10 Pet en

THE “LABOUR MARKET STUDIES” PROJECT OF THE
EUROPEAN STRUCTURAL FUND NATIONAL PROGRAMME

“LABOUR MARKET STUDIES OF THE MINISTRY OF WELFARE”
No. VPD1/ESF/NVA/04/NP/3.1.5.1./0001/0003
GENDER EQUALITY ASPECTS IN THE LABOUR

MARKET
Riga, 2006
FACTUM & BISS Gender Equality Aspects in the Labour Market 2005 – 2006
RESEARCH TEAM
The research “Gender Equality Aspects in the Labour Market” (GEALM) of the project “Studies of the
Ministry of Welfare” No. VPD1/ESF/NVA/04/NP/3.1.5.1./0001/0003 of the national programme of
structural funds of the EU “Labour Market Studies” was carried out by “FACTUM” Ltd and the
foundation “Baltic Institute of Social Sciences” (the General Partnership “RS Group”), as well as involved
experts under the guidance of Dr. soc. Brigita Zepa.
Dr. soc. Brigita Zepa, research team leader, chair-person of the board of the foundation “Baltic Institute of
Sciences” and a professor in the sociology department of the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University
of Latvia. Professional interests of B. Zepa include the following issues: analysis of social policy, ethno
policy, democratization of society, political participation, comparative value studies, and issues of
employment in Latvia and social integration of society.
The following people participated in the GEALM as invited experts: Dr.habil.oec. Pārsla Eglīte,
researcher of Latvian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Economics; Dr.sc.soc. Dagmāra Beitnere,
associate professor of Department of Sociology of the Faculty of European Studies of Riga Stradiņš
University, researcher the Project of National Oral History of the Institute of Philosophy and Sociology;
Dr.sc.soc. Vladimirs Paniotto, general director of International Sociology Institute of Kiev and professor
of Kiev Mihil Academy; Dr.math. Mihails Hazans, expert of econometric analysis, associate professor of
the Department of Mathematical Economy of the Faculty of Economy and Management of the University
of Latvia and Iveta Pavlina, doctoral student of the demography branch at the University of Latvia and
assistant of Economic Institute of Latvian Academy of Sciences.
The research was coordinated by Mag. Soc. Lelde Kāpiņa, manager of qualitative research and project
director of „FACTUM” Ltd. In different stages of the research the following specialists from the
foundation „Baltic Institute of Social Sciences” and “FACTUM”, Ltd. participated in the research:
Oksana Žabko, Inese Šūpule, Aldis Pauliņš, Santa Lemša, Ineta Narodovska, Karina Koļesņikova,
Viesturs Vēveris, Iveta Bitāne, Vera Mihejeva, Dzintars Izāks, Miķelis Grīviņš, Andris Vaitekūns.
The quantitative surveys „Families with Small Children” and „Men and Women in the Labour Market”
were conducted by „Socioloģisko pētījumu institūts”, Ltd.
This document is complied for 75% with the help of financial support of the EU European Social Fund,
and 25% with the financial support from the national budget. The information presented here is the
opinion of the research group on the study „Gender Equality Aspects in the Labour Market” and that is
why it should not be considered as reflection of viewpoint of the European Community or Latvia.
ABSTRACT
GEALM research contains evaluation of the present situation in the field of gender equality in the labour
market of Latvia, identification of the present problems, analysis of its objective and subjective aspects.
Quantitative and qualitative methods were used in the framework of the research – interviews of
employers, inhabitants of active age and families with small children, focus group discussions with
employed people and parents of small children, as well as deep interviews with employers, students and
experts.
In order to favour gender equality, it is necessary to raise education level for inhabitants. The research
shows that it is necessary to pay more attention to training of family relationships in schools, as well as to
better education in the field of the sciences and natural sciences. A particular attention should be paid to
motivation of men to get education that will help to improving quality of their life and lifespan, as well as
it will favour gender equality in a family and in the labour market. There is no need for special activities
that would diminish horizontal segregation, because existence of “male” and “female” professions is
determined not only by the stereotypes that exist in the society, but also by those are objective restrictions
and different subjective needs that exist among representatives of the genders. Inequality of male and
female in the labour market that is indicated by the difference in wages, could be reduced by increase of
wages for employees in the public sector. Measures that would limit vertical segregation are also needed.
These measures include support for harmonization of working life and family life and more strict
restrictions concerning extra hours and irregular work for leading employees.
Key words: labour market segregation, harmonization of working life and family life, wage gap.
i
CONTENT
TABLES ......................................................................................................................................................iv
FIGURES .....................................................................................................................................................v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................................................................vi
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS.....................................................................................................................vii
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................1
MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................4
1. LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................................9
1.1. Review of Legislation and Political Documents................................................................................9
1.2. Review of Data and Previous Studies ..............................................................................................17
1.3. The Theorethical Background of the Research................................................................................36
1.4. Hypothesis of the Research..............................................................................................................38
2. METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................................40
2.1. Focus Group Discussions of Employed People ...............................................................................40
2.2. Survey of Active Age People “Women and Men in the Labour Market”........................................41
2.3. Focus Group Discussions of Parents Having Small Children..........................................................44
2.4. Quantitative Survey of Families Having Small Children.................................................................45
2.5. In-depth Interviews with Employers................................................................................................46
2.6. Quantitative Survey of Employers ...................................................................................................47
2.7. In-depth Interviews with Students – Research on Study Programme Choice Motivation...............48
2.8. Econometric Analysis of Available Research Data on Labour Market ...........................................49
2.9. The Audit of Information Flow........................................................................................................54
3. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND EMPLOYMENT .............................................................................56
RESEARCH OF OBJECTIVE INDICATORS .................................................................................56
3.1. Description of General Situation......................................................................................................56
3.2. Review of the Results of the Survey “Women and Men in the Labour Market”.............................61
3.3. Wage Gap Analysis..........................................................................................................................63
RESEARCH OF SUBJECTIVE INDICATORS ...............................................................................73
3.4. Wage Gap Perception.......................................................................................................................73
3.5. Labour Market Segregation and Concepts about Professions of Men and Women.........................77
3.6. Working Conditions.........................................................................................................................83
3.7. Satisfaction with Work.....................................................................................................................87
4. GENDER AND MOTIVATIONS OF STUDY PROGRAM’S CHOICE ........................................96
4.1. Factors Influencing the Choice ........................................................................................................96
4.2. Impact of School on the Formation of Motivation for Choosing Studies........................................98
4.3. Division of Men and Women in Study Programs ............................................................................99
4.4. Students and the Labour Market ....................................................................................................101
4.5. Combining Studies and Family.....................................................................................................103
ii
5. FAMILY IN THE CONTEXT OF WOMEN’S AND MEN’S EMPLOYMENT..........................105

5.1. Importance of Work.......................................................................................................................105
5.2. Importance of Family from Woman’s and Men’s Point of View ..................................................107
5.3. Sharing of Duties in a Family ........................................................................................................108
5.4. Preferable Division between Work and Private Life .....................................................................110
5.5. Influence of a Family on Working Capacity and Input in Work ...................................................111
6. PARENTS WITH LITTLE CHILDREN AND THE LABOUR MARKET..................................113
6.1. Employment of Parents before Birth of Child ...............................................................................113
6.2. Changes in Working and Family Life after a Birth of a Child.......................................................114
6.3. Returning to the Labour Market.....................................................................................................116
6.4. Actual and Preferable Looking After Little Children ....................................................................121
6.5. Usage and Evaluation of State Support to Families with Small Children .....................................123
6.6. Optimal Order and Duration of Leave for Child Care ...................................................................130
7. POSSIBILITIES OF HARMONIZATION OF WORKING LIFE AND FAMILY LIFE...........132
7.1. Satisfaction with Possibilities of Harmonization of Working Life and Family Life among
Employed Women and Men .................................................................................................................132
7.2. Role and Support of Employers .....................................................................................................134
7.3. Offer and Demand of Flexible Work Forms ..................................................................................137
7.4. Offer of Flexible Work Forms in Enterprises ................................................................................142
8. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF GENDER EQUALITY............................................................144
8.1. Rational and Emotional Perception of Gender Equality ................................................................144
8.2. Perception and Experience of Gender Discrimination...................................................................153
9. IMPLEMENTATION OF GENDER EQUALITY POLICY AND INFORMATION FLOW....159
9.1. Main Policy Documents that Regulate Gender Equality Policy in Latvia.....................................162
9.2. CSB Data Description....................................................................................................................163
9.3. Implementation of Gender Equality Policy in the State Administration .......................................163
9.4. State Secretary Meeting .................................................................................................................164
9.5. Decision Making in Government ...................................................................................................165
9.6. Research Policy..............................................................................................................................166
9.7. Research Database of the State Chancellery..................................................................................166
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................168
10. ASSESSMENT OF THE POLICY ALTERNATIVES FOR IMPLEMENTING THE GENDER

EQUALITY PRINCIPLE IN THE LABOUR MARKET...................................................................182
10.1. First Alternative: Diversification of Ways of Children Sitting....................................................182
10.2. Second Alternative: Increase of the Child Care Allowance for Parents that have Children aged
One to Two Years .................................................................................................................................194
10.3. Third Alternative: Coordination of the Wage of a Teacher to the Average Wage of Specialists of
Natural Sciences or Hard Sciences .......................................................................................................198
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................209
iii
TABLES
Table 2.8.1. Comparison (in lats) of wages of full time employees, data of WIF-2005, LFR-2005, and
HBS-2004....................................................................................................................................................49
Table 3.1.2. Employment level of male and female at the age of 15 – 74 (in percents) depending on
the type of the settlement in 2002 – 2005....................................................................................................56
Table 3.3.2. Proportion of average wage of full time male and female employees (in percents of
male’s wage) in 2005. .................................................................................................................................65
Table 3.3.4. Detailed decomposition of the gap of average wage logarithm, data of 2005 ........................69
Table 3.3.5. Contribution of wage structure of full time employees of various sectors into total gender
wage gap (in percents) ................................................................................................................................70
Table 3.4.1 Perception of fairness and size of wage of employed male and female ...................................72
Table 3.4.2. Differences between male and female perception of fairness of wages (percent-points) .......73
Table 3.7.1. Classification of male and female satisfaction evaluation in 2006 (col. %)............................87
Table 3.7.2. Gap between male and female satisfaction with the possibilities of coordinating family
life and work with the work in general. 2006..............................................................................................87
Table 3.7.5: Satisfaction of employed male and female concerning their position in their main
workplace (col. %) ......................................................................................................................................91
Table 3.7.6. Gender effect and satisfaction with one’s position in the main workplace 2005 ....................91
Table 6.3.1. Working hours for mothers before and after the birth of the youngest child (in percents of
the number of employees in each group) ..................................................................................................115
Table 6.3.2. Child’s age, starting from which mother resumes or is planning to resume to work (in
percents and number of each group) .........................................................................................................116
Table 6.3.3. Prognosis of job, position and wage maintaining for mothers (%). ......................................116
Table 6.5.1. Allowances used by fathers (% of fathers who have a child of a particular age)..................123
Table 6.5.2. Allowances received by mother and father for the youngest and the previous child (% in
each group)................................................................................................................................................126
Table 6.5.3. Satisfaction of parents of small children with the present order of allowance for child
care granting that came to force on March 1, 2006 (% of each gender group) .........................................128
Table 6.5.4. Optimal duration of leave for child care, evaluated by parents having small children
(col.% of each gender in the corresponding group) ..................................................................................129
Table 7.3.1. Potential demand of flexible work forms (% of each work form).........................................139
Table 10.1.1. Number of newborns from 1999 to 2004 divided taking into consideration actual and
possible attending of PEI...........................................................................................................................184
Table 10.1.2. Number of children, parents of whom could use services of a babysitter ..........................184
Table 10.1.3. Unexpected expenses and incomes (from PIT) if the state covers state social insurance
mandatory payments for a self-employed person ....................................................................................185
Table 10.1.4. Expenses and incomes (in lats) from the present wages of PEI pedagogues .....................186
Table 10.1.5. Expenses and incomes (in lats) from the desirable wages of PEI pedagogues .................187
Table 10.3.1. Lowest average gross wage rate per month for teachers.....................................................198
Table 10.3.2. Lowest average gross wage rate per months in lats for teachers
(since September 1, 2006) .........................................................................................................................199
iv
FIGURES
Figure 3.1.1. Economical activities and employment rate of inhabitants aged 15 – 64 by gender, 1996
– 2005 (%)...................................................................................................................................................55
Figure 3.1.2. Employment rate of inhabitants of Latvia aged 15 – 64 in comparison with other EU
member states in 2002 and 2005 (%) ..........................................................................................................56
Figure 3.1.3. Level of economic activities of inhabitants of Latvia aged 15 – 64 in comparison with
other EU member states in 2002 and 2005 (%) .........................................................................................57
Figure 3.1.4: Proportion of employment searchers among economically active inhabitants aged 15 –
64 concerning gender division, 1996 – 2005 (%)........................................................................................58
Figure 3.2.1. Profession in the main workplace (%) ..................................................................................60
Figure 3.2.2. Activity of employment search (%) .......................................................................................62
Figure 3.3.1. Difference of hour work wage for male and female in the European Union and in
separate countries (in percents of male’s wage)..........................................................................................63
Figure 3.3.2. Proportion of average “official” gross wage for male and female (in percents of male’s
wage). ..........................................................................................................................................................64
Figure 3.3.3: Proportion of male and female wage (in percent of male’s wage) at other equal
conditions a in different points of wage division. Full time employees, 2002 – 2005.................................66
Figure 3.3.4: Difference of male and female wage (in percents from male’s wage) in similar
conditions a in different wage distribution points. Full time employees, 2005. ..........................................67
Figure 3.3.5: Forecasted male and female wages (in lats) within the given profession depending on
tenure and previous experience in the profession. Full time employees, 2005. ..........................................71
Figure 3.5.1. Obstacles to employ male and female in en equal portion in an enterprise (%). ...................76
Figure 3.5.2. Projective method – bubble of ideas “What is a male/female concerned about in their
work”...........................................................................................................................................................81
Figure 3.7.1. Forecasted satisfaction in work of males and females depending on sector of
employment (in other equal conditions), 2006............................................................................................89
Figure 5.1.1. Projective method – finishing of sentences: “I need a job in order to …”...........................104
Figure 5.1.2. Projective method – finishing of sentences: “A man/woman needs a job because…”........105
Figure 5.2.1. Projective method – finishing of sentences: “A man/woman needs a family because...”....106
Figure 6.2.1. Projective technique: “What are the thoughts of a mother to-be/father to-be?” “ ...............113
Figure 7.3.1. Job characteristics of female before and after the birth of a child (%) ................................137
Figure 7.3.2. Interest of parents to use some of the flexible forms of work (%).......................................138
Figure 7.3.3. The main reason why unemployed would prefer doing a flexible work (%).......................140
Figure 8.1.1. Perception of gender equality. Summary of collage technique for parents having small
children in focus groups ............................................................................................................................147
Figure 8.1.2. Perception of gender equality. Summary of collage technique for employed people in
focus groups. . ...........................................................................................................................................148
Figure 8.1.3. Perception of gender equality. Summary of collage technique for parents with small
children and employed people in focus groups.. .......................................................................................149
Figure 9.1. Institutional scheme of reviewing and adoption of the gender equality issues.......................159
Figure 9.2. Consultative structures and its participants organized by the department of gender equality
of the MW .................................................................................................................................................160
Figure 10.3.1. Number of teachers in comprehensive schools of the Republic of Latvia (primary
schools, basic schools, secondary schools and special schools)................................................................198
Figure 10.3.2. Versions of pedagogue wage growth year by year ..........................................................200
v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSB – Central Statistical Bureau of the Republic of Latvia

