated.
The DC link inductor is then short circuited and its current can supply freely without
affecting the motor. When the line side converter is turned on the auxiliary thyristor is quickly
blocked. This method of interruption of the motor current reduces the effect of pulsating torque.
94

Four Quadrant Operations

The drive characteristics are similar to those of a conventional DC motor drive. Motor speed
can be increased to a certain base speed corresponding to the maximum voltage from the supply.
Further, increase in speed is obtained by reducing the field current to give a field weakening region
of operation. Regenerative braking is accomplished by shifting the gate signal, so that machine side
inverter acts as a rectifier and supply side rectifier as a inverter, hence the power is return to the ac
utility network. The direction of rotation Of the motor is also reversible by alternating the gate
sequence of the motor side converter. Thus four quadrant operations are achieved, without
additional circuitry.
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EE6703 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES LT P C

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EE6703 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

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LESSON PLAN: EE6703 SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Phasor diagram, Charactristcs

Single and Multi stack Configurations 1 14 T2

15. Torque Equation 1

Characteristics and Drive circuits

Microprocessor control of stepping motor

19. Constructional features 1 19 R1

20. Rotary and Linear SRMs 1 20 R1

21. Principle of operation and Torque Production 1 21 R1

22. Steady state performance 1 22 R1

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23. Power converters and their controllers 1 23 R1

24. Methods of Rotor position sensing (optical) 1 24 R1

25. Methods of Rotor position sensing (hall) 1 25 R1

27. Closed loop control of SRM Characteristics 1 27 R1

28. Permanent Magnet Materials 1 28 T1

29. Magnetic Characteristics 1 29 T1

30. Permeance coefficient 1 30 T1

Power controllers ,Motor Characteristics and

39. EMF nad Torque equations 1

40. Armature reaction MMF 1

41. Synchronous Reactance 1 41 T1

42. Sine wave motor with practical windings 1 42 T1

Controllers, Converters and ampere

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1 Construction and principle of operation of PMSM 83

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1. What is synchronous reluctance motor?(May/June 12)

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reduce volt ampere ratings of the inverter driving the machine.

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Fig. Salient rotor

Fig. Axially Laminated Rotor

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Fig. New rotor design

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ww Fig. Rotor Position due to Revolving Magnetic Field

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Ȣ is the load angle

Fig. Torque Angle Characteristics of Salient Pole Machine

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5. Explain the constructional features of Vernier motor.

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UNIT – II - STEPPER MOTORS

v. small tool application

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7. Define holding torque.(Nov/Dec 15)

Fig. Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor