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ABSTRACT
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Moreover, studies show that approximately 70% of the young people who
benefit from mental health services do so only at school, which turns the
educational system into a privileged system for offering these types of
services for young people (Farmer, Burns, Philips, Angold, & Costello, 2003;
Gonzales et al., 2004). But as the number of young people that could benefit
from such services increases, so does the need of implementing empirically
sustained interventions in schools (evidence-based interventions) (Gonzales
et al., 2004; Stoiber & Kratochwill, 2000). REBE is one such intervention, as
we see later on.
Miller (1978) compared REE with a condition combining REE with behavioral
reinforcers, another one combining REE and homework, and a control
condition. The subjects were 96 children, with low and high IQ levels. The
dependent variables were the children's knowledge, neuroticism and trait-
anxiety. The results of the three experimental groups were significantly
superior in comparison to the control group. Intelligence did not prove to
have an effect on the results (see also Silverman, McCarthy, & McGovern,
1992).
Cardenal Hernaez and Diaz Morales (2000) studied the effect of three months
of REE versus relaxation techniques on self-esteem and anxiety level, in 12-
14 years old children from Spain. 93 students were randomized in the 2
experimental groups and the control group. The measures applied consisted
of the Piers-Harris self-concept scale, a body attraction scale and STAI.
Measures were carried out for pretest, posttest and at three months follow-
up. Results showed that both experimental conditions equally contributed to
the global increase in selfesteem and the reduction of anxiety.
One of the most recent meta-analysis (Gonzales & al., 2004) regarding the
efficiency of rational-emotive behavioral therapy (REBT) in a wider range of
emotional and behavioral problems (including anxiety) highlights some
important discoveries. It was carried out on 19 peer-reviewed studies and it
analyzed 5 domains of results (disruptive behavior, impropriation of
rationality, GPA -grade point average, self-concept and anxiety). Their first
and more general conclusion is that, subsequent to a REBT intervention, the
modal child or adolescent had better performances, regardless the type of
result considered, than approximately 69% of the control, no treatment
groups. But another conclusion proves very interesting and can also act as a
justification for the current study: REBT intervention seems to be efficient
both for children and adolescents with an identified clinical problem, as well
as for those without one. This motivates preventive interventions, targeting
sub-clinical problems or problems that have not yet manifested, but for which
we know the child to be vulnerable. Another important conclusion of this
meta-analysis, which contributes even more to justifying the current study,
states that the efficiency of a REBT intervention is much higher, IF it
addresses younger children (primary school) than older ones (secondary
school or high-school). Another conclusion warns about the danger of the
intervention not being effective because of its too short duration: REBT
efficiency is higher in conditions with a medium (675-770 minutes) or high
(1200-2115 minutes) duration of the intervention. Regarding anxiety, effect
sizes for these measures are presented in 6 of the 19 studies (12 effect
sizes), leading to a .48 effect size.
Bernard, Ellis and Terjesen (2006) express a similar opinion, drawing the
attention to the close relations that exist between children's emotional and
behavioral problems and certain developmental problems in the domain of
cognitive processing of emotional or social aspects. It becomes obvious that
any therapeutic approach of children, be it preventive or corrective, has to
take into account the fact that they are developmentally vulnerable to some
cognitive processing errors (Bernard, et al., 2006). Many of these errors are
due to the ontogenetic features of the cognitive development of 9-10 years
old children.
These errors become even more poignant and can develop into dysfunctional
processing styles, when the information to be processed has an increased
emotional valence. A relevant example to sustain the idea that cognitive
development cannot be ignored in the study of emotional and behavioral
problems comes from the studies of social cognition. Research in this domain
show that family factors (e.g. exposure to problematic parental factors) that
predict adaptation problems, also predict social cognition deficits (Barahal,
Waterman, & Martin, 1981; Downey & Walker, 1989; Pettit, Dodge, & Brown,
1988; Smetana, Kelly, & Twentyman, 1984,). This suggests that social
cognition abilities could mediate the relationship between family risk factors
and child's adaptation. On the other hand, if children from high-risk families
are exposed to competent models, they can develop social cognition abilities
that can compensate the increased risk for adaptation problems, related to
parental psychopathology and abuse (Downey & Walker, 1989). Thus the
developmental level of social cognition is an important element in the
relation between the risk factors the child is exposed to and the emergence
of emotional disorders. We can notice a fairly transparent symmetry with
irrational beliefs (the Bs in the ABC model, for details about the model, see
David, 2006) and the emergence of dysfunctional negative emotions (which
by repetition can turn into a dysfunctional emotional pattern, the premise for
the development of emotional and behavioral problems, such as those from
the anxiety spectrum). An interesting research topic would envisage the
conceptual and empirical relations between these constructs (irrational
beliefs and social cognition).
1. Children who benefit from the REBE intervention will present a more
significant reduction of irrationality than those who benefit from the sham or
no intervention.
2. Children who benefit from the REBE intervention will present a more
significant reduction of anxiety (global score as well as specific problem
categories) than those who benefit from the sham or no intervention.
METHOD
Subjects: Subjects were 63 children, aged between 9 and 10 years from three
3rd grade classes, selected from 2 schools in Cluj-Napoca. 36% of all children
were girls and 64 % boys. Participation in the program was voluntary and
school, teachers' and parents' agreement for the program were previously
secured. We could not in this case ensure a random selection and distribution
in groups. Even if the schools were randomly selected, in order to carry out
the intervention we depended on the availability of the school-principle,
teachers and parents. Moreover, we were interested in seeing how the
intervention works in an ecological environment, because that will be the
setting for structured mental health programs dealing with children's
emotional difficulties. To prevent some of the problems that arise from the
lack of randomized selection, we controlled for the existence of significant
differences between the 2 groups on measures of anxiety and irrational
beliefs.
Experimental design: The research method was quasi-experimental, in the
form of a pre- and posttest groups design, because we have no means of
controlling the various environmental influences the children are subjected
to, outside the limited weekly duration of the intervention. The independent
variable consisted in the type of intervention and has 3 modalities (rational-
emotive intervention, sham intervention, no intervention), which will be
detailed in the procedure section. The dependent variables circumscribed the
level of irrational beliefs, the anxiety level (both general level and specific
types) and the degree of rational-emotive knowledge following the
intervention. These were measured by specific tests and a knowledge
questionnaire.
Procedure: The testing phase was individual for all subjects. The same
instruments were used in the pre- and posttest phase (after the intervention).
The intervention phase lasted for 3-4 months, with 2 regular sessions of
about 45 minutes per week (20 sessions of actual intervention for the REBE
group and the sham group).
2. Beliefs and behaviors (understanding what beliefs are and how they
determine our emotions and behavior - the ABC model)
Instruments:
* The Spence Children' Anxiety Scale - SCAS (Spence, 1994). The scale is
composed of 38 items, 6 filler items and an open question. The child is asked
to read each statement and appreciate how often that particular thing
happens to him on a 4-point scale. The questionnaire offers a global anxiety
score, as well as scores for specific clusters of anxiety related problems.
These clusters are represented by the subscales of the SCAS: panic attack
and agoraphobia, separation anxiety, physical injuries fear, obsessive-
compulsive behavior, generalized anxiety. It is constructed following the DSM-
IV criteria, which enhances its precision in accurately identifying anxiety
problems and it is meant to be an indicator of the number and severity of
anxiety symptoms. The authors also establish cut-off points, circumscribing
three problematic categories in which the subject could be placed: at risk
(16% of the population), borderline clinical (7%), clinical (2-3%). The SCAS is
in the final stage of its adaptation for the Romanian population (Benga, 2006,
in progress), and the preliminary date indicate good reliability, both for the
global scale and for its subscales. Data from other populations (German,
Dutch) indicated very good reliability for the scale and its subscales and good
discriminate validity, using a clinical anxiety diagnosis as criterion (Spence,
1998).
* The Spence Children' Anxiety Scale (SCAS) - Parent version (Spence, 1994).
The content, cotation and interpretation are almost identical to the SCAS. It
consists of 38 items and an open question. There are fewer studies regarding
it, but the data indicate satisfactory to very good reliability for the scale and
its subscales and good discriminant validity regarding the clinical anxiety
diagnosis (except for the generalized anxiety subscale)- Nauta et al., 2004. It
is also being adapted on the Romanian population (Benga, 2006, in progress).