CM – Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia
EU – European Union
EU10 – new member states of the European Union (Check Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania,
Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary)
EU15 – old member states of the European Union (United Kingdom, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France,
Greece, Italy, Ireland, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Portugal, Finland, Spain, Denmark, Sweden)
EUROSTAT – Statistical Bureau of the European Community
GEALM – Research “Gender Equity Aspects in the Labour market” of the project “Researches of the
Ministry of Welfare” No VPD/ESF/NVA/04/NP/3.1.5.1./0001/0003 of the national programme “Labour
Market Studies” of the ES structural funds
HBS – Household budget survey of the Central Statistical Board of the Republic of Latvia
LFS – Labour Force Study of the Central Statistical Bureau of the Republic of Latvia
LBAS – Free Trade Union Confederation of Latvia
LDDK – Employers’ Confederation of Latvia
MCFA – Ministry of Children and Family Affairs of the Republic of Latvia
ME – Ministry of Economics of the Republic of Latvia
MES – Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia
MF – Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Latvia
MRDLG – Ministry of Regional Development and Local Government of the Republic of Latvia
MW – Ministry of Welfare of the Republic of Latvia
NDP – National Development plan
NEP – National Employment plan
NPP – National and private partnership
PEI – preschool educational institutions
MPEI – Municipal preschool educational institutions
PPII – Private preschool educational institutions
SRS – State Revenue Service
SC – State Chancellery
WIF – Research “Wages and Impacting Factors” of the project “Researches of the Ministry of Welfare”
No VPD1/ESF/NVA/04/NP/3.1.5.1./0001/0003 of the national programme “Labour Market Studies” of
the ES structural funds
vi
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
Dissimilarity index DI – known also as Duncan index – this is number between 0 and 1, where 0
corresponds to identical division of categories of two workers in profession groups, but 1 (or 100%)
equals to a full segregation. In the gender context, DI shows is the minimum female proportion that
should change their profession in order to make gender proportion equal.
Economic activity – participation in the labour market or labour force indices, employed inhabitants and
work searchers taken together.
Flexible work forms – forms of labour relations when en employer and en employee, by coordinating
their needs mutually, agrees upon the way, place and time when the work will be done.
Gender wage gap – difference (in percents) between full time male and female employees wage.
Gender discrimination – creation of any differences, exceptions or restrictions concerning gender traits
that reduces or eliminates acknowledgement of gender equity and basic rights in political, economic,
social, cultural, citizen rights or other fields.
Human capital – the set of skills which an employee acquires on the job, through training and
experience, and which increase that employee's value in the marketplace.
Objective (index, aspect, etc.) – existing independently from human consciousness and attitude.
Percentile (Pi) – value of the feature under consideration that divides a row of arranged data in 100 equal
parts.
Percentage points – a form of expressing difference between two frequency proportions in percents
showing the distance using the same scale, for example, 2% and 8% makes 6 percentage points.
Segregation – the notion originates from the Latin word “segregatio”, which means “separation,
delimitation”.
Horizontal segregation – informal division existing in the labour market that divides “male” and
“female” professions or branches or division of labour market into determined profession sor
branches where men or women usually work.
Vertical segregation – lower representation of women in leading/higher positions in the labour
market.
Stereotype – simplified image of an individual, institution or culture (Lippman 1997/1922: 53-69), or
models of perception that exist in the society that simplifies surrounding world and makes it more
comprehensible and foreseeable to a person (BISS 2005:60). In the gender equity context, stereotypes are
regarded as absolutization of a particular traits or behaviour models that exist among representatives of a
gender and its ascription to all male or all female.
Subjective (index, aspect, etc.) – related to opinion, perception and attitude of a person.
Unpaid job – all other works that were done within a household or community, including individual care,
education, social work and leisure time.
Under employed – half-time employees who usually work not less that 40 hours per week but they would
prefer working more if their wage would increase proportionally.
vii
FACTUM&BISS Gender Equality Aspects in the Labour Market 2005-2006
INTRODUCTION
The research “Gender Equality Aspects in the Labour Market” (hereinafter GEALM) constitutes a part
of the national programme of EU structural funds “Labour Market Studies” of the project “Studies of
the Ministry of Welfare”. The research was carried out in the time period from July 27, 2005 to
January 5, 2007. The general aim of the research is to favour creation of integrated society on the basis
of employment policy of an inclusive state. In order to reach the aim, evaluation of the present
situation in the filed or gender equity in the labour market or Latvia, identification of existent
problems and analysis of its objective and subjective aspects was carried out.
Urgency and necessity of the research was determined by, first of all, the situation in the labour market
of Latvia where, on the one hand, one can observe an increasing lack of labour force, and, on the
other, large number of human resources are not employed at present. Secondly, urgency of research of
this problem is emphasized by the strategic aims set in Lisbon by the European Union that prescribe to
raise employment rate, create and develop inclusive labour market policy and insure gender equity in
the labour market.
European Employment Strategy prescribes eliminate all kinds of discrimination and inequity in the
labour market, as well as to develop human resources and favour creation of information society. In
Latvia, within the framework of this strategy and with the help or European structural funds, there is
the third priority “Development of human resources and promotion of employment” of the Single
Programming Document realized. Necessity of the research GEALM results from the following
activities of the third priority:
Development and promotion of active labour market policy in order to favour employment,
eliminate possibility for man and woman to have a long-term unemployment, contribute into
integration of unemployed into the labour market and support professional integration of
young people;
Favouring of equal possibilities in the labour market, paying a particular attention to the risk
groups of the society that are the most subjected to the threat of outcast;
Arrangements that would favour female participation in the labour market.
In Latvia, gender equality in the labour market is formally guaranteed by the legislation of Latvia, with
the help of international and European normative acts (Labour Law, UN Convention on elimination of
female discrimination, gender equality strategy of the European Commission, etc). However there
exist several imperfections in the actual or real situation of introduction maintenance of gander
equality principles. In the national programme “Labour Market Researches”, when substantiating the
urgency of the research, there were the main problems that characterize gender equality in the labour
market of Latvia: (1) in comparison with other EU member states, there is low rate of male
employment and their participation in the labour market; (2) low proportion of women among
entrepreneurs; (3) negative increase indices; (4) low rate of gender equality principle observance,
which can be seen from the difference in wages, as well as position among men and women.
Moreover, the research was necessary in order to find out how the new norms of the Labour Low are
observed, what their influence and influence of the regulations of the CM on changes in the amount of
the allowance for child care is on the reintegration of parent into the labour market.
Specific aims of the research GEALM was to identify problems in ensuring gender equality principle
in the labour market, evaluate the present situation in the field of equality of rights, prepare solutions
fro ensuring gender equality in the labour market in Latvia, as well as to prepare suggestions how to
enhance harmonization of family life and job.
In order to achieve the aim, the following research tasks were set:
to identify problems in ensuring gender equality in the labour market, including subjective and
objective aspects by carrying out quantitative and econometric analysis;
to study wage issues, kinds and prevalence of agreements used in the labour market in the
context of branches and professions, as well as to study unemployment risk and demand and
offer of under employment;
1
carry out research of horizontal and vertical segregation by gender in the labour market;
to study aspects of motivation on student division in definite study programmes and
professions in the labour market depending on gender;
to carry out study of allowance fro child care and to find out its impact on rejoining of parents
the labour market;
to carry out study of the notion of informal factors and contacts in employment field in the
context of gender discrimination and equality (to find out comprehension of sexual harassment
at work).
In addition to research tasks, there were the following policy analysis undertakings set in the work task
of the research:
elaborate proposition to improve harmonization of working life and family life;
to recognize institutions and organizations that are involved in ensuring gender equality in the
labour market, describe the present circulation of information and elaborate recommendation
for optimal collaboration of the institutions and organizations;
to elaborate alternatives for development of gender equality policy in the labour market and
carry out deep analysis of three alternatives.
In the framework of the project, gender equality is the situation when the role of male and female in
development of society is admitted to be equal, they have equal rights and responsibility, they are
provided with the same resources and possibilities of their usage. Contribution of male and female into
society and their problems are perceived in an equal manner, and the problems that exist in the labour
market are solved from the perspective of a man and a woman. Ensuring of gender equality principle
in the labour market, we tried to find out viewpoints, position and situation of both, men and women
in each question, and to emphasize these differences in the results of the study.
In order to reach the aims set, interdisciplinary approach was chosen – by involving experts in the
work group, this provided both, sociological and social-anthropological, as well as demographic and
economic approach to the research of gender equality in the labour market. Substantional approach
was evaluated form the gender theory perspective, which is based on the assumption that gender is not
relevant but for socialization and gender stereotypes that are created by culture on what is masculine
and what is feminine. Substantional approach deals with identity of a person that manifests
biologically a male or a female, but using morality, lows and norms, a person defines and develops the
necessary characteristics for his or her life – education, profession and partnership.
Separate problems were evaluated in different target groups, using different research techniques and
analytical methods. Simultaneous usage of several methods allows understand better the essence of the
problem and raises substantiation of conclusions. The research GEALM contains situation research
using document and secondary analyses, quantitative sturdy and methods of economic analysis.
Explanation of the situation was obtained with the help of quantitative methods – focus groups, deep
interviews and expert interviews.
Within the framework of this research, there was methodology and set of instruments elaborated,
forms of special quantitative inquiries or separate blocks of questions can be used in further analyses.
Taking into consideration multi-dimensionality or the wide range of studied problems of the labour
market of the research, as well as diverse opinions of experts concerning gender equality aspects, the
research becomes an important contribution into development or gender and work sociology in Latvia.
On the one hand, it confirms the studies of researchers in previous years, for example, role of gender
stereotypes in creating labour market segregation and main concept of gender inequality as a problem
to be solved in a family and society. The research continues and supplements study of the present
situation of families and pays attention to harmonization of family life and work taking into
consideration needs and possibilities of employers. Unlike the studies that have been carried out in
Latvia until now using foreign experience or researches and the latest statistical data available in
Latvia, GEALM provides a significant contribution into analysis and explanation of difference in
wages among genders.
2
With the current policy analysis carried out during the project, kinds of solutions offered for these
problems, elaborated possible alternatives and given evaluation of field policy, the research can be
used for policy makers and enforcers, as well as by legislators.
In order to evaluate this situation and sector in accordance with the changes in situation, GEALM
work group defined indicators that allow measuring the process and progress of gender equity
principle observance in the labour market. It was proposed to choose statistical data or data prepared
by state services that are regularly or episodically obtained as the indicators, which, on the one hand,
show the real circumstances or situation in the field of gender equality, but, on the other, measure
changes of these circumstances or situation in time. It is advisable to follow the position of men and
women in the labour market due to the proportion of employees among each age group of inhabitants,
taking each gender separately; separate progression groups of male and female proportion, as well as
wage per hour for male and female in the groups of professions of each kind of economic activities. In
the context of the labour market, it is important to follow the possibilities activity of education for
male and female and their participation in fulfilling family duties. It is possible to measure indirectly
the attitude of society towards gender equality and norms that are characteristic for each of them by
using proportion of female among candidates and elected persons in parliament and municipal
elections. This provides a regular conception of support of the society and politicians for nomination
of women. Whereas mortality rage of male and female illustrates the impact of behaviour models on
the life duration and quality for men and women, which considerably influences labour force. The
results of this activity of the research that were supplemented by indices that are important for policy
enforcers are already implemented (home page of the MW, section of gender equity “Situation in
Latvia”).
Apart form the information included in the research, detailed reports for each research activity were
prepared during realization of the project, that are available electronically in the Labour Department of
the MW, the same as transcripts or focus group interviews, files of quantitative researches, tables and
set of instruments of the research are.
3
MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS
Notion of gender equality in the context of labour market is mainly perceived as equal rights and
possibility to get a job and to receive a fair and equal wage. This notion communicate clear
enough the idea of the role of a man and a woman in development of the society and it practically
is not associated to equal possibilities of using resources.
Taking into consideration and accepting the physiological differences of male and female in a
wider society. This is perceived by employers not like a part of gender equality principle
observance, but like an argument against possibility of existence of gender equality. Possibilities
of make to do physically hard work, which female should avoid, is considered to be the main
explanation of the situation of gender inequality in the labour market, and it is impossible to
change it.
Gender equality principle is mainly related to solving of issues that are important form women.
There exists an opinion among male employers that there are no important braches of gender
equity principle – sometimes there occur some negative episodes, but they are not worth making
the problem acute. Whereas female employers think that attention hat is paid to gender equality is
not exaggerated.
In general, principles of gender equity are better accepted and realized by men and women with
higher education, but stereotypes are more vivid among inhabitants who have lower level of
education.
Subjective restrictions or the basis for further realization of gender equality principle in the labour
maker starts in a family when a child observes and learns the duties in a family and division of
work. For observance of gender equality principle in the labour market, a great role belongs to the
leading stereotypes or traditions and social habits.
Although about a half of employees of both genders work about 40 hours per week, however
proportion of such people among men is higher (36%) who work more than 40 hours, whereas
number of women who work half time is twice as high (18). But this does not means that women
have more free time, because the results of spending free time show that men spend by 7 hours
more at work than women, whereas women spend more time on unpaid work (almost 12 h per
week) – household works and family care.
Belonging to a gender is a factor that influences wage, and influence of this factor depends on the
sphere of employment. In 2005, in Latvia, difference of average official wage of male and female
constituted 18%.
Difference in wages can partially be explained by the fact that men prefer greater workload, while
women are more often employed less than 40 hours per week. This is related to unequal division
of house works in the family, where women have to do more work and/or take care for children,
when compared to men. However even within the frameworks or equal work load, one can
observe predominance or men’s wage.
The biggest contribution into wage difference between genders is made by unequal division of
employees among groups of professions, branches of national economy, as well as public and
private sector. Men work in private sector more often than women do, and wages there are higher
in average and male work in the field where wages are higher more often than women do. Better-
paid branches are: building, forestry, power industry, transport and communications. However
women usually work in the field and in the professions where the wage is relatively smaller, but
men working in the same professions when compared to other men, these indices are even worse.
Effect of other factors that partially explain wage difference between male and female 9age,
education, nationality or knowledge of the Latvian language, location of an enterprise and number
of employees) are smaller and they are mutually compensated.
4
Horizontal gender segregation in the labour market of Latvia is very pronounced. Proportion of
men working in agriculture, forestry, fishery and production is about two, even three times higher
that the corresponding index for women, whereas the highest proportion for women can be
observed among employees of public sector and service industry (education, health care, sales,
hotels and services). However horizontal segregation or existence of “male” and “female”
professions does not mean strengthening of gender inequality. Vertical segregation is the one that
causes gender discrimination, and its features can be seen, for example, in state administration –
those are mainly men who work in higher rank positions, as well as wage difference for men and
women is bigger.
Female entrepreneurs and managers of different levels are more often satisfied with the wage and
carrier possibilities. However inhabitants of this group consider that it is important to support
harmonization of family life and work – women who occupy important posts often have to work
on weekends during extra hours.
Wage differences for men and women working in an enterprise are related to views (stereotypes0
of the employer on the role of gender. Almost a half of the respondents-employers consider that
men are likely to receive higher wage for the same work, but women agree on working for a lower
wage, however the majority of them do not deny that there exists any possibility of gender
inequity in their enterprises.
Differences of the dominating motivation among men and women influence the choice of
profession and position and involvement in the labour market. Both, men and women consider that
the most important conditions, such as good wage and safe work environment are more important
for women, and these conditions are social aspects and possibilities to coordinate job with leisure
and family life. Men often express a viewpoint that sometimes they are made to work more in
order to earn more and realize his role of bread winner better. Women in this respect are freer in
their choice and, although they do not reject work as a source of incomes, she more often
perceives work as a possibility to realise her personal, social and mental needs.
Belonging to a gender influences the abilities of a person to gain additional incomes. In Latvia,
men join the labour market earlier and workers of physical job are rather good remunerated.
Taking into consideration physiological limits to perform physical work, female are more active in
acquiring education that allows them to earn more, if compared to the representatives of their sex
who are less educated.
Education is an important factor not only when determining wage of the representatives of both
genders, but also in setting the common level of satisfaction. Disregarding the gender, satisfaction
indices of employees with higher education are higher then those of others.
Involvement of a mother having a small child in to the labour market not only preserves her
capacity, but also favours more equal division of home works.
Employers often think that a woman, who has a family and children, is a more stable employee
and she has more responsible and serious attitude towards work. This is influenced by the problem
of lack of labour force that makes employees evaluate higher a parent having a small child, and
the experience shows that women after the leave for child care evaluate higher social security and
carrier possibilities that the work provides. Whereas it can not be claimed that women with small
children wag more often that other employees.
Employers of Latvia admit that support for the families of employees favours formation of a
healthy micro climate within an enterprise, as well as it raises motivation of employees and
attaches them to the job and favours harmonization of family life and work. In the enterprises
where en employer helps his or her employees to coordinate their personal life and work, as well
as in enterprises where the working place can be characterized as “family-friendly”, satisfaction
with work of employees of both gender raises considerably.
In general, employed inhabitants, disregarding their gender, are more satisfied with their position
if employees are able to change their schedule when it is necessary and whey also highly evaluate
the possibilities to use unpaid vacations and holidays, as well as to arrange meeting, undertaking
of the company for employees and their family members during working hours only.
5
Half-time job is considered to be appropriate for almost half or women and about one fourth of
men who are unemployed at the moment. At present, among men and women there is a high
interest on the forms and models of work, such as flexible time-table, summarized working hours
and distance work that allows prognosticating that they could be demanded in different branches
and groups of professions.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO INSTITUTIONS
For realization of gender equality principle in the labour market, it is necessary to take measures
for vertical segregation prevention (support for entrepreneurship of women, active inclusion into
the lists of parliament and municipal elections, etc).
A greater attention should be paid to acquisition of higher education for all inhabitants and to
reduce the low education level among men. Higher education favours introduction and realization
of gender equity principles, it increases productiveness of work and wage rate, it influences
positively work conditions and leaves a positive effect of satisfaction of employees with their
work.
To ensure acquisition of the necessary sciences (physics, mathematics) in further education at
school.
To introduce family education programme that has been prepared some years ago in school
programmes or pay more attention to other subjects (for example, health care and social sciences),
to gain attention of children and youth of both genders to acquire knowledge on forming
relationships and their preservation, as well as on issues of child care, child breeding and gender
equity.
The most efficient way how to decrease wage difference for both genders is to increase wages in
public sector, for example, for employed in health care of education sector.
To popularize good examples of gender equality, equal division of duties at home and successful
harmonization of family life and work. To use exchange of positive experience of families,
employed or employees as the most effective way of popularizing of the idea of gender equality.
To show in the informative campaigns of gender equality benefits from realization of gender
equality principles at work.
To raise awareness of inhabitants on possibilities of fathers to use services of family support
(paternity vocations and allowance, child care benefit and vacation).
To favour measures that allow coordinate child breeding with employment by developing a net of
different pre-school educational institutions, and to organize the system of babysitter service. To
improve ways of looking after children near the working places of their parents and to favour
availability of preschool education institutions or game and development centres. It is particularly
important to create groups of small children or game groups aged till the age of 2 years and for
children aged 2 – 3 years.
To support families with children aged from 1 – 1.5 years, as well as to support unemployment
risk group who have limited mobility and possibilities of work, for example,
To provide financial support for usage of babysitter services;
To take measures for family support, for example, to endure paternity vocation by 10 days
to 3 months, which the father is able to use 18 month since the birth of a child;
To increase the amount of the childcare benefit that is paid to parents disregarding their
employment till the child reaches the age of 1.5 years.
6
It is necessary to realize more actively restrictive measures for unregistered employment. At

present work on oral agreement is more spread among men, but work without a labour agreement
or partial social insurance payments reduces potential guarantees that are provided to employees.
Unregistered employment causes gender inequality also in the way that the private sector (where
men are prevailing in number) does not transfer a considerable part of resources to the public
sector (where women are the main employees) if they do not pay taxes.
For realization of gender equality principle in the labour market, those are measures preventing
vertical segregation are necessary and have to be favoured, which includes restrictions of extra
hours for leading employees.
OMBUDSMENS OFFICE
We suggest informing the society on the way to act in the situations when a person is insulted. To
provide information on the positive solutions of this kind of situations;
To support and encourage people who protest and look for defence in the Law enforcement board
or low enforcement institutions in the case of person insult.
STATE EMPLOYEMENT AGENCY
To favour concurrency of leave for child care for parents with the help of training courses of
retraining courses paid by the state, as well as to favour possible social mobility by providing
information un the possibilities of people in this group in the labour market.
To support inclusion of women having small children into the labour market at the period of leave
for child care by offering a possibility to attend training courses or professional courses in the
form and time that is acceptable for them (for example, at the evenings or during holidays or as
distance education).
By collaborating with employers, to offer patents after their leave for childcare flexible work
form, a particularity flexible timetable and full-time work that correspond to their needs and
possibilities in the framework of subsidised employment measures.
SUGGESTIONS FOR EACH READER OF THE RESEARCH

Employers suggest that female employees should get involved into reduction of wage difference
by changing “typically feminine” behaviour models:
to ask an adequate wage for her work,
to propose herself more actively in the labour market and have a more intense labour
search,
to emphasize their skills and high qualification when talking to employer and not to
express their concerns about undone house work or possible illnesses of their children.
To develop labour unions and favour conclusion of collective agreements thus reducing the wage
difference of men and women.
When realizing equal duty division in a family:
to involve fathers in child breeding from the firs days and do not undertake fulfilling of
house fork even if women hope that this would change after she would resume her work;
men like to get involved in household works it technologies can be used when doing
them. This could work as a stimulus for women to evaluate not only washing machine or
dish washing machine, but also other appliances.
7
EVALUATED POLICY ALTERNATIVES

Basing on the information obtained during the research “Gender Equity Aspects in the Labour
Market”, there were policy alternatives that pay more attention to gender equality aspects, concern
education and harmonization of family life and work chosen for deeper analysis. The first of the
chosen alternatives if differentiation of the ways of babysitting in order to ensure possibilities of
coordinating family life and work for patents who have small children. The second alternative is
increase of the amount of childcare benefit for parents having children aged from 1 – 2 years in order
to reduce discrimination of women with small children and favour their involvement into labour
market. The third alternative is increase of wage by approximating it to the average wage of people
working in the field of sciences and natural sciences in order to increase education level among men
and favour acquisition of subjects of sciences and natural sciences among youngsters.
Taking into consideration all three alternatives, the first one is the most viable and democratic
policy alternative, as well as the way of problem solution offered in it – differentiation of
babysitting forms. Observance and maintenance of basic principles of democratic society would
take place in two ways. First of all, by differentiating the forms of babysitting would allow for
each family to choose the most appropriate one. Secondly, by improving the infrastructure
necessary for better harmonization of family life and work or by creating more diverse forms of
babysitting, this will favour employment especially for the groups of the society, like women after
leave for child care, thus improving gender equality in the labour market. However, the first
alternative at the same time is the most complicated one in relation to involvement of the society.
It is not oriented towards involvement of the present partners, but also on development of social
partnership in babysitting. As players of all levels are interested in favouring employment –
municipalities, employers, ministries, social organizations – the better they will be able to identify
their resources and possibilities in achieving the common aim, the sooner the feedback will be
provided by the alternative. An example of a negative experience is the postponed development of
babysitter service. Municipalities have not been able to create babysitter register – because of lack
of resources or interest. Until now, expenses for ensuring payment were included into the list of
duties of a municipality. Creation of such babysitter register would increase availability and
clearness of this form of babysitting.
The second alternative (increase of child care benefit) can be considered as an additional means
for diversification of babysitting. Increase of the benefit is considered to be as an earmarked
subsidy for favouring mobility of parents of these children. At present, inclusion of women into
the labour market is hampered by lack of means of babysitting. Optimal support for inclusion of
women having small children into the labour market without financial support would be an
efficient way of using present opportunities – professional courses or training courses
corresponding to their needs and possibilities and offer of flexible work forms. Executive
institutions are directly involved into implication of the alternative – Ministry of Finance and
Ministry of Welfare (the aims of the measures concern the field of tasks of the Ministry of
Children and Family Affairs). Support of decision-making bodies (Saeima – parliament) depends
on the possibilities of the budget and lobby of ministries, but no relevant objections are expected
especially because of the fact that this is a decision that will increase support of the family.
The aim of the third alternative is: by increasing wage for a considerable part of people working
in the public sector, to reduce gender wage difference; by increasing teacher wages, to attract
professionals for work in schools, thus favouring will of youngsters to learn and acquire higher
education (or at least to finish secondary education); to increase prestige of a teacher and reduce
causes that create profession segregation in the labour market. However, taking into consideration
the financial resources that are necessary for introduction of the alternative, it is expected that
there will be resistance from the part of executive institutions, especially Ministry of Finance.
8
1. LITERATURE REVIEW
In the first part of this research, there is a summary of legislation and political documents that
determine or influence realization of gender equality principles in the labour market. Then there are
researches that have been carried out in Latvia and abroad mentioned, that are related to aspects of
gender equity in the labour market, as well as the main theoretical approaches in research of these
issues are described. In the end, there are hypothesis of the research that have been elaborated by the
research group defined basing on the information sources considered in this chapter.
1.1. Review of Legislation and Political Documents

The analysis of political documents is necessary in order to find out the mechanism and principles of
Latvian politics, which affect the gender equality situation on the labour market whether directly or
indirectly. The task of this situation analysis is to prepare an overview as a basis for further evaluation
of this document, implementing that into praxis, and for development of political alternatives. The
researches that were made up to now had only several essential documents.
The most essential laws and regulations are named in the overview (see full list of laws and
regulations in the appendix 1.1.1.), the direct or indirect aim of which is consummation of gender
equality, or in which this point has to be included, so that further on in the analysis there could be used
documents of actual international and national politics. The EU directives are mentioned in the context
of legislation of the Republic of Latvia, and these directives had to be adopted after entering the EU.
The Lisbon Strategy intends to deal with the low productivity and stagnation of economic growth in
the EU, through the formulation of various policy initiatives to be taken by all EU member states.
Under the strategy, a stronger economy will stimulate job creation in the EU, alongside social and
environmental policies that ensure sustainable development and social inclusion, which will
themselves drive economic growth even further. These aspects will whether directly or indirectly
affect Latvian legislation, strategies and plans in terms of gender equality.
Lisbon strategy is not a common programme-document and it is regularly updated. Due to these
reasons, the main documents for analysis were chosen – Statement of the European Commission to the
European Council and Parliament of February 2, 2005 (hereinafter – Statement) and Report of the
European Commission on male and female equity (hereinafter – Report).
The strategy as a sustainable solution has been adopted on March 23 – 24, 2000 in Lisbon during the
meeting of European Council. Its main target is ensuring economical growth and making the EU the
most dynamic and competitive knowledge society in the world by 2010. Although this strategy
prescribed mainly precise indices that should be reached, there were separate targets set. In the field of
employment, the aim of the Lisbon Strategy is to rise “employment rage from the present average
index of 61% to 70% (in 2010) and to increase employment rate among women from 51% to more
than 60% (in 2010)” (EC 2000: 20).
In the mid-stage of strategy realization, having evaluated state and institutions’ reports, it was
concluded that the results were not quite satisfactory – the member states were not very successful in
realizing reforms, which happened because of economic problems, overload and weak coordination
and sometimes different priorities (EU High Level Group 2004:5). However some progress still has
been made and, fro example, employment rate of women reached 56% in 2003 and the general
employment – 64.3%. Simultaneously it was indicated that if “the present tendencies will remain,
investment into research and development in 2010 will constitute 2.2% from GDP, which is
considerably less than planned – 3%. In order to improve the situation, important decisions were made
and the European Commission (EC) proposed to make major reforms in two fields – in consistent and
explicit development and creation of good jobs. (EK 2005: 2). The aim of the reoriented Lisbon
partnership development is “to modernize economy in order to preserve the unique model of society
when facing situations like increasing global market, technological changes, influence on the
environment and aging of the society” (EK 2005: 2).
Efficiency of the situation control is ensured by annual reports of the states on the achieved progress
and the Common report of the Community. At present the basic pillars of the Lisbon Strategy is
9
knowledge and innovations for contribution into development, involvement of investors and labour
force and increase of number and quality of working places (EK 2005: 2-4).
In order to reach these aims (maximum employment, improvement of work quality and production,
social and territorial cohesion), there have to be more people involved into employment, the
accessibility of labour force has to be increased, social security systems have to be modernized,
adjusting skills of employed and enterprises have to be improved, investments into human capital have
to be increased with the help of better education and skills. These are the aims of the developed Social
programme (EK 2005: 9).
Gender equality on the labour market was not mentioned as an essential source for achievement of
pointed aims in this report (however the age factor of the labour force is taken into account). In some
places it is explained that women are one of the target groups for employment enhancement.
Observation of gender equality principle in the establishment and realization of national policy would
definitely decrease inequality.
In the report on gender equity in the member states it is admitted that integration of gender dimensions
into politics will help to reach the targets set in the Lisbon Strategy (EC 2005: 3). New initiatives are
needed in order to take advantage of the entire potential of female employees and to involve elderly
women and immigrants, among which employment rate is the lowest, in the labour market. In 2004
the European Council admitted that gender equality policies are also tools of social cohesion and
economic development. Up till now the activities were focused on women in order to reduce the
ageism in labour market, by means of decreasing salary differences and professional segregation
between men and women. There were also mentioned solutions to men’s problems, such as – unjust
systems of family benefits. It is recommended to pay attention to reforms of pension, employment and
childcare institution systems, to maximum structural fund mastering and collaboration with social
partners (EC 2005: 9).
According to the Lisbon strategy and basing on the EU aims of employment and social inclusion, and
requirements for gaining EU structural funds, Latvia has integrated the gender equality principle into
Latvian development plan, the single programme-document for 2004-2006, as well as into the
National Lisbon strategy programme for 2005-2008 and other documents.
European Strategy for Social Cohesion (further in the text Strategy) was established at 2001 and
revised in 2004. On the whole this is a very general, declarative document that does not set any
obligations, and which is made by a priority setting and strategy realization part. However, it is
essential fact that it sets principles of national laws, regulations and programmes.
Strategy defines social inclusion as a society’s ability to provide its members with welfare, mitigating
differences and avoiding polarization. Socially included society is a community, which gives support,
which is created by free individuals, who achieve common aims with democratic methods. There is a
pressure of social differences in every society, but socially included society mitigates them in a
democratic way, defending and keeping social stability under control. Strategy admits that this aim is
hardly reachable, that social cohesion has to be strived for, improved and put in accordance with
changing socially economical, technological and political conditions (European Committee for Social
Cohesion [CDCS] 2004: 2).
Gender equality is considered to be a very essential and important part of social cohesion (ECSC
2004:4). It is intended that all consequences of social political interference in gender situation will be
analysed and evaluated, and gender equality principles will be integrated in all field activities. The
state has to play an active role in keeping the cohesion. Fist of all, it should function as a warranty of
human rights and democracy. Secondly, a state has to maintain equity with the help of solitaire
mechanisms of treasure redistribution – for example, social security and tax system, as well as social
security sector. Thirdly, a state has to defend risk groups of social exclusion by providing them special
help (CDCS 2004: 5).
It is pointed out in the Strategy that social cohesion is improving economic growth. Labour rights are
key elements for participation in the society. Approach to the employment is an essential factor for
mitigation of poverty and thus its aims prescribe more social security systems in stead of the
traditional function of income substitution. As social inclusion is primarily acquired and maintained in
10
a family, they need support in order to fulfil these functions successfully in the changing social
circumstances (CDCS 2004: 5-6).
Member states are expected to take responsibility for their internal social cohesion. Therefore the main
tasks of the European Council are to establish standards, mechanisms of inter-government
collaboration and to help states or groups of states to enforce standards and recommendations in praxis
by means of organizing certain action programmes. The responsibility for development and realization
of the Strategy is given to the European Social Cohesion Committee that was established in 1998 and
that is cooperating with other international organizations and movements, admitting that social
cohesion can be established only with the help of an integrating approach (CDCS 2004: 8).
European Community Gender Equality Strategy. “European Community gender equality strategy
for 2001 – 2005” consists of 2 documents – “European Council decision of December 20, 2000 about
developing a programme in relation to the basic strategy of the Community about gender equality
(2001-2005)” (further in the text – Decision) and “European Commission announcement about the
Basic Strategy of the Union in relation to gender equality to the Community, European Parliament,
Economic and Social Committee and Regional Committee” (further in the text - Announcement).
These documents point the necessity of gender equality as an essential tool for nation’s social and
economic development. The main part of the gender equality strategy is “an action plan, the aim of
which is to elaborate gender equality by helping and supporting the Basic Strategy of the Community”
(EP 2000: 2.§). Latvia has a possibility to participate in various projects connected with gender
equality and get financial support in term of this programme.
The aim of “European Community gender equality strategy for 2001 – 2005” is to develop the main
action principles of the European Commission, according to which all the activities of the Community
will be elaborating equality among men and women (EK 2000: 1§).
It is prescribed that the Programme will coordinate, support and finance Community Basic Strategies
of gender equality horizontal activity in all spheres of interference, which are economics, equal
participation and representation, social rights, social life, gender roles and stereotypes. In order to
achieve certain aims in the international context there is a realization of following activities
prescribed: increase of conscience in terms of gender equality factors, political analysis and
international collaboration, creating a cooperation network and experience exchange on the level of
the Community (EK 2000: 2.2§).
The strategy provides integrative approach to development of situation of women, which determines it
unity with the programmes, plans and policies, etc. It is indicated in the strategy that the activities that
provide men and women equal rights in the field of employment has to be taken into consideration, as
well as those that support work that is done within the framework of the initiative of the European
structural funds and EQUAL, or those, which favour collaboration in order to strengthen the strategy
of employment (EK 2000: 2.2§).
The European Community gender equality strategy is considered to be a well developed document that
includes the main aspects of gender inequality, which will be solved, involving concrete financial
matters that had been offered to Latvia even before the document came in force. But evaluating the
progress of Latvia in achievement of gender equality, it has to be admitted that the aims were not fully
reached: for instance, activating some initiatives that would correspond with such categories like
“conscience increase” and “analysis of gender equality factors and policies”, not involving the
information exchange and international collaboration networks. And according to the main notions of
the European Community gender equality strategy, real gender equality might not be achieved in this
way.
The Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). CEDAW
defines discrimination against women as "...any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis
of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or
exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of
human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other
field." (ANO 1979: 1§).
11
Politics of discrimination elimination have to make sure that gender equality is observed in
praxis and that there are sanctions made when necessary. This also anticipates establishment
of competent institutions for effective defence of women legal rights (ANO 1979: 2§).
The Convention provides the basis for organizing special events with the aim “to hasten the
achievement of factual women and men equality” (ANO 1979: 4§). By accepting the Convention,
States will have to change “social and cultural models of men and women attitude” (ANO 1979: 5§),
avoiding prejudices about one gender superiority or inferiority. Member States will have to guarantee
an equal attitude of both parents towards their children upbringing, equal conditions in spheres of
professional orientation and choice, “elimination of stereotypes about men and women roles in all
levels of education” (ANO 1979: 10§).
In the aspect of employment the CEDAW prescribes rights of free profession choice, promotion in
one’s job, rights for employment guarantee, as well as use of all possible easements connected with
job. The Convention demands that the Member States prohibit any discrimination of pregnant women
or discrimination because of a family status among employers (ANO 1979: 11§).
Latvia joined this convention signed in 1979 (became effective in 1982) in 1002 thus submitting
reports on the situation of women in the state and it has received suggestions on solution of the
problems and improvement of the situation, field of employment included.
In 2004 discussing reports of the Member states of the Convention about actions that were taken,
Latvia was described in following positive aspects – progress in legislation reform (including a chapter
on human rights into the Constitution) and in a range of important positions of women. However,
critics are more expressive, pointing that there is a lack of concrete definition of gender
discrimination, that institutions of women right defence are not informed about the Convention and its
adaptation possibilities. It was also pointed that there is a lack of duty division and weaknesses in the
field of institutional gender equality. An establishment of a common law of gender equality is
suggested. Patriarchal attitude and social gender stereotypes are criticized, and existing anti-events are
considered to be weak and short-term. In order to increase women proportion in institutions, it is
suggested that special temporary events are used (ANO 2004: 5-8).
The Beijing Platform for Action. The Beijing Platform for Action is a programme for improvement
of the situation of women, also known as the IV World Women Congress approved document (ANO
1995). The action plan sees gender equality as an aspect that is based on a stable economic growth,
social development, environment protection and social justice, and that would enable women to join
the economic and social development, and offer equal possibilities for participation in human
development process as both, participants and gainers (ANO 1995: 50§). The government as the main
responsible institution should plan the budget resources considering the possible impact on situation of
women.
Strategic aims – to facilitate economic rights of women, independence; equal access to resources,
employment, markets and trade; to offer business services, training and access to information and
technologies; to strengthen the economic capacity of women and commercial communication
networks; to prevent employment segregation and all forms of labour discrimination; facilitate
harmonization of family and labour lives among men and women (ANO 1995: IV section, F).
Latvian government paid more attention to gender equality right after the Beijing declaration had been
adopted. Already this circumstance stands for the importance of this document for improvement of the
situation of women. The government has achieved a lot, introducing the principles of the Peking
declaration into legislation and implementing initiatives, for instance, facilitating women
entrepreneurship. It would be better if women participated in passing of resolutions and turn against
employers’ discrimination praxes. In the latest report about realization of the Action plan in Latvia it
was noted that there has been a progress in gender equality realization, but there are certain problems,
such as feminization of poverty and violence in families. Women with children have certain problems
with entering the labour market. There is larger poverty risk for lonely mothers, besides in average
salaries of women are lower than of men.
Joint Memorandum on Social Inclusion of Latvia. The aim of Joint memorandum on social
inclusion of Latvia (further in the text - Memorandum) was “to prepare the state for complete
12
membership with an open coordination method about questions of social inclusion” (LM EK, 2003: 1).
Main aims are solving such problems as poverty and social rejection; the largest political events made
in Latvia for establishment of state politics, corresponding to common aim of the EU, and
establishment of certain political spheres for further monitoring and evaluation of politics. This
political inclusion progress will be evaluated in the context of the EU social inclusion that has an aim
to put an emphasis on poverty prevention by 2010.
Memorandum prescribes establishment of an inclusive labour market and facilitation of employment,
including strong cooperation of employers and employees in order to create a positive environment on
the labour market, new jobs, to ensure the mobility of the labour force, to increase resources for
special events for socially rejected groups, to develop collaboration networks and partnerships on the
local and international levels, as well as among local authorities, institutions, NGO and entrepreneurs.
Special attention is paid to events organized for support of risk groups that also include women (LM,
EK 2003: 44).
It is necessary to involve certain ministries, NGO and other social partners for coordination of politics
connected with prevention of poverty and social rejection. The responsibility of this coordination will
be given to the Ministry of Welfare of the Republic of Latvia.
Latvian National Action Plan for Reduction of Poverty and Social Exclusion (2004-2006) (MK
2003: 6) (further in text NRP) is a tool for achievement of strategic goals prescribed in the Lisbon
Council of Europe, which is based on Latvian common social inclusion memorandum (MK 2003: 6).
NRP admits that for now the government doesn’t have enough instruments for factual gender equality
realization (MK 2003: 21). At first, it is necessary to increase the level of knowledge about gender
equality principles, roles of men and women in the society, work and in the establishment of social life
(indicators – number of published informative and methodological materials, number of organized
seminars and other educating events, data of changes of average men and women salaries). Second, it
is necessary to establish a cooperation of authority regulation and institutions of local authorities in
aspects of gender equality integration, and development and realization of field politics (indicators –
number of local authorities and authority regulations that were taught the gender equality principles in
accordance with laws and regulations). Third, it is necessary to develop social understanding about
violence problems in families (indicators – number of organized seminars and published materials, as
well as the number of trained specialists) (MK 2003: 26-27).
There are certain indicators included into the document enabling the evaluation of government policies
for reduction of poverty and social rejection.
Latvia’s Development Plan (Single programming document): 1st Framework Programme 2004 -
2006. Single programme document (SPD) was developed for introduction of the EU Structural Fund
Framework No.1 in Latvia during 2004 – 2006. This strategy is based on the EU statements and
policies in the sphere of equal possibilities, including conclusions of the Council of Europe made in
Lisbon and Gothenburg. SPD points that the development of Latvia is based on solutions of 4 main
problems. In the context of this research the most actual problem is structural unemployment and
regional differences. There are three aims prescribed for solution of the problems above –
development of human resources, facilitation of competitive capacities and employment, development
of infrastructure – that are coordinated to other planning documents – the National development plan
and the EU statements (FM 2003: 10-11).
The document points the importance of gender equality in the national development. Economically not
beneficial position of women is connected with inequality on the labour market. That is why “it is
important to implement the gender equality approach in all level of politics, solving social, economic,
political and other questions” (FM 2003: 63). Horizontal segregation is the main reason for such
position of women, who are concentrating in sectors of lower payment. Inequality in family limits
equal possibilities in social life. Other problems related to gender inequality and government response
to solve them were identified and critically analysed in the same way. “The aspect of gender equality
as a horizontal aim is included in the whole SPD, at first – as a priority for development of human
resources and for facilitation of employment” (FM 2003: 64).
There are various factors mentioned in aspects of development of human resources in the SPD
strategy: “necessity to solve the variance of supply and demand of the labour force; decrease of
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general active labour market; necessity of special events for reduction of social rejection” (FM 2003:
128). One of the aims is also the integration of socially rejected persons into the labour market,
prescribing a development of subsidized working places, facilitation of entrepreneurship etc.
Realization of measures of employment promotion depends a lot on funding of the European
Structural Fund.
The priorities set by the SRS are characterized by general uncertainly – there are several measures
defined such as summarizing of results of gender equity progress analysis, special initiatives to favour
women employment and entrepreneurship, strengthening of capacity of responsible institutions, etc. in
order to solve structural problems of employment, elaboration of concrete mechanisms and measures
with clearly defined criteria is needed.
Although the SPD underlines the necessity of trainings for development of the human resources, there
is a lack of gender equality perspectives in event planning. Influence of education on employment
problems was not evaluated in the SPD, which means that achievement of development of human
resources might be bothered, especially taking into account gender stereotypes that are formed in
education.
National Lisbon programme of Latvia for 2005-2008. National Lisbon programme, which was
developed by the Ministry of Economics in collaboration with other ministries and state institutions, is
“politics planning document, which notes that Latvia in the period of 2005-2008, basing on the
integrated statements, approved by the Council in 2005, will reach the goals of Lisbon strategy” –
facilitation of growth and employment. The Latvian National Action Plan is also integrated into this
programme in order to facilitate employment in 2005, but this plan was confirmed separately (EM
2005: 2).
The Programme is aimed to manage following tasks – to facilitate the entrance into the labour market
and economic activity in weakly developed regions; to reduce not declared employment. Other
identified problems are planned to be solved with providing the accessibility of all levels of education,
with enhancing the technological skills and knowledge of natural sciences; developing a better system
of professional orientation and other events. Information and education about the gender equality on
the labour market will be carried on in order to facilitate employment of various groups and to
organize events for people in pre-retirement age in order to stimulate their economic activity.
It is necessary to connect development of employment with other fields, for instance, social inclusion.
In order to achieve aims of the Programme it is planned to integrate various policies. For example, in
the context of state finance sustainability, equalization of retiring age of men and women and creation
of inclusive labour market are planned as some of the solutions for the increasing demographical load
(EM 2005: 15). One can observe awareness of the necessity to link development of employment to
other fields in the programme, for example, social inclusion. This illustrates that in order to reach the
objectives of the Programme, integration of several policies into at least some issues is planned to be
made. In the same time, solution of employment problems is hardly connected with facilitation of an
access to information and communication technologies.
This document potentially has an essential role in implementing gender equality into employment. But
the Programme, in spite of admitting the existence of structural employment problems, didn’t follow
the integrated approach of gender equality guarantee. It is prescribed that women’s economic activity
and salaries will increase, but the basic reason for gender inequality remains unchanged.
Disdain of unequal wage differences have to be evaluated negatively among tasks of wage increase
(EM 2005: 16). In order to relate achievement of the aims with the social dialogue, there is no
mechanism created for its development (for example, by admitting parents after the leave for child
care as target groups for social inclusion, there is no dialogue for employers provided but instead of
this a large society information campaign is planned). The following thesis of the Programme - “[…] it
is necessary to understand that a successful development and economic growth of Latvia will not only
depend on work of state institutions, but this is also a personal initiative of every individual in all
aspects of social understanding and dialogue” (EM 2005: 11) – might remain on an abstract level.
National Development Plan for 2007 – 2013. The National Development Plan (NDP) is a planning
document of average duration for the time period 2007 to 2013 with the goal to preserve a balanced
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and sustainable development of the state. It corresponds to the aims of the Lisbon Strategy. The task of
the NDP is “to concentrate attention of the society on a common target by providing coordination and
balanced position of activities, sending of resources to achieving of the aims of the state and creation
of preconditions that are necessary for it (RAPLM 2006: 6).
The main precondition of development of Latvia is related to efficient usage of knowledge potential of
the inhabitants. It is indicated that “the basic principle of development process and activities – ceation
of equal possibilities for everyone and personal responsibility of each member of the society on usage
of these possibilities” (RAPLM 2006: 7).
The tasks for creation of inclusive market are related to regional employment and legalization of
employment and they show the importance of employment partners and increase of wage. There is
also another task “to favour access to working places for economically inactive inhabitants at the
giving age, especially for groups of inhabitants that are subjected to the risk of social exlusion –
parents after leave for child care [..]” (RAPLM 2006: 43).
The document does not pay a particular attention to gender equity or equity of men and women in the
labour market. The fact that the creators of the document have considered implication of gender equity
principle is manifested only by that the definition of the term in included in the list of terms, however
the term “gender equity” is not used further in the text.
Although the biggest emphasis in the NDP is put on development of education, the data of education
level are not analysed in regard of both genders, which shows that the attention paid to this issue was
not big, but it causes underestimation of its economic potential that would be created by providing
equal possibilities.
However one cannot deny that solving the problems emphasised in the ND would favour introduction
of the gender equity principle. This will be ensured by, for example, introduction of compulsory
education (RAPLM 2006: 14).
Program for the Implementation of Gender Equality 2005 – 2006 (LM b.d. c) was signed as one of
the instruments for realization of gender equality concept. One of the requirements for nation’s
development and one of the main democratic society pillars is gender equality. Guaranteeing of human
rights also is not possible without observance of the gender equality principle.
The program and measures are aimed to educate, inform and change the attitude of the society towards
questions concerning gender equality in fields of education, employment, internal affairs, justice, as
well as in the whole authority regulation. Events, which were not included in this programme, as well
as events, which are aimed at mitigation of identified problems during realization of the Concept of
gender equality, will be included into the next programme period for 2007-2013.
Prior aims are education at all levels, raising of level of awareness and popularizing of issues of
gender equality; harmonization of working life and family life; raising of the level of capacity and
awareness in the state administration on gender equality questions and creation of mechanism of
sustainable gender equality policy; prevention of violence in a family. Planned macro result –
realization of measures provided in the Programme will reduce off kinds of possibilities of
discrimination, which will influence positively socio-economical situation and level or welfare in the
state.
Labour Law in Latvia was enforced in June 1, 2002. It was passed in the time, when Saeima –
Parliament of the Republic of Latvia – and the Cabinet of Ministers started to draw attention to aspects
of gender equality, and, taking into account amendments in the Labour Law (May 7, 2004), it can be
considered that the law reflects the understanding of mentioned institutions about gender equality and
also possibilities to integrate this question into labour legislation.
The labour Law regulates legal relationships and responsibilities of employers and employees, which
are established on the basis of the Labour Law. The principle of equal rights is declared in the 7th
paragraph of the Labour Law, in which the gender perspective is not separately highlighted; gender is
mentioned as a fact that has not to be discriminated in other contents. The gender equality principle is
highlighted in the 29th paragraph - “Ban of different attitude”. It declares equal possibilities, formally
allowing some deviations in cases, where belonging to a certain gender is an objective for realization
15
of work and a reasonable requirement that corresponds to legal aims (2nd part). The duty of an
employer is to prevent situations that might cause discrimination.
Amendments of May 7, 2004 supplement the Labour Law with the definitions of direct and indirect
discrimination and assault. It determines different attitude to compensation for losses of the
mechanism and compensation for moral harm in court. The task of the court is to define the amount of
compensation for moral harm.
The rights of employees to take up to 1.5 years of parental leave in the period of time till the child is 8
years old, at the same time whether not loosing the previous job or getting one of an equal value,
formally have given for both parents a possibility to participate in their child’s upbringing. But it
doesn’t mean that if men are also participating in their child’s upbringing, then the re-division of
duties will take place, also taking into account the fact that men are those who bring home larger
income.
Legislation standards about pauses in working hours for child’s feeding are positively evaluated. There
is a possibility to be flexible with working hours, adjusting oneself to individual needs, also not
loosing the salary. In general one can conclude that the principle of gender equality is successfully
integrated into the Labour Law, and Saeima and the CM are ready to follow repeatedly, as the
adoption of several amendments proves it.
Law on social security was created for reducing the risk of employment and unemployment. Its
Article 1 determines that “principles of creation and maintenance of social security system, the main
rights and duties of persons, basic conditions of their realization regulate kinds of social services,
including social assistance and breeding by favouring social justice and social security”.
The first principle of the social security system is equal guaranty of social services disregarding
gender, race, nationality or religious beliefs. Article 4 provides support possibilities of people’s
abilities to acquire individual educational support that would correspond to their interests and skills
while favouring education and employment in case if the person has no resources for this.
All employed and remunerated persons, self-employed people, representatives of free professions and
unemployed are subjected to social insurance, which provides them rights on “health and capacity
protection, preserving and renewal” and material means in the case of disability or unemployment
(Article 5).
State social benefits law was adopted on November 19, 2002 and since then it has been amended
several times (Saeima 2004, Saeima 2005). Its main goal is to guarantee support of the state for the
persons who pertain to particular social groups in the time period when they have limited possibilities
to get incomes or compensation of social insurance.
The state has compiled a list of benefits that are meant for at least a partial compensation of children
upbringing expenses. A great number of benefits is related to the demography policy realized by the
state that provides increasing birth-rate by increasing the amount of benefits and enlargement of the
group of people who have right to receive social benefits. This aim provides indirectly for a short-term
and partial withdrawal from the labour market for the period of time meant for child care and
employment of parents before the birth of child directly influences both, social guarantees and amount
of the benefit.
Prenatal leave (56 days) and postnatal leave (56 days) is meant for women before birth of child in case
if she has been employed. Before birth of child, payer of social tax who uses these leaves, receives
maternity benefit at the amount of 100% of the previous year during these 112 days (after tax).
In order to favour participation of fathers and provide rights to a socially insured father of a child who
uses 10 day leave defined in the Labour Law in relation to birth of child, there is a paternity benefit
provided at the amount of 80% from the average wage that constituted the basis for payments.
Childbirth allowance is paid to one of parents of children disregarding their employment.
At present childbirth allowances is paid to one of the parents (a) in the amount of 70% form the
average wage of social insurance payments but not less than LVL 56 per months and not more than
LVL 392 per months if a person still has legal work relations and has taken leave for child care or if
he/she is a self-employed person who can not get incomes until the age of 1 year of the child; (b) 50%
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from the defined amount of the benefit that is fixed for a person who takes care of a child, who is in
leave for child care and does not receive any income as a self-employed persons if the person who
asks the allowance is employed and is not in leave for child care; (c) LVL 50 per month if a person is
not employed (is not considered to be en employee or a self-employed person, as provided in the Law
on Social Insurance), and LVL 30 per month for care from 1 – 2 years old child for both, employed
and unemployed persons disregarding the period of employment.
During the research (form January 1, 2005 to March 1, 2006) unemployed persons could receive
allowance only during the leave for child care (until the age of one year), but since March 1, 2006 one
of both employed parents are able to demand the allowance.
1.2. Review of Data and Previous Studies