RESULTS
Descriptive data
In the table above, we display the means and standard deviations for the
anxiety measures (pre and post-test).
Intra-group comparisons
We used the t test for paired samples. Significant values are marked with an
asterisk (p<.01). We chose an alpha threshold of .01 (even though the
commonly accepted value for alpha in psychology research is .05), because
in this case we wanted to keep the type I error as small as possible. An
educational intervention as the one employed here requires a significant
quantity of resources (time, materials, human resources) and we have to be
sure about its efficiency before engaging all these resources to implement it.
Therefore, we have to be more strict in assessing its efficiency and should
recommend its implementation only on the basis of a clearly distinguishable
effect. So we chose a lower alpha threshold than it is usually accepted in
order to prevent false positives (finding a significant effect when in fact there
is none) as much as possible.
We can see that the effect of the intervention in each group concerning
irrational beliefs is practically insignificant. Regarding the anxiety level, we
must first notice that the REBE group displays significant improvements on
the panic attack and agoraphobia subscale, improvements that are not
present in the other groups. An interesting result is that both the REBE group
and the sham group show significant improvements on the measures of
generalized anxiety. Also both the REBE group and the control group show
significant improvements on the obsessive compulsive disorder subscale.
However the most important result for the present study involves the level of
specific REBE knowledge, which has significantly improved only in the REBE
group.
Inter-groups comparisons
We must note that in the pretest phase the differences among the 3 groups
are not significant at p<.01 for irrationality (F=2.66) and anxiety (F=4.93)
both as global scores and subscale scores. However, we must acknowledge
that the means of the REBE group (for anxiety) are consistently higher
(although not significantly so) than those in the other groups, which was also
an ethical consideration that oriented us to using that particular group as the
target group. At posttest, there are still no significant differences at p<.01
among the 3 groups for anxiety (F=3.67) or irrationality (value for F=0.53).
For a more precise assessment of the potential change we also compared
effect sizes (the magnitude of change) for each group. In this case we again
had no significant differences among the groups at p<.01 on measures of
anxiety (F=0.51) or irrationality (F=2.54). All the above, correlated with the
intra-group comparison data, allow us to conclude that in the particular case
of these classes of students, the REBE intervention did not have a significant,
consistent, transparent effect on irrationality and anxiety. However, when we
look at the data regarding the REBE knowledge, we notice that at posttest
they are significantly different in the REBE group from the sham group
(F=3.70, p<.01) and the no intervention group (F=5.26, p<.01). Moreover,
the REBE group has significantly better knowledge than the other 2 when we
look at the magnitude of change (F=5.78, for comparison to the sham group
and respectively F=5.81 to the control group, p<.01).
A number of 42 parents from all three groups completed the parent version
of the Spence scale (at pretest). We computed Spearman correlation
coefficients for the evaluations of parents and those of their children. The
parents' evaluation of the anxiety problems of their children and the
children's own evaluations differ in the sense that the parents tend to
overlook the existence or severity of anxiety problems. We have found
positive medium correlations at the subscales of separation anxiety
(r=0.463, p<.01) and physical injuries fears (r=0.488, p<.01). The
correlations for global anxiety and the other anxiety subscales were not
significant at p<.01.
DISCUSSIONS
Intra-group comparisons
Starting off from this data, we came up with 2 major interpretative ways: a
procedural perspective and a developmental perspective.
Still, procedural aspects are not by themselves enough to explain our results.
The activities used were taken from a manual and were specifically conceived
for group work. We need to consider explanations at a deeper level; therefore
it would be useful for us to look at the developmental characteristics of the
children involved in this program. So the second perspective for data
interpretation is a developmental perspective. We will start off from the
observation that in the REBE group, although there is no effect in the
direction of ameliorating anxiety and irrational beliefs, there is a significant
and consistent effect on REBE knowledge. Children seem to have acquired
the knowledge being discussed, but this doesn't seem to impact their way of
thinking and their emotional problems.