The main criteria in selection of analysed researches were time, amount and used methods or their
carrying out. From the range of study offered by the research group, experts and customer only those
studies on gender equality in the labour market, employment of men and women, segregation of the
labour market due to gender and gender wage difference that were carried out during the last five
years. The available amount of researches carried out in Latvia from 2000 to 2005 allowed to prepare
a short summary on evaluation on the majority of the analysed researches. This is electronically
available in the Internet home page of the MW, named as Intermediary Result 2.
Old traditions and availability of studies carried out abroad made the research group to pay great
attention to foreign studies on the labour market aspects that are less analysed in Latvia, to studies that
were carried out in the states of Eastern Europe region, as well as to those, the methodological solution
of which can be taken over, because they are similar to the research approach proposed in the GEALM
and thus they can be used when studying gender equality aspects in the labour market.
Studies conducted in Latvia
Despite the relatively wide range of studies upon the topic of gender equality there is a lack of
interdisciplinary and representative studies. Thus they neglect aspects of gender equality on the labour
market we are interested in. Firstly, there is need for scrupulous analyses on mans’ situation in the
labour market. This situation requires further studies. Realization and publishing of study devoted to
men issues, and popularization of results could solve the current situation when the large segments of
society do not perceive the gender equality as a problem or perceive it as a “women problem”.
International research “Men Equal, Men Different”, launched by Ministry of Children and Family
issues in Latvia (2006), is a contribution to the male studies. In it framework, there were researches on
the position and possibilities of a man as a father in the public, legislation and entrepreneurship
environment of Latvia. Carrying out of this research, publishing of the results and popularizing the
understanding of gender equality in the society creates conception that gender equality concerns men
at the same lever as it concerns women.
There were no studies in Latvia that would turn attention to and explained the aspects of the gender
inequality on the labour market considering the international context of research areas. For example,
analysis of gender pay-gap and segregation on the labour market are some of previously neglected
problems.
Informational value is the most important asset of the previously conducted studies that gives an
overview on situation in Latvia. Besides, some of the mentioned studies give rather detailed analysis
of policy planning and laws and regulations. All the researches carried out in Latvia in order to get
information and wider view of the situation of gender equality in Latvia that directly influence aspects
of gender equity in the labour market.
When evaluating practical application and comparison of the target groups four researches carried out
in Latvia were admitted as usable in elaboration of methodology and set of instruments of the GEALM
research.
1) Objective of research „Inhabitants’ attitude and understanding of gender equality” (Kaņejeva
2001) was using qualitative and quantitative methods to find out opinions and understanding of the
role, duties and responsibilities of men and women in the society; to describe sectors where the gender
inequality is the most explicit.
17
In qualitative research there are revealed the most important stereotypes in the society on gender roles
and feminine/masculine division of sectors. Division of jobs in the family is determined by the
unofficial agreement and the situation at the concrete moment. However, there is a tendency to
separate tasks after the principle of whether they are “men/women works”. Women mostly perform
house work and participation of men is only sporadic and disputably perceived. Some define it as a
matter of fact, others as unacceptable and enforced obligation. When men do help in house works it is
defined as assistance. There is a dominant belief that women are responsible for upbringing of the
children despite the economic risks related to this duty. Meanwhile traditions and social pressure were
recognized as important causes by participants of the focus group discussions (Kaņejeva 2001: 25-29).
Participants acknowledge the gender inequality in employment and that women are more under risk to
receive lower salary or get fired etc. However they admit that it has to be solved not as a social but
individual problem. Respondents points the importance of information and activities, critical position
of society and lack of positive examples of right-defence (Kaņejeva 2001: 16-17).
At the quantitative study more than 1/3 of respondents admitted that “there are more opportunities for
men to start one’s own business, find a job, to make a career, receive more for the same amount of
work, to work in well paid positions”. Only 11% of respondents said there are more opportunities for
women. Men would prefer a job where the higher salary but less social security is guaranteed. Women
more often would prefer a job, where the salary is lower if social security is guaranteed (Kaņejeva
2001: 413, 415-416).
In the research GEALM, combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was used, as well as
some of the questions used in the quantitative polls of inhabitants. However, after a more detailed
study of the set of instruments used in the study “Inhabitants’ attitude and understanding of gender
equality”, one has to conclude that it is important to avoid reproduction of gender stereotypes when
carrying out studies (when interviewing respondents, as well as when publishing and interpreting the
results), which is often done by the researchers by choosing wording of the questions.
2) The aim of the study„Parents’ opinion about extension of the family in 1999 and 2000” (Pavlina,
Eglīte 2001) was to study possible impacts of the increased child care benefit and monthly family
allowance in 1998 and 1999 on the decision to enlarge the family. Inquiry method was used in the
study (filling in questionnaires) (Pavlina, Eglīte 2001: 61).
When comparing the results of the research to the fixed statistical data on the number of family
members, age of mothers and their nationality, we can conclude that the selection included in the
inquiry (n+411) can be considered as generally corresponding to the general body. It can be regarded
as representative and can be used in evaluation of situation changes.
In the frameworks of the GEALM study, there was an inquiry of families with a similar target group
carried out – parents having children till the age of 2 years were interviewed. Questions on the reasons
of resuming employment and on the present and desired ways of babysitting were used from the
inquiry of 2001.
3) The aim of the research „Child-care benefits - their efficiency and preferable payment periods”
(Kavale 2002), carried out in 2002, using statistical analysis, economic analysis and inquiries using
questionnaires to fill in (n=778 parents with children till 8 years), was to find out the opinion of
existing and preferable child-care benefits system; to analyse the efficiency of this benefits; to
summarize information of an benefit influence on social and material lives of families; to work upon
suggestions and recommendations for increasing of payments’ efficiency (Kavale 2002:4).
The research of child-care benefits was done few months after the new Labour Law was enforced
(June 21st, 2002). The results of research were taken into account when developing new system of
allocation of benefits – the child care holiday was shortened from 3 to 2 years and significantly rising
the amount of benefits.
The inquiry on child care allowances were used in the study GEALM in order to elaborate
methodology for inquiries of families having small children. Situation analysis approach and factors
that stimulate parents to return into the labour market before the end of the leave for child care were
also used in the study. In order to get more precise data, it was decided to use the method of direct
interviews, as well as, taking into consideration the changes that have taken place in the order of child
18
care allowance granting, GEALM limited the range of families with children aged 0 – 2 years to
interview.
4) Mihail Hazans in the study “Satisfaction with work and its influence on satisfaction with life” has
carried out a wide analysis of the survey “Quality of Life in Latvia” of 2005 taking into account
satisfaction (Hazans 2006). The aim of the research is to find out the factors that determine satisfaction
with work and how it influences general satisfaction with life.
It was concluded that “possibilities to realize one’s plans and reach targets at work, the same as high
wage influences satisfaction with work of employees in Latvia” (Hazans 2006: 240 – 241). In order to
reach the aim of the research, analysis of working habits of employed inhabitants of Latvia was made.
It was also indicated that these habits are still characterized by overload – 7% of employed inhabitants
had at least one addition work. “In summer 2005, 53% of the respondents of the inquiry on quality of
life claimed that they have starter to work more during the last year or are planning to start working
harder in the nearest future (only 10% have started or are planning to work less) (Hazans 2006: 237-
238).
The author has carried out research of satisfaction of the inhabitants with their work and life by using
different indices. It is emphasized in the research that women in Latvia are less satisfied with their
work (especially with the wage and possibilities to fulfil their plans at work) rather than men (in the
same conditions). It is indicated that in the international context this is rather unusual situation,
because in the researches where the old ES data or data of the OECD states or the data of OECD and
another Eastern Europe country are used, there is mainly the opposite situation seen. In separate cases,
gender statistically has no impact on satisfaction of work; in Netherlands only well-remunerated
female employees are less satisfied (Hazans 2006: 260).
Together increase in education level, satisfaction of satisfaction also rises, which can be explained as
an influence of education on the wage. Like it was discovered in the EU-15 researches, living together
with children influences positively satisfaction with work. However generally economical analysis
reveals that satisfaction with work in general depends on the level of education and family status,
place of living (city or countryside), character of work (mental or physical), moreover it is influenced
by the wage, working conditions and content of work, but practically it is not influenced by gender,
age, region of living or language that is spoken at home – Latvian or Russian. (Hazans 2006: 13).
In the research GEALM satisfaction with work and possibilities to coordinate private life and work
was analysed in details and this was used and indicator that characterises subjective self-esteem of
men and women in the labour market, i.e. in defining subjective situation of gender equality. With the
help of larger selection and more questions on the working place, it was inspected whether women are
less satisfied with their work, as well as influence of different factors was compared in order to find
out satisfaction of men an women with work.
The rest of the studies carried out in Latvia were used for acquisition of information on general facts
that characterize the situation in the field of gender equality, as well as for formulation of possible
questions and elaborate political alternatives. Further there is an illustrative review on the researches
carried out in Latvia and the main conclusions given.
Research „Analysis of practical usage of gender equality basic principles; analysis of employment
and gender equality politics in various institution” (Consensus PR, SKDS 2005) was carried out
within the frameworks of the project “Support for strengthening of capacity for institutions responsible
for introduction of the labour market and gender equality policies” of the national programme
“Support for strengthening of capacity for institutions responsible for introduction of the labour
market and gender equality policies, as well as for spreading of information and increasing of
awareness”. The aim of the study – to find out the main problems that are to be solved in introduction
of gender equality policy in the responsible institutions in relation to employment and gender equality,
level of awareness of employment on gender equality issues, as well as to evaluate the available and
usable information. The following methods were used in the research: situation analysis, using
document analysis, expert interviews and inquiries (Consensus PR, SKDS 2005: 3-4).
The development strategy plans for years 2002 – 2006 and the programme of work for 2005 of the
State Labour Inspectorate (SLI), which is a state supervisory and control institution, do not prescribe
devoting any special attention to the question of gender equality on labour markets. The competence
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of the SLI office staff in solving problems on gender equality is considered to be very low. SLI has to
increase its control in the private sector looking through applications/complaints, to extend its analysis
in the aspect of gender rights, and to provide the employees with regular studies of gender equality.
For the moment it is difficult to improve the situation for the lack of qualified staff and other resources
(Consensus PR, SKDS 2005: 8-9).
State Employment Agency (SEA), together with its other duties, is responsible for helping and
providing unemployed and those who are looking for job with various services. SEA is advised to
train its staff, unemployed and those, who are looking for job, gender equality principles for better
preparation of entering into the labour market. Among with problems the SEA is coming across with
when employing its clients, it is necessary to mention the gender discrimination (there is a different
salary for men and women in their traditional professions) and the ageism (for men it is mostly
difficult to find a job in their 40s and for women aged between 25 and 30). The lack of gender balance
in working places is also mentioned as a problem (Consensus PR, SKDS 2005: 10).
Professional Career Counselling State Agency (PCCSA) has to pay more attention to gender equality
principles when developing practical methods of professional orientation and defining the most
popular professions among unemployed. By means of that the PCCSA will break the stereotypes of
typically “male” and “female” professions (Consensus PR, SKDS 2005: 11).
The legislation of employment rights of the Republic of Latvia has been positively evaluated in
accordance to the EU standards; however there is a lack of attention paid to gender equality problems
in the documentaries of various institutions. In the summary it was concluded that on the formal level
gender equality principles are not being broken; however it is necessary to emphasize the principles of
equal possibilities and rights in the regulations and strategic documents of various authorities. It is
necessary to activate the Gender Equality Council of the Cabinet of Ministers that would be broadened
with the representatives of the Ministry for Children and Family Affairs and the Secretariat of the
Special Assignments Minister for Social Integration. It is necessary to establish a net of information
exchange in gender equality politics. (Consensus PR, SKDS 2005: 37-38).
The study “Analysis of the situation in the education system in the aspects of gender equality”
(Caune, Rata, Grigule, Sviklis, Ugaine 2005) was also carried out in the frameworks of the national
programme “Support for strengthening of capacity for institutions responsible for introduction of the
labour market and gender equality policies, as well as for spreading of information and increasing of
awareness” in 2005. The aim of the study was to find out and evaluate the situation of integration of
gender equality issues in the work of basic, primary and secondary schools. The methods used:
situation analysis, using of inquiries, document analysis, focus group discussions and expert
interviews (Caune, Rata, Grigule, Sviklis, Ugaine 2005: 3, 13-17).
Themes of gender equality are found whether directly or indirectly in every school subject. Still it
would be better to include special standard material and methodological advises on gender equality
studies for teachers. As the result, the implementation of given standards of gender equality depends
on teacher’s interpretation of the problem, which might cause prejudices and contradictory
understanding of gender equality. Students reflect certain social stereotypes when playing roles of
women and men. There are differences in future visions, which depend on gender: boys are choosing
leading positions with higher salaries, which corresponds with the real situation on the labour market.
Gender plays an important role in the school environment as well – school subjects are divided in
“male” and “female” depending on required skills, which indicate the stereotypes of the role and skills
of women and men. Among teachers there are certain contradictions about their understanding of
gender equality, equality of possibilities, rights and duties of both sexes; not to forget their personal
attitude – approximately 76% of respondents in questions for defining gender equality have chosen
such variants that are considered to be discriminating for both genders. Researchers are concerned that
teachers themselves will not have this deep understanding of gender equality, because they are not
ready to admit the actuality of the gender equality problem. (Caune, Rata, Grigule, Sviklis, Ugaine
2005: 6-8).
There is a certain gender disproportion in the system of education - ~80% are women (in secondary
schools there are even 88% of female teachers) from all the teaching staff. This factor influences
pupils in their understanding of gender roles, differences of behaviour and lifestyle; as well as gives an
impression that the responsibility of bringing up and teaching children is supposed to be only in
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women’s hands, and that men’s involvement in children’s life is fragmented (Caune, Rata, Grigule,
Sviklis, Ugaine 2005: 12). It is necessary to analyse and to prove that a school with one gender
dominance is influencing the other gender, the society and the whole development of the nation
(Caune, Rata, Grigule, Sviklis, Ugaine 2005: 53).
The research „Women towards leadership in business and agriculture” (Zīverte, Šūmane,
Tisenkopfs 2005) was carried out in the frameworks of the project funded by the EC and Norwegian
Government “Woman and Ownership in Business and Agriculture”. There was study of
entrepreneurship environment carried out by paying a particular attention to women entrepreneurship
using analysis of statistical data, legislation and researches carried out until that moment, as well as
questionnaires, interviews and focus group interviews.
Gender equality is not the most actual problem among business-women. Aspects of entrepreneurship’s
environment, changing legislation and state’s attitude towards small and middle enterprises are of
greater importance.
Women have more obstacles in finding financial resources for starting an entrepreneurship, some of
these are: a stop in career development because of family matters; traditions and stereotypes about
women in business. When analysing tendencies of entrepreneurship, it was indicated that women have
limited possibilities to create an enterprise, and their proportion as self-employed persons or
employers is small – in 2003 it was only 2.2% employed women who were employers while the
proportion of men constitutes 4.9%.
There are certain gender differences in entrepreneurship leading practice. Women are more counting
on official formal relationships, they take care more about their employees and prefer honest
entrepreneurship avoiding essential risks.
In general, no specific obstacles are fixed for women in the field of entrepreneurship. Because of lack
of studies on male audience, it is not possible to claim that problems mentioned by female
entrepreneurs are related to women only. Researches make general conclusions that “situation in
entrepreneurship constitutes a wider social system and model of social relations; it reflects norms,
traditions, values, role division etc. that exist in the society” (Zīverte, Šūmane, Tisenkopfs 2005: 71-
72).
In 2006 there was a research “Women in entrepreneurship” (society “Līdere”, 2006) carried out. In the
frameworks of this study there was analysis of entrepreneurship environment, obstacles and
motivating factors for business development made from the point of view of women of Latvia. In the
inquiry, there were 200 women – entrepreneurs (owners of an enterprise or managers) of Latvia
interviewed. The selection reflected common tendencies in the labour market – a half of employed
persons manage sales or consumer services’ enterprises, but two thirds work in enterprises where the
number of employees does not exceed ten persons. 17.5% or the respondents were mothers of children
of the primary school age (Līdere 2006: 30 – 33).
Almost half respondents (women) give a negative evaluation for Latvian business environment. The
reasons for that are following: not appropriate tax politics for small entrepreneurships, lack of state
support low purchasing capacity of inhabitants.
Almost half respondents (women) give a negative evaluation for Latvian business environment. The
reasons for that are following: not appropriate tax politics for small entrepreneurships, lack of state
support and increasing competition. In comparison with the previous survey data the number of
respondents has a bit increased and now it is mostly considered that it’s not more difficult for women
to start business than for men (64.2% respondents; in 2003 this statement was supported only by
54.3% of respondents) and that there is “no gender in business” (this statement is supported by 72% of
respondents).
Business-women are very devoted to their work: ¾ of respondents agree with the statement that work
takes all their free time; a bit more than a half of respondents (59,9%) emphasize that work is their
main priority (in 2003 – 49,0%). However this is not a reason for saying that women are going away
from their “traditional” responsibilities in a family.
In 2004, there was a research “Women and men in management” (Putniņa, Zīverte 2004) carried out
in the frameworks of the project “Role of mass media in redistribution of power” that was funded from
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the resources of “The basic strategy of gender equality in European Community 2001 – 2005”. Its aim
– to find out what factors influence participation of women in decision making by using qualitative
methods – interviews, analysis of documents – diaries, focus group discussions and situation analysis
(Putniņa, Zīverte 2004: 5).
There are 3 problematic aspects of the research: analysis of Latvian political environment; possibilities
of combining a family and politics and an image of politics in Latvia (Putniņa, Zīverte 2004: 6).
There is a gender inequality in the political environment, and for women it is much more difficult to
use resources and possibilities that are necessary for political decisions. Women are rarely involved in
hidden politics and informal nets of decision processes of a political party. Women are more passive in
using media in politics, because in spite of many advantages they lack a confident and public image –
women are still considered to be an exception among potentially “dirty” sphere of politics governed by
men. Women-politicians are paid more attention to; their political work is being evaluated more
critically. Women need more resources for their image establishment than men. But political processes
are getting more open and clearer, and together with this fact the meaning of a gender is stepping back
and professional criteria is being set as a priority. A parity basis is very important to ensure that men
and women have equal rights in election campaigns. It is recommended to organize women
cooperation nets, to activate a development of ethical standards in politics, to develop communication
skills and image creation.
Often women are held back from leading positions because of not regulated working schedules and
ineffective work organization. In average politicians’ working day prescribes 2 hours more than a
standard 8-hour working day. (Putniņa, Zīverte 2004: 14, 45-46). It is difficult to combine one’s
family’s duties and a professional career for both women and men. But society is more critical about
women – politicians with kids. Men’ estrangement from the family is not evaluated that critical.
However politicians highlight the role of their families in their lives – in this case families have to get
adjusted to the time table of a politician. A family and family values are not used for establishing a
public image (Putniņa, Zīverte 2004: 30-33).
Gender equality principle is not doubted when the question of the salary arises. However, it is proved
that quite often women agree on a lower salary. Men have an image of the “supplier” in the society,
which might be an explanation to the social inequality (Putniņa, Zīverte 2004: 33). Some of the female
respondents have admitted that the fact that they accept low salaries is causing gender discrimination
in the society, because men consider such a payment too low.
Analysing the role of the NGO, it is pointed out that women will experience a step further in their
involvement into politics, especially on the level of local authorities. Women are taking part in NGO
in order to have power to influence political processes not taking its rules (Putniņa, Zīverte 2004: 27).
The study „Realization of gender equality principles in local municipalities of Latvia” (Pranka,
Lāce, Trupovniece, et al. 2003/ 2004) was carried out in the frameworks of the UNO development
programme project “Realization of gender equality principles in Latvian municipalities”. The aim of
the study was to evaluate the existing situation in municipalities on understanding of the notion gender
equality and integration of gender equality principles in different spheres of work, employment
included. In this study qualitative methods were used – analysis of interviews and quantitative
inquiries (Pranka, Lāce, Trupovniece, et al. 2003/ 2004: 8-10).
In the research that was arranged as a pilot project in 10 local municipalities, it is concluded that
neither decision makers nor local authority staff have an idea of gender equality. That explains the
problems of the implementation of gender equality principles in processes of policy making. The
analysis of local authority documents indicate that parliamentarians and staff of local municipalities
are ignoring and not recognizing problems connected with gender inequality. As a result there appear
many problems in integration of gender equality principles in politics. In order to prevent it there is an
informative and long-lasting work needed (Pranka, Lāce, Trupovniece, et al. 2003/ 2004: 111).
More than a half of respondents think that there are no differences of gender possibilities in
employment: to find a job, to receive a higher payment for the same amount of work, to promote
oneself and develop a career, to start one’s own business and to get fired from work. However there is
an exception – 28% of respondents (women) admit that women are suffering more under sexual
violence at their working places than men (1,8% of men suffering under sexual violence; 23% of
22
respondents think that men and women have equal possibility of suffering under sexual violence at
work). Men think that they have better possibilities to find a job, to make promotion, establish a
career, to receive a higher payment for the same amount of work, to start their own business. Main
attention is paid to personal traits and political belonging and not to priorities of genders (Pranka,
Lāce, Trupovniece, et al. 2003/ 2004: 21).
Representatives of local authorities think that gender equality is not the main priority in the society;
gender equality has not been defined as a problem, rather as an artificial construction, because for
most people there are other priorities like earning for living (Pranka, Lāce, Trupovniece, et al. 2003/
2004: 104). The meaning of positive discrimination is not recognized and therefore there hardly exists
some special measures (for example, popularizing teacher’s profession among men). These aspects
show that there is a lot of work needed to work upon questions of gender equality on the level of local
authorities. Local authorities are recommended to make a gender equality analysis and gender
influence evaluation (Pranka, Lāce, Trupovniece, et al. 2003/ 2004: 105-106).
Pētījuma „Gender, Work and Employment in Ten Candidate Countries of Central and Eastern
Europe” Final Report. Country: Latvia (Zepa, Jeruma 2004). Report of Latvia was made on request
of the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions in 2004. Its aim –
to analyse the main tendencies of male and female employment in Latvia in comparison with the
soviet period and to evaluate the situation of gender equality. The methods used in the study: situation
analysis – study, analysis of statistical data and documents.
This is a survey describing the situation of men and women employment in Latvia during 1990 and
2002. Variety of a labour market essentially increased but together with a new range of possibilities
there can be always some negative aspects observed. Because of higher competition and
transformation of economics, there had been established a very unstable and unsafe environment in
labour market. Employed people, wishing to keep their competitive capacity on the labour market,
often do it on the account of their health, families, free time.
A high level of women employment and attained educational is considered to be the heritage of Soviet
system, when the gender equality principles were implemented in a very brutal way, especially in
economics, where women were doing both a hard physical work and being in leading positions.
Women were studying, because higher education gave the possibility to get intellectual, mental jobs,
while men were making more money in the speciality of qualified workers. So, the higher education
was not prescribing a higher amount of payment. Women had to deal with at least 2 types of work: the
job they were applying for together with men, and the household. Such situation was possible as long
as the government took care of children by offering cheap kindergartens. In the Soviet Union times
men were also receiving higher payment and they were considered as main income sources of a
family, and they were also dominating in leading positions (Zepa, Jeruma 2004: 20).
Gender segregation in the labour market is more widespread in the circumstances of market economy
that in separate field of the national economy, especially in public sector (health care, social assistance
and education). As the proportion of employed women grows, segregation becomes more visible.
There also exists a connection between economic situation and wage difference for men and women,
but is is hard to explain these mechanisms. Incomes of women per year are 20% lower that those of
men but the workload is harder (29 hours they spend doing household jobs, while men – 16). Unequal
division of duties in the households, lack of social assistance for pre-school age childen, as well as
weak state policy for supporting of families have created a situation when women feel tension and
unstabilty related to work (Zepa, Jeruma 2004:54).
The research shows that discrimination and sexual harassment are not quite common in Latvia. 80% of
respondents note that in the last few years they hadn’t come across their right restrictions because of
their gender; 1/5 from respondents had come across an unpleasant attitude, but every tenth had come
across right restrictions because of the gender, gaining promotion or payment increase. Women come
across these situations more often than men (Zepa, Jeruma 2004: 55-56).
In the transition period there could be new inequality observed: employers restricting rights of
pregnant women or women with small children, so, there was a family state of a woman evaluated, not
her qualification or skills, which is against gender equality principles of Latvian legislation (Zepa,
Jeruma 2004: 55-56).
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Former activities in ensuring gender equality mainly are the result of international commitment of
Latvia. The principle of gender equality is formally incorporated into Latvian legislation thanks to
external initiative rather than that of inhabitants. Realization of gender equality principles in practice is
hampered by the attitude of the society. Urgency of everyday social problems – low living rate, high
unemployment rate, especially in the regions – makes them to perceive gender equality as less
important problem. Attitude of administration institutions, too, is passive, which is manifested by lack
of institutional mechanisms and training programmes. Thus there is need for financial support of the
state and interest or pressure of the society in order to realize gender equality principles in practice
(Zepa, Jeruma 2004: 56).
In the research “Women in Entrepreneurship and High-level Management in Latvia: Obstacles
and Solutions” (Abramoviča, Ābola 2002), the authors bring to light the factors that hamper
involvement of women in entrepreneurship and their becoming of high-rank managers, as well as they
look for possibilities to overcome these obstacles. The present activities in Latvia and Sweden are
analysed in the study. There were deep interviews with women – entrepreneurs carried out (owners or
managers of enterprises), analysis of theoretical literature, documents and statistical data, as well as
meetings with experts. 60 respondents expressed their point of view by filling in questionnaires
(Abramoviča, Ābola 2002: iii, 3-5).
Gender inequality is perceived as a self-evident fact in business environment. When explaining their
motivation to start an entrepreneurship, women often mention a wish to accomplish or achieve
something. The basic motivation is to provide oneself and children with all the necessary treatment. In
order to achieve that it is necessary to collect a team that would like their working places, by means of
that also helping their families. Social responsibility of employers make them do the next motivation
step, in which they combine their business development with a wish to work in favour for
development of Latvia, a wish to cooperate with charity corporations, to help young entrepreneurs at
their starting point, to share experience and knowledge.
Almost 70% of the inquired women answer that it is not important for them whether their boss is a
man or a woman, but one fourth would like to work under the guidance of a man, because they think
that they are more constructive, analytical, and logical and it is easier to communicate with men.
When evaluating the existing gender proportion in enterprises, 90% of respondents think that there are
less female managers than male managers. It is admitted that stereotypes is one of the main
stereotypes – duty of a woman is to take care about family and children, they have specific character
traits, as well as men don’t want to offer the leading position to women. The present situation when
women work in less remunerated sectors of the labour market and they make their career slower can
mainly be explained by the stereotypes of gender role and the fact that work of men is higher
evaluated than work of women (Abramoviča, Ābola 2002: 18-20).
There are 3 possible groups of solutions that would stimulate involvement of women into business –
legislation, infrastructure, attitudes, but the best results could be achieved when working with various
dimensions at once. Experience and events of Sweden and other European countries were taken into
account in elaboration of solutions (Abramoviča, Ābola 2002: 47).
In general, it is indicated that it is necessary to favour awareness of the society on the existence of the
problems concerning gender equality, as well as to realise the decisions taken into practice in order to
create a truly democratic society where belonging to one or another gender would not be related to any
advantages or disadvantages (Abramoviča, Ābola 2002: 47).
The study “Feminization of the poverty: risk factor change in Latvia from 1991 to 1999” (Zepa,
Jeruma, Pudule, 2000) was carried out in 2002 and its aim is to favour creation of a more efficient
social policy in order to decrease gender inequality in the state and to provide explanation for factors
that cause feminization of poverty and its dynamics in the time period from 1991 – 1999. In order to
make this analysis, analysis of documents and secondary analysis of statistical data (inhabitant
inquiry) were used (Zepa, Jeruma, Pudule 2000: 2).
The study shows that during the hard economic periods national budgets are able to save resources on
the behalf of social expenses and this has a negative influence of women because social benefits are a
considerable source of incomes for a great part of the society. Women and children belong to one of
the most vulnerable social groups in the transition society that comes across financial difficulties in
24
case of economic crisis. Solution of problems of this group should be considered as the main priority.
To the second vulnerable group belong women in period before they get retired: usually they come
across problems in finding job and in restrictions of their rights (Zepa, Jeruma, Pudule 2000: 9-13).
The aim of the study of 1999 “Gender and human development in Latvia” (Neimane, 1999) was to
reflect urgency of the gender equality issue in development of Latvian society by considering equality
in different fields (economy, education, health care, violence, management), which was achieved
making analysis of old literature and data bases, deep interviews with women – entrepreneurs, as well
as with the help of quantitative inquiries (questionnaires to fill in) and meetings with experts (Neimane
1999: 6-7).
There is legal or formal gender equality in Latvia. Latvian society is not ready to discuss gender
equality. There is a notion that the problem of gender equality is typical for western cultures and not
for Latvia. Existence of such opinion points on the heritage of Soviet Union regime that still keeps
deforming the idea of gender equality. But the socioeconomic reality is not compatible with traditional
perceptions despite that it is preferable for men – on the one hand, giving them higher social status and
opening a row of privileges; and on the other hand – giving solutions for their dislocation crisis
(Neimane 1999: 9-10).
There have to be different the poverty prevention strategy for both sexes. Lonely men are under
greater risk of falling into poverty than women. Meanwhile, childcare duties, unequal division of
responsibilities prevent women from productive work. Equal division of responsibilities could
stimulate an improvement of an economical family state. In order to reduce poverty it is suggested to
organize various events in order to help families in crisis situations, to offer women possibilities of
retraining in a childcare period, consulting programmes etc. (Neimane 1999: 11-13).
Partial transition of employment to formation of private sector and simultaneous restructuring of the
labour market has caused different consequences for both genders. Women face more obstacles if they
want to start small or medium entrepreneurship, they are not employed because of age or children,
they receive lower wage that men do for the same service, and career development is not so fast. Work
of women especially in a household is considered to be of a lower value. There are also some weak
points in legislation, for example, the Labour Code that existed until 2001 prescribed that
responsibility for child care is assigned to mothers only, thus emphasizing that the role of a woman is
child breeding and pushing a man aside from family duties. This model of child breeding reproduces
the main stereotypes on the gender roles, limit possibilities of women in the society and in the labour
market thus weakening social contacts and channels of information acquisition (Neimane 1999: 13-
15).
In the sphere of education both, men and women are provided with equal possibilities, and the number
of women grows only when acquiring higher education at universities. But there are differences in
choice of education – women acquire professions that are not so well paid and these spheres are not
that respected in the society – medicine, pedagogy, natural sciences. Because of lack of research, it is
impossible to determine whether this situation has been formed because of the stereotypes or this is the
result of freedom of choice of free persons (Neimane 1999: 17-20).
There are certain events suggested for strengthening state authorities, as the state strategy on gender
equality, enhancing work gender equality coordination centre, establishing new institutions, some of
what has been accomplished now. It is recommended to analyse social authority politics and
legislation in the light of gender equality, making necessary corrections. It is necessary to break
stereotypes, to actualise the problem in media, to pay more attention to education system, analysing
the possibilities of introducing themes of gender equality in study programmes. It is also very much
advisable to popularise the father’s role and duties in the society, using images of famous people as
examples to strive for (Neimane 1999: 38-40).
The research „Latvia National Report on Statistical Information on Men’s Practices” (Novikova,
2001) was carried out within the frameworks of the EU FPV Thematic Network project “The Social
Problem and Societal Problematization of Men and Masculinities” (2000–2003). Its aim is to elaborate
empirical, theoretical and political solutions of men and masculinity in the perspective of the gender
by paying attention to four aspects – liaisons of a man, a family and work, liaison of a man to social
25
exclusion, men violence and men health. The methods used in the research: analysis of statistical data,
analysis of other researches.
There are 3 main aspects emphasized in the research: men at home and work, social banishment,
violence and health. The information gained in this research is essential to get an impression of the
situation of men and women in Latvia.
There were no special academic researches of social problems made upon men and masculinity after
Latvia had got independence. Researches in family and labour sphere have shown that men are
overloaded, which affects a family (child’s upbringing, self-education). Gender, ethnical affiliation,
sexuality and age were not used as changing rates in researches. Men’s aggression is still considered to
be connected with stereotypes, men’s drowning into poverty, value crisis and alcohol/drug
dependence. There is a social exclusion among men, making other men stigmatize their sexuality or
ethnicity (Novikova 2001, Work Package 1: 1).
Statistical studies and reviews in Latvia are still in the transition state after restoration of
independence. In the Soviet period, gender was an important index that was regularly used in
statistical overviews, especially in analysis of labour market, employment, family in health care, ethno
demography, family planning and migration issues. The results were relevant fro political coordination
of gender equality. At the same time violence as an urgent social problem pertaining to one gender
was ignores, and this opinion still exists nowadays (Novikova 2001, Work Package 2: 1).
Family researches are strongly affected and influenced by political visions, which see a family as a
“nuclear reproductive heterosexual institute” that has to include men as well, by means of this helping
both the families and themselves. Such discourse gives man a role of the main family supporter and
restricts observation and research of homosexuality. (Novikova 2001, Work Package 1: 9). Media
usually don’t pay much attention or absolutely ignore social problems of men (Novikova 2001, Work
Package 4: 6).
Research Conducted in Abroad
We have accentuated that gender equality is affected by the dominating political opinions, values and
decisions both in domestic and international level. For now and last few years the accession to the
European Union (EU) for Eastern Europe countries has been the most important reason for
development and implementation of the politics that follows the principles of gender equality. Politics
in domestic level is affected by development priorities set by EU. The limitation of gender equality
has been recognized as one of most important tasks for achieving common growth of EU in the Lisbon
strategy. All member states should work together for the achievement but each country has some
specific problems that ask for explicit measures. The review of politics of gender mainstreaming of the
other countries and comparison to politics implemented in Latvia ensures an opportunity to adopt
advisable experience and to limit the effect of mistakes that has or could been done.
It can be observed, that in the most cases the problems in the labour market is analyzed from the
perspective of women. Often even implementation of gender equality is identified with improvement
of women positions in the labour market. However it is of a great importance to pay proper attention
to the men discriminating factors in labour market as well, especially in the situation as we have in
Latvia.
Gender segregation of labour market usually is associated with gender wage gap. Generally it is one of
most important indicators for the evaluation of gender equality or inequality in labour market. A series
of both national and international surveys had been carried out on this topic. We should recognise that
the researches carried abroad have better methodology; they are more inclusive and based on certain
theoretical grounding. This can be explained by stronger and longer traditions of labour market
studies, which is apparent when compared to the situation in Latvia (Anker 1997).
More detailed analysis of researches carried out abroad were selected after reviewing a wide range of
studies and basing on suggestions and conclusion of the experts of the research group.
„Working life barometer in the Baltic countries” (Antila, Ilostalo (Ylöstalo) 2002) is a part from
the project carried out in collaboration with neighbouring countries that was realized and funded by
Ministry of Welfare of Finland. Its aim – to evaluate the situation of work and life quality and its
changes in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. The methods used in the research: – quantitative inquiry.
26
Those were both – employees and entrepreneurs in the age group from 16 – 64 living in Latvia,
Lithuania and Estonia (respectively 900, 904 and 909 persons) who participated in the inquiry (Antila,
Ilostalo 2002: 4)
This is the second working life barometer that follows the one done in 1999. It analysis the processes
of working life as an important indicator of the overall development of the society. There are two basic
concepts in study of working life – quality and changes. The quality of working life is applicable to all
work conditions, from security to relationships between employed persons. Information about
tendencies of working life can be gained observing the changes (Antila, Ilostalo 2002: 1).
The results of the research reflect the general situation in the work life quality in each of the Baltic
States. There is a possibility not only to check but also to compare the changes that have taken place in
the Baltic States. The obtained results are analysed in the perspective of the genders and this allows
having an insight into problems of realization of gender equality principles.
Among the Baltic States there exist similarities in proportional tax system that does not favour
equalized division of incomes, as it can be seen in the case of progressive tax system. None of the
inquired states have tried to create western prosperous country with balanced division of incomes.
This creates the feeling of uncertainty and doubt among the members of society. However in general
the mood that exists in the states shows that people want to return to the social order, thus the only
alternative is collaboration with western countries hoping that this will provide more security and
higher living standards (Antila, Ilostalo 2002: 223).
Simultaneous joining of the Baltic States to the NATO and the European Union means that they want
to create maximally political and economic integration into Western countries. However, there still are
differences between the Baltic States in working life development features. In all three Baltic States,
prognoses in the field of employment are unfavourable. The same situation could be observed in 1998.
Present changes of working environment are perceived rather critically but still positively in Lithuania.
Prognoses of Latvia were and still are more positive than those for the other two countries. Prognoses
of Estonian respondents in relation to employment are the most sceptical (Antila, Ilostalo 2002: 232-
234).
„A Comparison Study of the Sectoral Gender Wage Gaps Between the Finnish IT and Retail
Sectors 1995 – 1999” (Laine, 2003) was carried out in the frameworks of the international research
project “Developing Sectoral Strategies To Address Gender Pay Gaps”. Its aim was to analyse
two fields (information technologies and retail trade) where there is exists real gender
segregation in order to identify common factors that cause wage differences. In this research,
statistical data analysis was used (Laine 2003: 5-7).
The retail sector is a traditional predominantly female and relatively low-paid sector
while the IT sector is a predominantly male and better-paid sector. The IT sector has a
clearly higher earnings level than that of the retail sector. Also the women of the IT
sector earn per a working hour on average more than the men of the retail sector.
Both sectors, however, show gender wage ratios favourable to men. The total gender
wage gap was almost without exception smaller in the IT sector compared to the
retail sector over the observation period 1995 – 1999 (Laine 2003: 46).
Professional segregation is the determinant factors in gender wage differences, which also creates
different career possibilities. Age is a relevant factor of wage. The data show that men are more
successful and they get better remunerated job, which manifests that women often face unequal
possibilities when looking for work in these positions. Moreover the wage foe men increase faster that
for women in the same circumstances that determine wage (position, education, number of working
hours, kind of contractual relations, etc.). Researchers raise an issue – in which period of work
professional segregation emerges, and they give two possible explanations. They are – men and
women start their career at the same level but men are more successful in getting new positions, which
guarantees higher incomes, or men are offered better positions when beginning their carrier. The
27
specific features of the research do not allow answering this question and indicates the necessity to
study development of career of definite group of employees (Laine 2003: 50-52).
The aim of the research carried out in 2001 „Gender, Employment And Working Time Preferences
In Europe. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions”
(Fagan, Warren, 2001) is to find out the present and desirable number of working hours per week.
There were more than 30 000 respondents inquired in EU15 and employees in Norway aged from 16 –
64, using quantitative inquiries (Fagan, Warren 2001: 2).
The research is a prove for the fact that in old EU-15 „old” member states and in Norway there are
many full time employees (51% of the respondents) and this is more advantageous for less working
hours and proportionally smaller wage. Men would choose it rather then women (57.5% against 44%).
Only 12% want more working hours (16% of women and 9% of men). Satisfaction of men with the
present working hours manifest their inability to find their desired position in the labour market,
however another explication could be inability of women to get less working hours in the
circumstances if they have to take care of children, in the result of which they often have to leave the
labour market (Fagan, Warren, 2001: 4-5). Women with small children want to have a part tome work
the most, and the number of desired working hours would increase simultaneously with the age of a
child. The status of father for employed men do not influence the desired working hours, however
about one fifth of fathers would prefer to have a half tome work (Fagan, Warren 2001: 1).
Women face particular problems when coordinating their family life and work, which can be
explained by the fact that they undertake the duty of child breeding. This tendency changes very
slowly. At the moment when child care takes less time, there are more possibilities that they will have
to take care for parents or other invalid relatives. That is why researchers advice to favour institutional
care for child and other relatives that need it (Fagan, Warren 2001: 4).
The labour market is not favourable for realization of possibilities of employees. 22% of full time
employed men and 37% of women would like to have a half-time work for some period of time, in
order to have more time to spend with their families. The main obstacles are resistance of employers
or hampered work organization, the same as reduction of incomes or fear from differences in social
protection and Labour Law. These results activate the issues of employment policy, restriction of full
time work, possibilities of half-time work and quality improvement, care for parents in order to
support coordination of family and work duties included. That is why society discussions and pressure
is needed in order to favour changes in the policy of working hours (Fagan, Warren 2001: 6).
The research “Gender Assessment of the Impact of European Union Accession on the Status of
Women in the Labour Market in Central and Eastern Europe” was carried out in the frameworks
of the project funded by UNIFEM “Gender and Economic Justice in European Accession and
Integration”. All in all these studies were realized in four countries – Poland, Hungary, Check
Republic and Bulgaria. The aim of the research was to provide positive and negative impact of the
accession to the EU on the position of women in the labour market in the above mentioned countries.
Situation analysis method was used – analysis of content of literature and mass media, analysis of
statistical data and interviews.
Evaluation of „National Study: Poland” (Lohmann, Seibert 2003) illustrates how the directives,
policies and programmes of the EU can be used in order to improve economical situation of women in
Poland. „Polish society was ill prepared for extensive socio-economic transformation, which
consequently led to the downward mobility of large proportion of society. It also led to the
monumental increase of the gap between the wealthy and the poor. For example, the free market
economy pushed the poorest groups of women with lowest level of education outside the labour
market. Women in their 40s and 50s, who were used to stable full-time employment, also found
themselves in very difficult situation, because the loss of employment for most of them means never
being employed again. The already disadvantaged position of women in the labour market is
strengthened by the wage gap responsible for the disadvantaged economic situation of women. The
best wages are rarely earned by women and in fact women are overrepresented in jobs receiving lower
wages” (Lohmann, Seibert 2003: 9-12).
28
In 2002 average wage of women was by 18.2% smaller than that of men. The greatest inequality in
wage is among employees with the highest education – 31.6%, with industrial education – 31.1% and
with unfinished or finisher secondary education – 27.6%. This can be explained by high employment
rate of women in positions that do not correspond to their qualification and they occupy management
positions less often. Whereas women with lower level of education are usually employed in low-
qualified “women” professions (Lohmann, Seibert 2003: 33).
Realization of gander equality in the labour market is hampered by great political influence of Polish
church and its close relations with the government. The church supports patriarchal model of family
where women only have family duties and reduction in birth rate is usually related to emancipation of
women (Lohmann, Seibert 2003: 17-18).
The evaluation appeal to the responsible ministries to adopt employment and social policy documents
related to observance of gender equality and realize their duties that are determined by the norms of
EU. It is necessary to inform both institutions and society on measures and problems during the course
of realization of gender equality (Lohmann, Seibert 2003: 87-88).
„National Study: Hungary” (Szabo 2003) concludes that possibilities of women equality is often
hampered by relations and norms that exist in the society and polity. In 2000, 49.4% of women were
employed, while the same index among men reached 625. Officially positive changes are influenced
by difference of the Hungary from the member states of the EU – unemployment of women is smaller
that that of men - 5.6% to 7/2%. However unofficial data show that the situation is opposite and
unemployment of women is considerably higher. Groups of youngsters and uneducated people have
the highest unemployment rage (12.5% of people of this age are unemployed, which constitutes 26.95
of all unemployed in 2000).
There is the gender segregation of labour market in Hungary. Women are better educated and this
level is improving. However, there are more problems in finding a job than for men at the same age.
Division of tasks in households is still arranged accordingly to the traditional gender roles. The gender
pay gap is one of the factors for subordinated situation of women in society (Szabo 2003: 63).
Women resignation from the labour market and their walking papers is a very spread tendency. They
have to take less favourable compromises more often in order to preserve their position in the labour
market. Thus it is important to develop high quality, well remunerated and geographically available
system of care institutions in order to favour women employment (Szabo 2003: 12).
In the less developed regions, women choose child care at home because of the threat of
unemployment. After three years spent at home possibilities to join the labour market become even
smaller. The main challenge for women aged after 35 is preservation of the working place whatever it
takes. A great part of women admit that possibilities to preserve the work depend on acquisition of
additional training and education during the entire life (Szabo 2003: 12).
The analysis shows the importance of the general situation of women in the labour market and
evaluation of social policy. Necessity of monitoring of national labour market and social system is
emphasized (Szabo 2003: 63).
„National Study: The Czech Republic” (Marksová-Tominová 2003).The research “describes the
economic situation in the country - before and mostly after the accession process started in 1996. It
shows that the low level of unemployment grew rapidly after the crisis in 1997. Despite of this, the
Czech Republic remains one of the richest among the post-socialist countries. The European
Commission has concluded, that the country is a functioning market economy and that the
continuation of its current reform path should enable it to cope with competitive pressure and market
forces within the Union - but at the same time, the Commission stated, that reforms of social
expenditures must be pursued, which is daunting for the future, because these reforms always affect
disadvantaged people more - and among these many elderly or retired women and single women with
children” (Marksová-Tominová 2003: 7-17).
The research of the labour market is focused on women aged 24 – 35 as a group that is the most
influenced by unemployment. Women in full time employment receive wage that is by about 26%
lower than that of men, taking into consideration better education and qualification. Check Republic
(also Poland, Slovakia and Hungary) is unique in relation to high proportion of women in so-called
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“male” professions, which reduces professional segregation, however women are more concentrated in
less remunerated positions (Marksová-Tominová 2003: 7-8).
Women aged 20 – 35 is a specific group of people that have the biggest unemployment risk, and this is
the age when their possibilities are limited, especially if they care for small children or if employers
consider them as potential mothers. The present benefit system makes young mothers leave the labour
market. At the moment of realization of the research, there existed some restrictions related to child
care. If a woman 22 weeks before birth of child receives 69% of the wage, men have only support of
their parents (Marksová-Tominová 2003: 18).
It is necessary to carry out more researches on the influence of the EU on the national level. Despite
legislation that does not limit discrimination, there were not any court proceedings until 2003 that
would be related to restrictions – women are not informed on the new possibilities or they have lack of
resources for their realization. In order to solve these problems, informative campaign is necessary, as
well as creation of consultation centre by attracting resources from the national budget and the EU
(Marksová-Tominová 2003: 66).
Simultaneously, researches on women discrimination in the labour market have to be realized in the
relation to comparison to average wage of men and women wage in state administration. One has to
elaborate and introduce detailed programmes on precise terms of realization and mechanism of
introduction in order to integrate women into the labour market, especially after maternity of postnatal
leave. One also has to make researches on the situation of mothers and fathers, their needs in the
labour market and the circumstances that would help to coordinate family life and work (Marksová-
Tominová 2003: 66).
Research „Working Conditions in Acceding and Candidate Countries” (European Foundation for
the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions [Eurofound], 2003) “The aim of the working
conditions surveys is to provide a detailed picture of working conditions in Europe and to measure
trends, such as an improvement or degradation in the quality of work and employment. [..]At the
Lisbon summit, the European Union set itself the objective of enhancing the quality of work and
employment as a means of improving both employment rates and economic competitiveness. The
follow-up to this objective is to develop quality indicators with a view to measuring the progress
achieved. By establishing harmonised European indicators, the working conditions survey has already
contributed to this process. There was an inquiry carried out – in 2000, in 15 member states of the EU
21 500 persons were inquired, in 2002 – 12 000 persons in 13 candidate states, which makes in total
33 500 people in Europe who have the status of a self-employed person or an employee and who have
reached the age of 15 at the moment of the inquiry (Eurofound 2003: 3-6).
The report, basing on a common base, describes for the first time the quality and circumstances of
work and employment in the states before accession and in the candidate states, and thus it prepares
their integration into the united Europe. Taking into consideration the national traits of each countries
and methodological restriction, the obtained data can not be used in making conclusions in the
employment situation in each country (Eurofound 2003: 4).
In the candidate states the number of “employed people” was 43 millions (161 – EU), from which
more than a half live in Poland and Rumania. Proportion of men and women who participate in the
labour market is lower than in the EU, but proportion of employed women (46%) is higher that in the
EU (42%). It was realized that in the labour market there is lower segregation among men and women
than in the EU countries. Proportion of self-employed (22%) is higher than in the EU (17%), and the
same can be seen in the field of agriculture (21% employed to 5% in the EU). Situation with odd jobs
is about the same as in the EU (Eurofound, 2003: 9).
It was observed that in the Baltic States, on the one hand, about half of employed people are women
(Estonia – 49%, Lithuania – 51% and Latvia 49%), while this proportion is smaller is Malt (30%) and
Cyprus (40%). What concerns professional categories, then in comparison to EU, VPPP and KV, there
are more women in well-qualified work: 37% in the leading positions (EU – 15 – 34%), 46% in
intellectual and scientific professions (EU – 15 – 47%), 58% in mediation positions (EU – 15 – 47%).
And vice versa – there are fewer women in sales and service fields (54%), when compared to EU
(66%). Whereas there are more women employed in positions of qualified workers, as well as in
positions of non-qualified workers (VPPP and KV 12 – 53%; EU – 15 – 48%). Gender division as to
30
the field of employment show grated proportion of men in agriculture and production, especially in
building, whereas there is grater proportion of women in service sphere. In general, VPPP and KV, in
comparison with the EU, men and women division is more balanced in the frameworks of each field
(Eurofound 2003: 12-13).
There were income differences for two socially professional categories – leading employees (category
where there are more men, as to the data of EU) and sales and service sector (category where there are
more women). Among leading employees both, men and women are highly remunerated, however in
lower positions men are better remunerated. In the sector of sales and services in all categories of
incomes women are more represented in categories with lower level of incomes (Eurofound 2003: 86).
It was realized that women are more involved in child care and education than men (by 10%) and in
works of household: preparation of meals +22%, house works +31%. However this differentiation is
lower in candidate states than in the EU, where the following differences in the proportion of men and
women who undertake the particular activities were realized – difference in child upbringing/care is
17%, meal preparation – 41%, house works – 51% (Eurofound 2003: 92).
The research carried out by the European Fund of Working and Living Improvement on working
conditions in candidate states before accession indicates that there is a relatively high employment of
women in comparison with the old EU states, as well as there is smaller market segregation. It was
also found out that in general men are more subjected to discrimination than women, but age
discrimination is of the same urgency for both, men and women. Gender discrimination, though is
more related to women (Eurofound 2003: 73).
The research „Gender dimensions of social security reforms in transition economies” (Steinhilber
2004), was carried out in 2004 in order to analyse reforms of social insurance system in central and
eastern European countries and their gender dimensions, by paying the greatest attention to family
allowances and pensions as two main spheres of social insurance benefits. The methods used in the
research – analysis of situation, analysis of the research and statistical data (Steinhilber 2004: 3-4).
„Reforms of social security systems have been an integral part of the overall changes in Central and
Eastern European (CEE) transition economies since 1989. This background note focuses on the gender
dimensions of social security reforms in the region in two particular fields of social security benefits:
family benefits and pensions. The paper illustrates commonalities and differences of reforms in
different countries, and discusses to what extent reforms have contributed to greater gender equality in
the provision of social security. It also analyzes if the gender dimensions of reforms follow an explicit
strategy for gender mainstreaming in social security” (Steinhilber 2004: 3).
Transition period economy in EU was characterized by considerable fall in national gross product,
high inflation and increase of number of unemployed, which was effected by unsuccessful
privatization. In the result, rising the falling level of incomes and rising level of poverty among
inhabitants created more intense demand of social security. The main challenges for the reform of
social security was pressure of the labour market, pressure of physical persons (reduction of social
payments in the budget) and demographic situation with a considerable fall of birth rate and expected
aging of the society. The fourth factor is gender equality and reforms of social system (Steinhilber
2004: 4-7).
In the labour market, there is a connection between women employment and family allowances –
women take advantage of the allowance in order to be able to resume their work. Simultaneous
implementation of family support policy in separate states was made in order to reduce pressure on the
labour market in the circumstances of reducing employment and increasing unemployment. Wage
difference is another reason for social differences among genders, and women earn by 20 – 25% less
(Steinhilber 2004: 7-13).
Reforms of social welfare systems in central and eastern European countries was a part of economy of
transition period, however gender equality had only a marginal notion in it. Gender as a prism is not
being used not in elaboration of political reforms, neither in public discussion or making decision in
political processes, as well as in initial evaluation of consequences of reforms (Steinhilber 2004: 23).
Changes of maternity allowances take place less often that changes in the field of child care benefit or
family allowances. Some countries endured leaves for child care, for example, Latvia (it was not
31
observed in other EU candidate states). Separate researches indicate that number of mothers who have
rights to have leave for child care and mothers who are afraid of repressions of employees increases.
One can observe women discrimination basing on her possible or existent status of a mother
(Steinhilber 2004: 7-11).
In the circumstances of economic problems it is advised to preserve or increase family allowances as
the main means of social employment policy and ensure liaison of women to labour force by
stimulating their participation in the labour market. It is not reasonable to reduce long-term allowances
for mothers who have limited resources and who have children, but one has to take measures in order
to reduce isolation from the labour market in future (Steinhilber 2004: 12-13).
When considering family allowances in the context of poverty combat and gender equality, it is
indicated that the mentioned aims can be reached in different stages. If child care allowances are used
as measures that reduce poverty, inspection of incomes and granting of allowances for problem groups
is a corresponding solution. However, if the aim is to support employment and harmonization of
working life and family life (by involving fathers in child care and mothers in the labour market),
general allowances are more appropriate. In order to reach gender equality, it is not enough to grant
allowances to fathers – it is more important to compensate lack of incomes of the father, which will
happen if duties in a family would be equally divided, taking into consideration the fact that average
incomes of mean are higher and this kind of division of duties is an important part of realization of
gender equality and women employment (Steinhilber 2004: 12-13).
The central problem is lack of integration between legislation of political discourse – debates on
decision making in relation to social insurance include perspective of gender equality, and vice versa –
debates and legislation on gender equality do not analyze characteristic traits of social security. It is
important to favour awareness of policy makers and inhabitants on the dimension of gender, as well as
on technical knowledge on influence of gender on social security (Steinhilber 2004: 25).
Analysis of pension reform from the prism of genders in CEE countries shows common tendencies,
differences and critical circumstances. Equalization of pension age for men and women is legitimate
when taking into account equal attitude perspectives because women then are in more privileged
position. However in CEE region, this is not a common tendency. Practical peculiarities of pension
system by closely relating incomes with payments made will favour equalization of pension age
(Steinhilber 2004: 17).
But one has to take into account that in a wider context, social insurance can not change prejudices
that maintains gender inequality. Integrated attitude and activities that would join social security
reforms with changes in other fields – economy, employment, education, higher representation of
women in politics, etc – would be a considerable task in observance of gender equality (Steinhilber
2004: 26).
The aim of the research „The implications of the KBS for employment and gender relations.
Towards a conceptual and analytical framework” (Serrano-Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003) is to
summarize influence of academic and political debates on knowledge-based society (KBS) on the
present power and subordination structures among genders in the main aspects and to elaborate
theoretical frameworks for the next projects that will evaluate KBS development in the perspective of
gender equality. The following methods were used: situation analysis using analysis of statistical data
and fulfilled researches (Serrano-Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003: 2).
Change of production paradigm from industrial society to knowledge-based society change relations
of present power. The integrated EU attitude to ensuring gender equality has three dimensions –
context (equal positions of men and women), method (integration of gender perspective in all levels of
political processes) and result of gender equality. The attitude should change roles of parents, structure
of a family international practices, time and work organization, person development and
independence, however it is not clear how these changes will influence gender equality. The aim of
equality should ensure not only equal approaches and participation but also equal benefices during the
development (Serrano-Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003: 92-93).
The underlying idea behind the concept of the KBS is the reinforcing linkages between the changes in
the productive model and the re-articulation of the prevailing social model. The growing use of ICTs
32
and knowledge are seen as tools for providing economic growth and social progress. Several factors
have been identified as the driving forces behind the transformation towards the KBS. These forces are
the production and diffusion of new technology such as ICTs, knowledge, and the dynamic interaction
of economic, political and social relations that shape and are shaped by technology changes (Serrano-
Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003: 94).
Simultaneously with achievements in education, high-qualified employment has risen in Europe. But
paralelly there exists a problem of lack of labour force and over qualification, at the result of which
employers occupy position that do not correspond to their skills (Serrano-Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003:
96).
Gender difference in wage has not changes because employment of high qualified women
compensates losses in low-qualified and poorly remunerated professions, and income difference
increases among these groups (Serrano-Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003: 96).
Movement to KBS takes renovation of regular skills, and if not, there is a great risk of unemployment.
Technological influence lessens borders between private life and work, however flexible working
hours may favour its balancing, or limit the available resources. In order to diminish the pressure of
working hours, it is advised to women in Europe to work half-time and to men – work more hours. It
can be clearly seen that advantages form KBS will note by equally available for women and men
because of the fact that when realizing the integrated approach of gender equality, a particular
attention should be paid to groups that are in disadvantageous position in the field of employment.
Thus the strategy will not be able to combat all negative aspects in gender duty division (Serrano-
Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003: 97-98).
The main advantage of gender mainstreaming is that it pressures the EU and the member states to take
a holistic view of gender in/equalities involving different actors, institutional levels and measures. So
far, the aim of the gender mainstreaming approach has been to promote gender equality by: reducing
gender gaps (unemployment, employment, gender segregation and pay); enabling the reconciliation of
work and family life (flexible work arrangements and good quality child care); facilitating
reintegration into the labour market (Serrano-Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003: 99).
One has to take into account different technological development of the countries – the data show that
division of advantages of KBS among social groups is not equal. Different models of KBS will cause
different consequences, and that is why it is necessary to carry out critically comparative studies
(Serrano-Pascual, Mósesdóttir 2003: 99).
The resear „The European Employment Strategy and National Employment Policies. Addressing
the Employment and Gender Challenges of the Knowledge Based Society” (Sjørup, 2004,
http://www.bifrost.is/wellknow/Files/Skra_0005517.pdf) has also been carried out in the frameworks of the
WELLKNOW project „From Welfare to Knowfare. A European Approach to Employment
and Gender Mainstreaming in the Knowledge Based Society”. The project received funding
form the “EU fifth programme” (5FP) as a part of topical programme “Improving the human
research potential and the socioeconomic knowledge base”. The research was carried out in
order to provide comparative and multidisciplinary analysis for transition to knowledge based
society from the perspectives of employment and gender. The method used in the research:
situation analysis using analysis of the documents and NDP (Sjørup 2004: 4).
In the international level, introduction and political impact of the European employment strategy
(EES) has bee studied by analysing mainly KBS and integrated approach in combating gender
inequality (Gender Mainstreaming Strategy). The situation is analysed in five EU countries – Finland,
Austria, Denmark, Netherlands and Spain, as well as in the candidate state Hungary that is not yet
involved in the EU processes and in Iceland as member state of European Economical Association that
is following some not important instructions (Sjørup 2004: 4).
Political choice of the EU is full time employment, work quality and social equality, especially gender
equality. EES has been applied several times in reaching these aims in all member states by
emphasizing the notion of renewal of European Social Model in EU, i.e. it is necessary to ensure
economic growth by improving quality of employment and social unity. However, as the researchers
33
indicate, there are at least two social models in the EU – welfare model of northern countries (or
socio-democratic model) is based on common social services and social rights guaranteed by the state.
Simultaneously there exists also conservative and corporative states that are very different in their
status where rights are closely related to the status and belonging to a social layer. In these countries
(Germany, Austria, Italy, France) tradition form of a family is more supported, which shows that
European Social Model is equalized with the model of welfare country and limited social assistance
that is characteristic to these countries. If it is so, then development of national employment and social
policies that reflect fight of global concurrency in the circumstances of free market, but not transition
to KBS is the reason for increasing differences in the society (Sjørup 2004: 143).
In the analysis of national employment plans of the member states it is indicated that these documents
have rhetorical character – these are political documents that reflect values of elite that holds power.
Central object of these plans are neo-liberal ideological discourse in support of the free market,
globalization and competitiveness. Many concepts, including integrated approach to realization of
gender equality, are used rhetorically and in some cases they do not concretize policies to implicate.
Thus national employment plans become documents, the task of which is to convince the EU to agree
upon jointly adopted policy or to at least observe it. These considerations some times did not allow
evaluating endeavours of the countries and results in reaching the aim. For combating consequences
caused by the document, comparison of statistical data and deeper understanding of situation of each
country, politics and progress is needed when introducing KBS and integrated approach in order to
realize gender equality. At present national development plans provide only basic concept and does
not provide innovation in this field and remaining in the frameworks of traditional employment and
social policy (for example, emphasizing of training of unemployed and ensuring of IKT). This does
not correspond to the aims and strategies of EU where attaining of KBS and gender equality is
mutually related (Sjørup 2004: 146).
National employment plans use the integrated approach as a rhetorical concept. Political resources
included in it for solution of gender problems are universal social programme of northern counties,
family life and work coordination policy and special programmes of gender equality development. But
integrated approach still is not used as a concrete method for integration of several policies (Sjørup
2004: 144). Gender equality in the context of KBS is not specially promoted. Although women
participation in IKT acquisition, as well as other fields of education where they are represented is
supported and separate projects are elaborated in order to increase women employment (for example,
after leave for child leave) by providing training in IKT, there have not been any larger and structural
measures taken that would develop both sides (Sjørup 2004: 98-99).
IKT are not recognized as a solution to harmonization of working life and family life. It is not
accepted on the political level that women have specific problems when acquiring or looking for work
in high qualified KBS professions. Exceptions in the form of separate programmes that are aimed on
equalization of information literacy of both genders do not recognize labour market problems, whereas
labour policy does not recognize IKT approaches and information literacy problems. National
employment plans need liaison between KBS and integrated approach in ensuring gender equality thus
considering it as separate problems but not as closely related processes or unities (Sjørup 2004: 100-
101).
Analysing labour market segregation in the research „Sickness absence due to musculoskeletal
diagnoses: association with occupational gender segregation” (Leijon, Hensing, Alexanderson
2004) carried out in Sweden on employees who have used sick-lists because of bone or muscles
diseases, it was discovered that there exist a relevant correlation between gender of employees and
spheres of employment. In general, women more often suffer from skeleton and muscles illnesses, but
frequent cases and longest leaves are taken by women who work in “male” professions. Conclusions
of this research remind us that one has to take into consideration psycho-physiological aspects,
especially when analysing aspects of gender equality in the labour market and planning reduction of
labour market segregation. Taking into account the present differences in psychological and
physiological characteristics of men and women it may turn out that not all spheres can be
subordinated to ensuring of gender equality principles.
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35
1.3. The Theorethical Background of the Research

One of the most often used of notions when studying gender equality questions are the notion of
stereotype. In the research GEALM, stereotype is understood as concrete knowledge of a person that
is formed when basing on physical, social, mental and other differences of different subjects. In the
basis of this knowledge, there lies a common viewpoint on definite processes. Knowledge in this case
can be assumed and proven. These assumptions usually are formed with the help of opinion that has
been created by different social interpretations and popularized in mass media.
The founder of stereotype research W. Lippman defined stereotypes as simplified images of a person,
institution or culture (Lippman 1997/1922:53-63). Stereotypes influence the body of expectation that a
person creates when communicating with some social objects or subjects (Lippman 1997:63-69). In
order to simplify coexistence of a person in the society, there is knowledge on social groups not
individual persons created. The group that is subjected to a stereotype is balanced and it is attributed
equal statements and characteristics. I. Ulmane and S. Kruks in their work “Stereotypes in Latvian
Press” provide the following definition of a stereotype: “Stereotypes as a part of a persons explains
why and how people form relationships with others: this is because they are, for example, less
educated and they have fewer rights.” (Ulmane, Kruks 2001:1).
Gender stereotypes are one of the most analysed cases of stereotypes. Roots of stereotypes that create
different concepts on men and women and define activities of men and women can be found in ancient
history. However, as it was discovered in the study of gender stereotypes there are no real differences
that would separate social behaviour of men and women (Canary, Emmers-Sommer 1997: 4-15).
Gender stereotype analysis was hampered by their strong influence of the society. Actually these are
not only conceptions of women about men or concepts of men about women but this are knowledge
that is taken over within the stereotyped groups. Taking into account assumptions on behaviour
characteristic to women or men and their characteristic features, representatives of the correspondent
gender act in the social environment in accordance with the expectations of the surrounding society.
Thus gender stereotypes turn into unconscious everyday activities of men and women.
The fact that gender is used as criteria of social categorization is mainly determined by natural
instincts of people to classify everything and by characteristic of our society that a great attention is
paid to categorization as to gender features. Even at the level of an individual, gender stereotypes
determine processing of incoming information, the consequences of which is tendency to memorize
the information that serves for proving these stereotypes (Берн 2001:201-216).
The main theoretical perspectives as to labour market segregation, wage differences and aspect of
gender equality in the labour market can be classified (Anker 1997: 2):
Neo-classical / human capital theories;
Theory of labour market segmentation;
Feminism and gender theories.
The first two theoretical approaches are related to the existing explanations of present labour market
processes and they help to define the problems of gender equality that exist in the labour market. The
last approach has rather anthropological character and it concerns notion of social process and norms
and concepts of society in gender equality in the labour market.
In accordance with the approach of neo-classical theory, employees are looking form better
remunerated positions that correspond to their skills (education and experience), restrictions (for
example, necessity to care about small children or coordinate studying and work) or desires (for
example, pleasant working environment or possibilities to improve qualification). Employees, on their
part, try to obtain maximum profit by raising productivity of work and reducing labour expenses,
which includes paying minimum necessary wage in order to attract an employee of appropriate
qualification (Anker 1997: 2-5).
When studying the position of labour force offer (employees), neo-classical theories emphasize lower
human capital that women bring into the labour market (insufficient education in the corresponding
field), as well as they indicate what women get after involving in the labour market (less work
36
experience because of leave for child care, fewer working hours in order to coordinate family life and
work). In accordance with this approach, women as less productive labour force receive lower wage
(Anker 1997: 2-3).
In correspondence with the position of labour force demand (employers), neo-classical theories
concern readiness of employers to employ men as a more productive labour force that does not need
any additional payments. For example, there are fewer possibilities among women to work after
official working hours or during holidays, they are not at work more often, they cause more expenses
because of leave for child care that requires search and training of new employees, women require
separate toilets or wardrobes, as well as premises for babysitting. This opinion of employers is proven
by norms of Labour Law adopted to protect women (prohibition to employ women in certain kinds of
work and working conditions, prohibition to employ women during night etc.) (Anker 1997: 3)
Theory of compensative differential model is economic approach to human resources that explains
higher involvement of women into particular fields and professions, as well as lower wage because of
requirements and needs of women. Women usually choose good and pleasant working conditions;
greater social security (paid social tax, health insurance and possibilities of child care) and lower wage
can bee explained by reception of other forms of remuneration. An important argument against this
theory is are such typical examples of “female” professions as office-cleaners, sales-assistants and
dressmakers where it is hard to single out any pleasant working conditions (Anker 1997: 5).
One of the theories of labour market segmentation that explains labour market segregation taking into
consideration the gender is theory of statistical discrimination. It prescribes that wage differences and
reasons of segregation are based on gender stereotypes – employees of one gender may have
“masculine” or “feminine” traits that are necessary in the field – higher work productivity, definite
skills or experience. Thus involving of the opposite gender in the respective field is related to higher
expenses and such behaviour of an employer is considered to be rational and economically justified
(Anker 1997: 5-7).
Whereas the basic assumption of gender theory is the one that reflects the disadvantageous position of
women in patriarchal society (concept of a woman as doer of house work and children up bringer, but
a man is earner) and it has been created thanks to unequal and subordinated position of women in a
family and in the society in general. Duty division and the model of patriarchal society explains why
women have less human resources – they do not acquire the necessary education in the professions in
demand, as well as they have to cease working and withdraw from the labour market (Anker 1997: 7).
Gender theory also explains labour market segregation – relation of “feminine” and “masculine”
professions to the existent stereotypes on skills and abilities of men and women (Anker 1997: 7-8).
Taking into consideration direct reflection of these concepts in the situation of women employment,
gender researchers emphasize the necessity to break stereotypes that are related to women, men and
their employment.
Yet if one looks at horizontal and vertical labour market segregation taken apart, the researchers prove
that higher horizontal segregation reduces vertical segregation and this has a positive impact on
situation of women in the society (Blackburn, Jarman 2006: 307-309).
Social psychologists consider that social norms are the main conditions that determine human
behaviour in the society. They think that the majority of fender differences are to be found not in
biological determination, i.e. the norms that are determined by hormones and chromosomes, but social
norms that pertain to each gender and determine different types of behaviour, attitude and interest
depending on person’s gender. The corresponding body of social norms that contains information on
characteristics of each gender, their characteristic traits, is called role of gender. A part of these norms
are incorporated in our consciousness with the help of mass media, especially television and popular
literature, the other part is received indirectly, for example, by facing condemnation of society in cases
when their behaviour does not correspond to expectations that are prescribed for the representative of
the gender. In fact gender stereotypes work as social norms (Берн 2001:31).
When analysing gender equality field in general, S. Bem (Бем 2004) indicates that struggle for
introduction of gender equality created fictive conception of neutrality of the gender – illusory version
of the fact that there is no difference between genders at all and in accordance with it the legislation is
to be changed. This stage is proven to have existed in the history of feminism in America and USSR.
37
Conception on gender neutrality creates illusion on the possibility to fully overcome gender
polarization. “Gender polarization widens the conception of what it means to be a man or what it
means to be a woman, in the result of which a paradox cultural idea has emerged in accordance with
which, “real” man and “real” woman differ from biological man and biological woman” (Бем
2004:267).
What concerns possibility to overcome gender polarization, S. Bem is rather sceptical. First of all, she
thinks that its overcoming can be realized with limitation of androcentrism. Secondly, S. Bem assumes
that gender depolarization could require more resources than social [epithet of the author] revolution
that is directed towards restructuring of social institutes and creation of new cultural discourses.
Gender depolarization would also require psychical revolution at personal level (who we are as a man
or a woman?), as well as deep changes at the level of feelings in relation to the fact what biological
gender means to us and how it is related to psyche and sexuality.
In order to create equal socio-economic environment in regard of gender equality, one has to reach a
considerable transformation of opinions in issues of gender equality. First of all, one has to accept
definite inequality of genders and stop discussing about differences and start solving real gender
equality issues in social and economic fields (Бем 2004:242-261).
But as K. G. Jung (Jung 1971:20) considers, - there exist who archetypes in structures of personalities:
anima – source of feminine traits in a man, source of gentleness and kindness, where as animus is
source of “masculine” in a woman that provides her a possibility to be harsh, categorical and hardy.
While the two genders come into contact every day and they coexist, there is no doubt that some
characteristic features of one gender are taken over by the other and thus society women develop
masculine traits and men develop feminine traits in the society where there is no gender segregation.
As L. Sobchik (Собчик 1990:37) admitted, process of women emancipation nowadays has lead to the
situation where it is correct to speak about common feminization: women become more masculine,
men become more feminine.
After more detailed analysis of gender studies in case if labour market is under consideration,
substantional approach was chosen as the most appropriate perspective that analyses traditional gender
stereotypes and is based on the so-called zero hypothesis (Hagemann-White, Reccich 1988: 1-230).
Hagemann-White claims that the gender is of no importance. Socialization and gender stereotypes that
are created by the culture on what is masculine and what is feminine is the defining factor. They are
not analysed because these are only constructions of culture. Substantional approach operates with
human identity that biologically manifests a man and a woman, and in morality, laws and norms a
person develops characteristics necessary for his or her life – education, profession and partnership.
1.4. Hypothesis of the Research