The main objective of our intervention referred to the fact that, subsequently
to the activities and discussions, children would extract ideas about certain
concepts (emotions, beliefs, behaviors) and then generalize and apply these
concepts in their daily lives. However, as we have pointed out in the
theoretical part, their cognitive development is impinged on by some typical
processing errors (Bernard, et al., 2006). It may be that, in the context of this
intervention, all these translated into a limited capacity of transferring the
acquired information in real life situations, especially when dealing with
emotionally loaded content. For example a cognitive error such as that of
selective abstraction (focusing on details and ignoring essential features of
the situation) (Bernard, et al., 2006) could lead children to see the activities
used as simple games, without extracting general principles (which was the
real purpose of the activity). Even in the cases when they did extract some
regularity, another cognitive error specific to their point of cognitive
development is the situated, localized nature of their inferences and concept
application (a concept's area of application is circumscribed to the context
it was learned in). In other words, it could be that what is learned in the
classroom is only applied in the classroom and not transferred to other life
situations (e.g. family problems, problems with peers). These issues could be
even more significant as the similarities between contexts (class situation -
other life situations) are not really transparent to children. The problem
situations that are outside the actual intervention sessions may not
automatically activate the idea of applying the learned concepts. Even
though they have the declarative knowledge, it is possible that children
cannot explore the benefits of this knowledge because of their
developmental particularities. A mental health educational program should
take these issues into account.
An additional observation should also be made. It regards the specific action
mechanisms of rational-emotive education: the modifications of irrational
cognitions lead to the correction of dysfunctional emotions. The present
research does not offer enough data to extract inferences about the validity
and applicability of this mechanism in the case of anxiety. Anxiety problems
in children this age have, as we have previously said, a resilient behavioral
component (Keller et al., 1992; Spence, 1998). It could be that a general
action mechanism, such as the one postulated by the REBT theory, may not
be sufficiently efficient in the case of anxiety. Intervention might have to be
specifically targeted on the particular aspects of anxiety behaviors.
The results are consistent with other data obtained using the Spence scales
with other populations. Nauta et al. (2004) indicate inter-correlations in the
range of 0.41-0.66 in the group of children with diagnosed anxiety disorders
and in the range of 0.23-0.60 in the group without diagnosed anxiety
disorders (our results fit in that range). The highest degree of agreement is
met for subscales that envisage behaviors easily observable (Nauta et al.,
2004). In our case, the significant, positive correlations were medium sized
and obtained in the cases of separation anxiety and physical injuries fears,
which enclose observable behaviors.
Based on the data obtained and the analysis carried out, possible future
research could approach:
Regarding the limitations, the first one refers to the lack of randomized
selection and distribution of subjects. We detailed this in the methodology
section, so we will not dwell on it again. Another limitation, resulting from
this, is the fact that the anxiety means of the REBE group are consistently
higher (although not significantly so) than those in the other groups. This
could also have been a factor influencing the results of the intervention. We
will also detail another important limitation which refers to the CASI and its
adaptation on the Romanian population. We chose this scale because, among
the ones that measure irrational beliefs, it is the most robust one
(theoretically and empirically). However we can't ignore the problems
presented by the Romanian version of the CASI, especially with children this
age. These could have seriously impaired the results. In brief, some of the
problems are: the use of a 5-point scale, as it is hard for children to operate
with these distinctions and they usually go for the extreme values;
negatively-worded items, that are difficult to interpret and the children have
to resort to complicated logical deductions about denying a negative
statement; the use of some terms that are hard to understand or vague, such
as "frustrated", "desperate"; the lack of age differentiated norms.
The present research raises more questions than it gives answers. But if we
were to quote Einstein "formulating a problem is often more important than
solving it". This research cannot offer clear and definitive answers on the
ecological efficiency of REBE in reducing anxiety in 9 to 10 years old children.
Yet we hope to have been able to provide some empirical data and
interpretations that can contribute to a more exact formulating of the
problem.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by CEEX-M1 Grant no. 124 (AnxNeuroCog) from
the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research.
[Reference]
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[Author Affiliation]
* Corresponding author:
E-mail: ioana.alina.cristea@gmail.com
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