In the stage of initiation of the research and its initial elaboration, the work group set several
assumptions that characterize aspects of gender equality in the labour market:
1. Gender is a factor that influences the amount of payment; the influence of this factor is different in
various employment spheres.
2. Employer’s stereotypes about gender roles cause differences in amounts of salaries of men and
women that are working in an enterprise.
3. The choice of profession/position and entrance into the labour market are influenced by
differences of dominating motivations among men and women.
4. Gender influences possibilities to achieve higher income.
5. Differences in salaries, as well as vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by the fact that in
general women are having less paid jobs, and that they spend a lot of time on accomplishing work
they are not paid for (e.g. household, childcare, treatment of old or ill members of the family).
Hypotheses were stated as an unproved statements or assumptions about interrelations of the factors or
social phenomena. They are based on analysed researches and theoretical literature, and researchers’
38
competence and opinion about social reality at the current moment. Different experience and opinions
of researchers of the work group had an important role in formulation of hypothesis.
In general, hypotheses were tested with the help of quantitative data, however in separate cases the
results of qualitative researches were used. The hypothesis “Wage differences for men and women
working in an enterprise are related to concept of the employer on the roles of the genders” was tested
wit the help of quantitative method – with the help of deep interviews with employers and analysis of
their answers to the questions on the factors that influence wage of employees, as well as their
concepts of male-employees and female-employees productivity and correspondence to the work.
In order to test the hypotheses “Belonging to one or another gender is a factor that influences wage;
impact of this wage is different in each sphere of employment” and “Belonging to one or another
gender influences possibilities to gain addition incomes”, collaboration with the research “Wages and
Influencing Factors” was needed, in the frameworks of which study of factors that influence wages
and acquisition of additional incomes for an employee. When testing these hypotheses, the results of
the quantitative inquiry of people of active age “Men and Women in the Labour Market” of the
research GEALM.
The hypothesis “Differences of dominating motivation among men and women influence choice of a
profession / position and involving into the labour market” was tested with the help of deep
interviews, as well as questions included into inhabitant inquiry on the main factors and circumstances
at work.
The hypothesis “Wage differences, as well as vertical and horizontal segregation is influences by the
fact that women in general work in less remunerated jobs but they spend more time on doing unpaid
jobs (for example, household works, care for children, parents of ill family members)” was tested with
the CSB data on “Time utilization of the inhabitants of Latvia”, as well as with the results of the focus
groups of employed inhabitants and parents with small children.
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2. METHODOLOGY
In order to realize the aims set in the research, triangulation method was applied, which means that
different methods that are mutually complementary were used. In different target groups, qualitative
and quantitative methods of research were used, which provided wide and rich information on the
primary questions.
Research activities of the research “Gender equality aspects in the labour market” were done in the
following target groups:
Active age people:
a. Focus group discussions of employed people;
b. Survey of active age people and statistical analysis of its results.
Families with small children:
a. Focus group discussions with parents having small children;
b. Survey of families with small children and statistical analysis of the results.
Employers:
a. In-depth interviews with employers;
b. Question block in quantitative inquiry of employers.
Students – In-depth interviews with students.
The following research activities were realized apart from studies in particular target groups:
Econometric analysis of the data of CSB, LFR and WIF CSP DSA un DAIF;
Audit of flow of information;
Elaboration and evaluation or political alternatives and suggestions of the field.
Further in the text, methodological description for each activities realized during the research is given.
TARGET GROUP OF ACTIVE AGE PEOPLE
2.1. Focus Group Discussions of Employed People

In order to discover gender equality problems in the labour market, analysis of not only objective but
also subjective factors was needed, which was carried out with the help of qualitative research.
Aims of qualitative research of employed people:
To find out the bodies of attitudes and concepts that exist in the society against introduction
and observance of gender equality principle in the labour market;
To find out possible gender discrimination manifestation, cases of subjective experience of
inhabitants and formulation for gender equality in the labour market;
To discover factors that influence gender equality of discrimination at work, including
possible informal contacts and manifestation of sexual abuse;
To find out attitude of employed people to introduction of flexible working hours and to
define possible models;
To define possible factors that determine wage difference emerging between men and women;
To supplement the hypotheses of the research with coincidences that have not been discovered
until now concerning the issues of gender equality;
To elaborate recommendations for the questionnaire of qualitative inquiry.
In order to realize the targets set, method of focus group discussion was used. Usage of quantitative
method allows finding out opinions and motives that exist in the society and provides concept on the
40
language and phraseology that the inhabitants sue when speaking about aspects of gender equality in
the labour market.
Period of carrying out the research – January 18 – February 3, 2006.
In the frameworks of the activities, there were six group discussions organized with employed people
of Latvia who speak Latvian or Russian. In one group 7 – 9 respondents took part (in total 52 inquired
inhabitants) and average duration of interviews was two hours. Projective methods also were used in
the research – collages, unfinished sentences and “idea bubbles”.
Target group was men and women who have a full-time or part-time work. The groups were
heterogeneous regarding the sphere of employment and each group included employees working in
different professions and fields from both, public and private sector. Representatives of all professions
or fields were included in a group: education, state administration, hotels and restaurants, retail sales,
insurance and finances, communication and information technologies, construction, power industry,
transport, services.
There were four women focus groups and two men focus groups that consisted of Latvian and Russian
speaking people from Riga, Rezekne, Liepaja and Cesis. Age differences were meant for acquisition
of wider spectre of opinions. In women group, the included age spectre was 20 – 65, which then was
divided into subgroups (20 – 35, 30 – 49, 50 – 65). A particular attention was paid to the group of
unemployment risk that included women of the pre-retirement age. In the groups of men, the age
spectre from 20 – 55 was analysed, which was divided into groups 20 – 24 and 35 – 55. This division
allowed us acquiring different opinions of Latvian and Russian speaking inhabitants, as well as
understanding the differences in understanding of people of different age.
In the analysis of the obtained information, qualitative data analysis methods were used and there was
a report prepared that provided large information on the topics considered in the research. The main
results and the most characteristic opinions of the participants are integrated in the text of final
research. In designation of the quotes, the following abbreviations were used: Inhab. – Inhabitant
target group; Women; Men; LV – Latvian speaking; RUS – Russian speaking.
2.2. Survey of Active Age People “Women and Men in the Labour Market”
The aim of the research GEALM is to evaluate the present situation in the field of gender equality and
to identify the problems in ensuring gender equality principles in the labour market. In order to
achieve this, the following aims were set for the survey “Women and men in the labour market”
carried out in the frameworks of the research:
To find out attitude and understanding of able-bodied inhabitants of the issues of gender
equality in the labour market;
To make measures on the situation of employed people in the labour market by analysing the
main parameters that characterize each gender (field, profession and occupied positions,
workload, kind of labour agreement, incomes, education, size of the family, etc);
To find out the factors that influence unemployment risk among able-bodied inhabitants
(including work motivation, activities of labour search and fulfilling of family duties);
To carry out measures on importance of the factors that influence the situation of gender
equality or discrimination (including values, work motivation, workload, kind of labour
agreement, duties at home and in the family);
To make evaluation of demand of more flexible forms or work and part-time jobs;
To carry out research of importance of informal factors and contracts in the context of gender
equality.
The survey “Women and men in the labour market” was carried out during March 3 – April 24, 2006.
41
In accordance with the aim set, the target group to inquiries includes inhabitants of Latvia at the age
from 15 – 65. The number of respondents – 2002 inhabitants who were inquired with the help of direct
interview methods in their places of residence.
When creating selection of the research, method of stratified multistage random choice was applied.
First of all the general body (all inhabitants of Latvia aged 15 – 65) was divided depending on the
region and type of populated place in accordance with the available statistical data. In the next stage of
selection creation, points where to carry out inquiries were defined in cities and rural governments, as
well as number of interviews there by chance. Selection of households was done according to one
common route. For selection of respondents in these households the “principle of the youngest man”
(the youngest man who was at home at that time was interviewed) was used, which increased the
proportion of the necessary group of inhabitants – men and young people in the selection.
Total selection of the research included 4464 entities, from which 623 were unusable and 3841 –
usable contacts. Number of unmade interviews was 1837, 650 from which were refusals to participate.
The used method of creation of selection and choosing of respondents ensured close enough
composition to the official statistical data. In general 1130 women (56%) and 872 men (44%) were
interviewed. Almost two thirds or 1244 respondents were Latvians (62%), 597 Russians (30%) and
161 or 8% - representatives of national minorities.
Average length of interviews was 25 minutes.
In accordance with the secondary data analysis and results of qualitative research, set of instruments –
a questionnaire was prepared for the quantitative inhabitant inquiry. With the questions included in the
questionnaire, the hypothesis elaborated in the first stages of the research were tested. The
questionnaire includes questions on indices of measurement of gender equality introduction process
that were elaborated in the previous stage of the research.
In order to characterize the situation in general ad to find out differences in women subgroups,
demographical issues were also included into the research, combination of which made it possible to
carry out analysis of data depending on gender, age, status of employment, nationality, education,
family status and personal incomes, sources of subsistence, responsibility for house works etc. All
respondents were asked about importance of work, values and motivation to work, attitude to the
notion of gender equality and spread of gender stereotypes, as well as on experience of gender
discrimination (sexual abuse).
Employed people were asked questions in order to find out the necessary kinds of labour agreements,
fulfilling of additional work, field of employment; positions and processions, largeness of the working
place and proportion of men and women in the enterprise, real and desired workload, correspondence
of working place to needs and desires, availability of flexible work forms, support of employers in
harmonization of working life and family life, subjective satisfaction with work and possibilities to
coordinate family life and work, attitude towards work and relations in the working place.
Unemployed inhabitants were asked on their former working experience and description of working
place, evaluation of possibilities to find work, activities of labour search and requirement for work, as
well as desire to have a flexible work.
In order to make the data to be comparable with the researches of other countries, international indices
were used: questions of the survey “Work orientations” and “Family and changing gender role) of the
ISPP (International Social Survey Program), as well as questions of European value research.
Taking into consideration the fact that for other project needs the measurement of gender equality was
ordered by MW and conducted in November 2005, which partially checked and repeated the questions
of the survey on gender equality of 2001, the survey “Women and men in the labour market” had
concentrated to the study on real situation and experience of people in the labour market. Nevertheless
the survey included also some statements on gender stereotypes from the survey on gender equality of
2001 (Kaņejeva 2001).
In addition to description analysis of the results, the obtained data from the active inhabitants were
analysed using econometric methods.
42
In order to evaluate how much personal attitude and working motivation influence situation of men
and women in the labour market, the obtained evaluations were analysed using factor analysis method.
Factor analysis is a statistical method that allows analyzing mutual relations among many variables
and explaining relations of these variables concerning common basic dimensions (factors), thus a great
amount of information would be described with smaller number of variables causing minimal loss of
information. Factor analysis was carried out with the help of processing programme SPSS for
Windows and in the result of this there were different 3 and 4 factor groups acquired for men and
women.
In order to determine impact of different factors on work satisfaction for women and men, satisfaction
with possibilities to combine work and private life, as well as remuneration, econometric modelling of
GEALM survey as well as WIF employees' survey data was used.
Depending on satisfaction evaluation scale, two modelling methods have been applied. In case when a
respondent was asked to evaluate his/her satisfaction in a 10-point scale where 1 means "completely
unsatisfied" and 10 – "completely satisfied", one can assume that a respondent perceives "distance"
between scale points as approximately equal, i.e., difference between evaluation points 5 and 6 is as
large as between points 6 and 7 etc. In such situation, for satisfaction modelling linear regression
model can be used:
Yi = α + δ F + ∑ βkXki + ∑ γjZji + ui, (2.2.1)
k j
where i denotes individual employee, yi is employee's i satisfaction evaluation (which can take value
between 1 and 10); gender indicator F =1 for women, F =0 for men; Xki (k =1,..., K) – employee's i
characteristics (age, education...), Zji (j=1,...J) – characteristics of the enterprise where the employee i
works (sector, ownership sector, number of employees, location etc.), ui – random error (individual
effect) with expected value E[ui]=0. It is assumed that random error ui is normally distributed and it
does not correlate with independent variables F, X, Z. Linear regression method was used, for
example, in analysis of the First European Quality of Life Survey results. (European Foundation for
the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2005: 7., 8. tables).
Estimated coefficients in linear regression are simply interpretable: coefficient of each explanatory
variable (F, Xk, Zj) shows by how many scale points satisfaction evaluation changes on average if the
respective independent variable increases by one unit, values of the other variables remaining
unchanged. For example, coefficient  is the average difference (in terms of measurement scale
points) between female and male satisfaction evaluations, other conditions held equal. Here "other
equal conditions" are parameters included in the respective model. In order to identify factors which
particularly significantly affect satisfaction with work and work aspects among women and men,
(2.2.1) model has been separately estimated in female and male samples (without gender indicator F).
In employees' survey of the WIF research, instead of a 10-point scale respondents were offered a 5-
point scale. Five-point scale is also known as a Likert scale. Thus, in the WIF research the following
question was asked: „Overall, to what degree are you satisfied with your current position at your basic
work place? Are you: very unsatisfied, rather unsatisfied, neither satisfied nor unsatisfied, rather
satisfied, very satisfied?”
In such cases there is no reason to assume that a respondent perceives "distance" between scale points
as approximately equal, therefore linear regression is not a relevant method for data analysis. Instead,
ordered logit (or probit) regression has been used. It is also a standard approach in international
practice (Clark 2005; Blanchflower and Oswald 2005). Model assumptions is that respondent's answer
Yi can take values from 1 (certainly does not agree or is very unsatisfied) to m (certainly agrees or is
very satisfied). This answer is determined by a latent (unobservable) satisfaction index Y* which
depends on the observed factors:
Y*i = δ F + ∑ βkXki + ∑ γjZji + ui. (2.2.2)
k j
Notation of variables is the same as in (2.2.1) model, but error ui. is subject to logit distribution: Pr(ui. <
x) = G(x), where G(x) = 1/ (1+ exp(-x)). Relationship between Y and Y* is as follows:
43
if -∞ < Y* ≤ c1, then Y = 1; if c1 < Y* ≤ c2, then Y = 2;...; if cm-1 < Y* < ∞, then Y = m.
Using normal distribution, one obtains ordered probit regression and here results on principle do not
differ.
Threshold points c1, ..., cm-1 are estimated along with coefficients of equation (2.2.2) (for more detailed
discussion of ordered logit regression and estimation of its parameters, refer to, for example, Greene
2003: ch. 21; StataCorp 2005: 148-152). Compared to linear regression case, coefficients are not so
simply interpretable; however, with their use for each Y value s= 1,..., m one can estimate forecasted
probabilities Pr(Y = s) dependent on values of independent variables:
Pr( Y = s| F, X, Z) = G(Y** - cs) - G(Y** - cs-1) ,
Y** = δ F + ∑ βkXk + ∑ γjZj , c0 = - ∞, cm = ∞ .
k j
In its turn, it enables estimating the impact of separate factors on satisfaction (or dissatisfaction)
probability.
Coefficients of both linear and ordered logistic regression α , δ, βk, γj are estimated with maximum
likelihood method (e.g., Maddala 1992:118), taking into account:
(i) weights of observations (so called p-weights or probability weights showing number of
people from population represented by each respondent);
(ii) possible variation within correlation clusters (survey points).
Disregard of weights might give imprecise coefficient values. Although correlation of answer
variation does not change coefficient value, its disregard might cause false conclusions about
significance of values of separate variables. The used methods of standard error estimation allow also
for different variation of error scale in the sample (heteroscedasticity) (StataCorp 2005: 199-204, 258-
264).
TARGET GROUP OF FAMILIES WITH SMALL CHILDREN
2.3. Focus Group Discussions of Parents Having Small Children

As one of the risk groups in the context of labour market are parents after leave fro child care – in the
case of Latvia, those are mainly women. Looking from the perspective of gender equality, changes in
this field will not be possible without political and financial support of the government, however
change of situation depends on subjective factors, too, which are determined by traditions and
concepts that exist in the society.
In the framework of the research GEALM, research of the group of parents with small children was
initiated using quantitative approach – focus group discussion method. The aims were:
to find out motivation of taking advantage of not of leaves for child care and allowances
among parents of both genders;
to find out problems that are related to inclusion of parents into the labour market after the
leave for child care;
to find out aspects that favour involvement of parents into the labour market;
to find out experience related to fulfilling of unregistered employment during leave for child
care;
to understand the attitude to introduction of flexible form or work, needs and motivation that
is related to choice of part-time work and demand to define possible modes of flexible
working time;
to define concepts on gender equality or discrimination in the labour market regarding from
the viewpoint of parents;
44
to discover factors that influence gender equality and discrimination in the labour market,
including possible informal contacts and manifestations of sexual abuse;
to supplement the list of hypothesis of the research with regularities that have not yet been
discovered;
to elaborate recommendations for quantitative inquiry questionnaire for families.
Period of the research – January 19 – February 1, 2006.
There were six small mini group discussions carried out with parent who have children till the age of
1.5 year: with Latvian speaking women in Riga and Liepaja and with Russian speaking in Riga and
Rezekne, with Latvian and Russian speaking men in Riga. In one group, there were 5 – 6 participants
(in total 32 persons with small children). Average duration of interviews – 1.5 – 2 hours.
In selection of respondents, additional criteria were used that were related to experience of
employment and leave for child care and taking advantage of allowances. Each group of women
included 1 – 2 participants without working experience and 3 – 5 participants with the experience; 2 –
4 mothers have fully taken advantage or are taking the advantage of leave for child care, but 1 – 2
mothers in the labour market (including unofficial) were also involved in prenatal leave. In each group
of men, at least two fathers have used postnatal leave (having received paternity allowance) or leave
for child care and at least two fathers have not used leave for child care or postnatal leave (having
received paternity allowance).
In the focus group, projective methods were used (collages, unfinished sentences and “idea bubbles”).
In the analysis of the obtained information, quantitative data analysis methods were used and detailed
report of the results was prepared that provided information on the topics considered in the research.
The main results and the most characteristic opinions of the participants are incorporated in the final
research. In designation of the quotes, the following abbreviations were used: Inhab. – Inhabitant
target group; Women; Men; LV – Latvian speaking; RUS – Russian speaking.
2.4. Quantitative Survey of Families Having Small Children

One of the tasks of the research was to carry out study of childcare benefit usage and to find out its
impact on parents in their rejoining to the labour market.
In order to fulfil this task, quantitative research of the target group of parents with small children was
carried out. The aim of the survey was to obtain data of situation in Latvia on problems of parents of
small children in the labour market regarding from the aspect of gender equality; to find out
motivation of usage of leave for child care and allowances among both parents; to examine the real
experience and find out factors that favour or hamper involvement of parents in the labour market; to
find out attitude of parents to flexible work forms and readiness to use them.
The research of parents with small children was carried out from March 3 – April 24, 2006.
Methodology of the research was elaborated basing on information acquired in qualitative research –
focus group discussions of parents with small children, as well as using methodology and experience
of previous family inquiries.
Stratified random choice sample was made. In order to obtain data related to target groups in entire
Latvia, in creation of the sample, data of Population Register on newborns in the municipalities of
Latvia in 2005 and 2006 were used. Basing on this information, sample of the research was elaborated,
in the first stage of elaboration of which there were sample points were randomly selected. Selection
of concrete entities of survey was ensured by looking for respondents in the places where they can be
reached – parks, playgrounds, on the street, in kindergartens, health centres, as well as using of
information provided by families.
In order to evaluate possibilities of gender equalities in harmonization of working life and family life,
involvement of parents with small children in the labour market, present problems and desired of
parents, there were mothers and fathers of each family interviewed. The interviews were carried out in
living places of respondents (45%) and in public places (55%). In total there were 600 filled in
questionnaires received from families. Methodology of the survey provided interviewing both parents,
45
but in the case if there is only one parent available, then asking questions on the other parent, too. In
the result, 600 interviews were made with women and 500 with men. 74 of all inquired families were
of the kind where father does not live together with the family, and 50 of them do no participate in
childcare and upbringing. In 26 cases it was not possible to reach fathers during the fieldwork.
In general (86.9%) of the inquired families with both parents – 62.2% are married and they live
together and 24.7% are unregistered relations but they live together. Father lived together with the
family in 87.7% of cases. About each fifth family where parents and children live together, there were
6.3% of families who live together with other relatives.
56.8% of all families with one child, 29.5% have two and 13.5% have three and more children. This
division corresponds to division of newborns during the last two years. Families with one child are
prevailing and families with three and more children are minority. In 2004, 52.6% of all newborns
were the first child in a family, 31% - the second child and 16.4 were the rest.
Average age of the youngest child at the moment of study was 10.2 months, where as the age of 4.4
months was represented the most. 58.8% of children did not reach the age of one year and 75.5% of
children – the age of 16 months. Thus there were enough parents inquired during the research who
could take advantage of child care allowances (since January 1, 2005 child care benefit was paid in
accordance with the previous wage, as well as prenatal allowances increased for unemployed parents).
69% of women inquired in the study were Latvians, 25% - Russians and 6% - other nationalities. In
accordance to the statistical data in the last years, about 65% of young mothers are Russians. 34.2% of
respondents live in Riga, 15% - in the basin of Riga, 14.2% - in Latgale, 13.2% - in Kurzeme, 13% - in
Zemgale and 10.5% - in Vidzeme. The sample was appropriate and complete and it allowed generalize
the obtained results in relation to the situation of families with small children in Latvia in general
Average duration of an interview was about 45 minutes.
TARGET GROUP OF EMPLOYERS

Introduction and maintenance of gender equality principle in the situation of the labour market
depends very much on concepts and attitude of employers. Although attitude of employers express
concepts and traditions that exist in the society in general, their behaviour determines aspects that are
characteristic to the labour market. Deep research of the target group is required in order to study it.
Study of gender equality aspects among employers was carried out using quantitative and qualitative
methods.
2.5. In-depth Interviews with Employers

Aims of the research activity:
to find out manifestation of gender equality or discrimination in Latvian enterprises;
to find out principles that determine gender differentiation in different Latvian enterprises;
to find out attitude of employers to gender notion in different positions or in fulfilling different
duties;
to define possible factors that determine wage differences among men and women;
to find out attitude of employers to experience in relation to flexible work forms and their
introduction in the labour market;
to elaborate questions fro quantitative inquiry of employers and inhabitants, as well as to get
explanation for the tendencies of the results of quantitative results.
Quantitative inquiry of employers in with the help of in-depth interview method that was realized in
two stages:
1) The first stage or “diagnostic”, 14 interviews were made before elaboration of quantitative
employer questionnaire in October 2005.
46
2) The second stage or “explanatory”, 26 interviews were made after quantitative study of
employers in April and May, 2006.
In total 40 employers were interviewed in different kinds of enterprises in all regions of Latvia (26 of
them took place in Riga, 10 – in other cities and 4 interviews were made with rural entrepreneurs). 22
women and 18 men were interviewed – enterprise managers or personnel department managers in
large enterprises (persons in an enterprise that take decisions on employment of workers and wage).
In qualitative research sample, employers for different spheres were included – the main economy
spheres and prior fields that are included in the Lisbon Strategy. The following fields were included:
health care and social assistance, education, hotels and restaurants, retail sales, information and
communication technologies, environment, consultations, real estates and auditing, insurance and
finances, as well as building, power industry, transport and production.
In-depth interviews were carried out in enterprises of different sizes – 9 large (250 and more
employees), 9 average (50 – 249 employees) and 17 small (10 – 49 employees) and 6 micro (up to 9
employees) enterprises.
Average duration of an interview – 50 – 60 minutes.
In the analysis of the obtained information, qualitative data analysis methods were used. There was a
common report of the result on research activities of the target group was prepared. The main results
and the most characteristic opinions of the participants are incorporated in the final research. In
designation of the quotes, the following abbreviations were used: DD – target group of employers,
Women and Men.
2.6. Quantitative Survey of Employers

During elaboration of the research in order to obtain addition objective indices that would characterize
the situation of gender equality entrepreneurship, it was decided in collaboration with the work group
of WIF to include into the WIF quantitative employers’ survey a question block on gender equality
aspects in enterprises.
The fieldwork was conducted between February 1 and March 28, 2006 using face-to-face method.
The target group was economically active enterprises of Latvia – employers. Total amount of the
sample was 800 employers from public (state and municipal institutions, social organizations, etc) and
private sector (commercial societies).
The sample of employers’ survey was chosen applying systematic random sample. Selection of
sampling units was done by CSB considering request of WIF research team: using systematic random
sampling method by number of employees in enterprise (unit has higher probability to be selected if it
has greater number of employees), to select economically active statistical units within three and more
workers are employed. More detailed description of the selection method is included in the study WIF
(RS Group, 2006: 42-43).
Respondents were economically active managers or owners of enterprises, or in the case of need –
personnel department manager, and in regard to the character and topic of the inquiry an enterprise
could be represented by one or more responsible persons. In cases if there were several people of one
enterprise interviewed, the respondent who dealt with the basic questions of the questionnaire and
questions on demography had to answer the question on gender equality.
Total duration of an interview was 40 minutes, 7 – 10 of which were dedicated to issues on gender
equality.
In order to obtain observation of 800 employers, we contacted 1239 potential respondents and only
1203 of them corresponded to a definite target group. 800 interviews were made and 403 cases did not
correspond to the aim to reach.
Analysis of gender equality issues included in the inquiry of employers was made in the descriptive
from and econometric methods were used. Concepts of employers in relation to gender equality issues
and flexible work forms offered by enterprises were analysed using factor analysis method with the
help of statistical data processing programme SPSS for Windows.
47
2.7. In-depth Interviews with Students – Research on Study Programme

Choice Motivation
In order to identify motivation that determines the choice of a particular professional field, in-depth
interviews with students were made. The study programmes under consideration were chosen basing
on results of profession research data of CSB and differences fixed in study programme division as to
the gender carried out by the ME. Usage of in-depth interview method allowed obtaining of detailed
information on subjective and objective factors that people take into consideration and that have
influenced (and still influences) choice of study programmes and profession. A particular role is paid
to the role of gender in these factors.
Aims of the research:
- To find out different and common motivation what influence choice of definite study
programmes or professions depending on the gender;
- To find out attitude of students to notion of gender for different positions and fulfilling of
different works;
- To define possible factors that determine gender segregation into different profession groups
and fields.
Time of the research – March – April, 2006.
30 interviews with senior students (third and fourth year) in bachelor programmes in the universities
of Latvia were carried out within the frameworks of the research, which is the time when the majority
of students have already realized their possibilities in the labour market (20 students already has such
experience). This selection supplemented and justified motivation analysis by providing information
on possibilities and restrictions that youngsters face in the labour market. The obtained information is
subjective, the same as the object of the research – motivation. Several socio-demographical criteria
were taken into consideration – gender of the respondents, location of education institution and study
year, as well as nationality. A particular attention was paid to the so-called research of “marginal”
cases. There were cases analysed when women study in the programmes were there are more male
students and vice versa. Size of a particular education institution is not a relevant criteria in
determining the number of necessary interviews because in the case of qualitative methods there is no
need for quantitative representatives.
Basing on the information obtained in the previous stages (deep interviews of employers, focus groups
of employed people and parents with small children), such issues as attitude of new families to
founding of a family in a respective age group, as well as perception of the gender as an advantage of
obstacle when entering labour market were considered.
Review of socio-demographical characteristics of the inquired students allows concluding that the
information has been obtained from different groups of society. Proportionality of inhabitants was
observed by interviewing 15 men and 15 women. In order to determine student division, such factors
as number of students studying in the university, its regional location and specifics of the study
programme (especially horizontal segregation in these and in corresponding sectors of labour market)
were taken into consideration. After analysis of these circumstances the following universities were
chosen – University of Latvia (6 students), Riga Technical University (6 students), Latvia University
of Agriculture (4 students), Riga Stradiņš University (2 students), Ventspils University College (2
students), University of Daugavpils (2 students), Baltic International Academy (2 students), Social
work and social pedagogy college “Attīstība” (2 students). Students from Latvia University of
Agriculture, in Ventspils University College and University of Daugavpils represented
correspondingly respondents living in Zemgale, Kurzeme and Latgale, thus covering all regions of
Latvia.
Selection of respondents took place by using method of social net, as well as with the help of
personnel departments of the universities.
Perspective of result analysis was chosen basing on the approach that considers gender differences as
socially constructed, as well as using cognitions of Gidenss structurization theory. Gidenss makes a
reference to the opinion of Robert King Merton on the fact how important it is not to separate indirect
48
consequences of activities and institutionalized practices (Gidenss 1999: 45-46). Motivation of the
study programme was considered as mechanism of reproduction of institutionalized activities –
indirect consequences in interflexive and reflexive cycle create already known conditions of further
activities.
In processing of obtained information, approach of discourse analysis oriented towards the text – by
interpreting the text in a side social and institutional context. Discourse analysis is advantageous for
practical application of structurization theory because structures, practices and agents are involved in
creation of texts. Social practices articulate the discourse along with other non-discourse elements thus
forming order of discourse – net of social practices in the language aspect (Fairclough 2004: 22). In
order to make interview analysis, both text of the interview and discourse context (chosen university,
programme, location, etc) was used. A particular attention was paid to factors and notions that
influence motivation and that are used for description of the present situation, especially in “atypical”
fields. More frequent scheme that appears in justification in the analysed texts show their prevalence.
Information on its stability and impact are provided by the experience of the students in two influential
socialization institutes – family and school.
In the result there was a detailed report made that was partially included in the final report of the
research (chapter on motivation of choice of study programmes).
2.8. Econometric Analysis of Available Research data on Labour Market

In order to describe wage gap between genders, in the GEALM research three data sources were used:
(i) CSB Labour Force Survey (LFS) data for period 2002-2005;
(ii) CSB Household Budget Survey (HBS) data of 1997, 2002 and 2004;
(iii) WIF employees' survey data (year 2005).
Analysing gender wage gaps, the following questions were asked:
What is the average gap (in percent) between full-time employed male’s and female’s
monthly wage in Latvia? Does size of the wage gap significantly differ across various
wage distribution parts?
What share of this gap can be explained by male and female distribution differences
within professions, sectors and companies? What share of this gap can be explained by
differences in human capital and number of worked hours of "average male" and "average
female"? Which of the above mentioned factors affects gender wage gap most of all?
How large is the gap which can not be explained by differences between male and female,
as well as their work place characteristics?
Does unexplained wage gap have a tendency to decrease with a course of time?
Conclusions drawn from various sources will complement each other and enable answering the
research questions. Each data source has its advantages and limitations. Thus, CSB LFS samples are
very large (each year are surveyed approximately 7000 full-time hired workers), and availability of
LFS individual data from the last four years allows researching tendencies of changes in the
phenomenon. However, the fact that in the LFS data wages are measured in terms of interval
observations, decreases precision of the gender wage gap estimate. Before 2002, the LFS data is not
used in the GEALM research. It is due to the fact that number of LFS wage intervals was considerably
smaller and range of values included in each interval – wider; therefore results are not comparable.
CSB HBS sample also is quite representative (more than 3000 full-time hired workers in each sample).
Advantage of this data is precise information about wages of respondents: those are recorded as
precise as the respondent has named (data is obtained not in terms of interval estimate but as a “point”
estimate). Data has a limitation: there is no information about employee’s number of hours worked,
tenure, nationality, sector of the company (only agricultural and non-agricultural sectors of activity are
separated). For comparison, the HBS individual data of 2002 and 2004 will be used, and the obtained
results will be compared with those obtained in the World Bank 2000 research (World Bank 2000), by
using similar methodology with the HBS 1997 data.
49
WIF employees’ survey sample which contains information on respondent’s average net monthly
wage at basic work in 2005 is large enough (4040 respondents) and representative. Most respondents
have given precise information about wage, for the rest this information is in terms of interval
observations; however, range of values included in each interval is smaller and number of them is
larger than in the LFS case, therefore precision of estimates increases. Compared to the CSB LFS and
HBS data, the WIF data gives an opportunity to control for such factors as Latvian proficiency,
experience in profession and existence of collective agreement at the enterprise. Both HBS and WIF
enable controlling also for existence of employment agreement (LFS indirectly assumes that
everybody has an employment agreement).
Definition of population is different across all three used data sources. In the WIF research,
respondents are between 18 and 64 years old, the LFS respondents – between 15 and 74 years, in the
HBS survey full-time employees are between 17 and 73 years old. Besides, in the WIF top level
managers were not surveyed. In order to make calculations mutually comparable, they were made for
the LFS and HBS data in two ways: (1) with full sample and (2) excluding top level managers and
respondents younger than 18 or older than 64 years. Share of the excluded groups among employees is
small, for example, in the LFS 2005 data – less than 6%. As a result, results of variant (2) with respect
to male and female wage gap are just slightly different from variant (1); therefore, for the following
analysis it was decided to use only variant (1) (both variants in the following description of the
research results are showed only in table 3.3.2).
Although all three data sources in general are representative, experience shows that people with high
income are worse represented than others. High income people are harder to reach at their place of
residence as they tend to be more mobile and delimit their setting (living houses with door codes,
private house villages etc.). As a result, wage distribution in different survey data may not be identical.
Table 2.8.1. Comparison of net monthly wage (in lats) distributions of full-time employees.
WIF-2005, LFS-2005 and HBS -2004 data
Wage in lats at prices of 2005. Percent from LFS-2005
Percentile Average Percentile Average
10 25 50 75 90 valuea 10 25 50 75 90 value
Men
WIF-2005 90 135 194 270 360 208 117 136 131 130 122 129
LFS-2005 77 99 148 207 295 161 100 100 100 100 100 100
HBS-2004 75 107 160 224 331 195 97 108 108 108 112 121
HBS-2004b 75 107 160 224 320 191 97 108 108 108 109 119
Women
WIF-2005 72 99 139 189 260 150 99 118 123 113 95 117
LFS-2005 73 84 113 167 273 128 100 100 100 100 100 100
HBS-2004 64 85 117 188 267 152 88 102 104 113 98 119
HBS-2004b 64 85 117 187 267 151 88 102 104 112 98 118
Notes: a In the LFS and WIF data average values were estimated with interval regressions.
b
Only respondents at the age 18-64, excluding top level managers (profession codes 11 and 13).
In table 2.8.1 are compared WIF-2005, LFS-2005 and HBS-2004 data of wage distributions for full-
time male and female hired employees (HBS-2004 data is expressed in terms of lats of 2005, using
consumer price index). When comparing data, many interesting facts were discovered. The HBS-2004
data (average male net wage in terms of lats of 2004 is 183 Ls, female – 142 Ls, average – 163 Ls)
slightly exceeds CSB official (obtained from company reports) average net wage of 2004 in the
country (150 Ls). Taking into account “envelope wage” existence, it is a quite feasible result. Thus,
the HBS wage data can be considered as quite reliable. According to the CSB official data, in 2005
nominal net wage in Latvia on average was by 17% higher than in 2004. When expressing the HBS-
2004 wage in lats of 2005, nominal values increased by 6.7% according to the average inflation.
„Correct” wages of 2005 would have to be approximately by 10% higher than HBS-2004 wages
expressed in lats of 2005 as the registered wage growth was on average more rapid than inflation.
Since one reason of the wage growth is labour force emigration to other countries and men in this
respect are more active than women, one can expect that male wages grew more than female.
Table 2.8.1 shows that WIF-2005 data reflects the above mentioned assumptions, except for that WIF-
2005 female wages exceed HBS-2004 data in the lowest wage distribution part and middle point of the
50
distribution (up to the 50th percentile), but in the upper part of the distribution (above the 50th
percentile) – are slightly lower. Overall, in WIF-2005 data the average female wage is equal to HBS-
2004 where female wage exceeds its 2004 nominal value only by 6.7% (inflation). The fact that
female wage size measured in WIF-2005 does not correspond to the expected wage growth might have
several reasons. First, both in WIF and in other wage researches data show that in 2005 wage growth
was not even – in some groups of professions it was faster than in others. Compared to 2004, wages
most of all were increased to qualified workers and unskilled workers, i.e., in professions where
mainly men work. Second, the obtained data might be affected by question formulation in the
questionnaire. In WIF research it is asked about net wage at main work “on average during the last 12
months”, and one can not exclude a possibility that in answers of respondents recently (during the last
months) received wages had larger weight. During the considered 12 months period labour shortage in
Latvia reached its peak just at the end of 2005: according to the CSB data, number of vacancies
increased from 11.1 thousand in the 1st quarter of 2005 to 13.2 thousand in the 4th quarter (i.e., by 19
percent). Admittedly, it motivated employers to increase wages. Men more often go abroad for work,
therefore one can expect that at the end of 2005 the gap between male and female wages increased and
this tendency is reflected in the WIF survey data. Third, it is possible that in data collecting process of
the WIF research, higher responsiveness from well paid men than women was achieved. This would
mean that when analysing average gender wage gaps in the WIF data, result might be slightly
overvalued, and in this case it is recommended to use also econometric method which is based on
comparison of distributions - namely, quantile regression method. Comparisons of medians, quartiles
and other percentiles are less dependent on small number of extreme observations.
Both male and female LFS-2005 wage data are lower than HBS-2004 data – on average by about 20%.
It means that LFS wage data in general is biased downwards: receivers of the lowest wages are more
represented in the sample than other groups. On the one hand, it should not affect analysis of the
average wage gap. On the other hand, if the more rapid male wage growth in 2005 is not adequately
reflected in the LFS data (due to sample problems or imprecise wage measuring system), in the LFS-
2005 data wage gap between genders might be underestimated. Male wage distribution in LFS-2005
data is lower than HBS-2004 data in all range of distribution, but for female – in quite wide range of
the distribution, except for the lower and upper decile. It might bias wage comparison between
genders in certain parts of the distribution, but since it is impossible to make quantile regressions with
interval data, this problem does not affect significantly the obtained result.
For wage gap estimation in the GEALM research, four methods prevailing in literature will be used.
The 1st method: wage equation with gender indicator in the framework of which wage equations are
estimated (refer to, e.g., Newell and Reilly 2001)
ln (wit) = α + δ F + ∑ βkXkit + ∑ γjYjit + µt + uit, (2.1)
k j
where i denotes individual employee, t – different observation periods. Other indicators included in the
equation: wit is employee’s i wage at main workplace in period t, gender indicator F =1 for women, F
=0 for men; Xikt (k =1,..., K) – employee’s i characteristics (age, education...) in period t, Yjit (j=1,...J) –
characteristics of the enterprise where the employee i works in period t (sector, ownership sector,
number of employees, location etc.), µt – specific effects of time periods, uit – random error (effect of
unobserved and random factors) with expected value E[uit]=0. It is assumed that uit does not correlate
with variables F, X, Y. Equation (1) is estimated starting with specification where only age, education,
sector, rural/urban area, contract type, ownership sector of company and (only in cases of LFS and
HBS data) observation month are controlled for, and gradually adding other control parameters:
employee’s number of hours worked, tenure, company sector and size, employee’s profession. The
estimated gender indicator coefficient, δ, enables determining the ratio between female and male
[geometric mean] wages, exp(δ), with other conditions being equal (i.e., excluding effect of controlled
factors). Despite relative simplicity of this method, results well correspond with calculations obtained
by using other methods. Results (both for the whole economy and separately for private and public
sector, urban and rural areas, employees with higher education and with no education) are shown in
table 3.3.2 of results; see also column [3] in table 3.3.3.
51
The 2nd method: quantile regression method (e.g., Newell & Reilly 2001; Jurajda & Harmgart 2004) is
quite similar to the first method: parameter δ is estimated separately in different points of the
distribution (for example, in quartiles or deciles) and not at mean values of wage (in logarithms)
distribution. Results obtained with this method are shown in graph 3.3.3 of section 3 where the
research results are described.
The 3rd method: Oaxaca decomposition (Oaxaca 1973, Oaxaca & Ransom 1994, 1999) where wage
equations without gender indicator (1) are estimated separately for women and men. For each gender,
average wage logarithm is determined (which corresponds to the average geometric wage); it matches
the forecasted value from the respective equation at the given average values of gender characteristics
X and Y ( X S , YS , X V , YV ), where indices S and V denote females and males, respectively. Gap
between these forecasted values (d) may be denoted as follows:
d = EV [ln w | X V , YV ] – ES [ln (w) | X S , YS )]] (2.2)
EV [ln w | ] here is the forecasted value of the wage logarithm for men and ES [ln w | ] – for women. In
equation (2) after the line are denoted X and Y values, and it is assumed that E[u] =0. Gross wage
differential or raw wage gap in percent is
D =(exp(d) – 1)×100%. (2.3)
In addition, wage equation for all employees in total using the method (1) without gender indicator is
estimated. This last equation reflects the „fair” wage structure (in original Oaxaca 1973 and many
other publications, as „fair” are used male and female wage structures and the obtained results are
compared; in its turn, later Oaxaca & Ransom (1994) offered improved methodology). By using this
equation, forecasted (geometric) mean wage gap in percent is calculated (gender wage explained gap;
it is also referred to as the productivity gap):
Dexplained = (exp{Efair.[ln (w)| X V , YV )] – Efair.[ln (w)| X S , YS )]} – 1) ×100%, (2.4)
where symbol Efair [ | ] denotes the forecasted value from the „fair” wage structure descriptive
equation. Thus, the explained gender wage gap is determined by the difference between full time
employed “average” man and “average” woman by age, education, region and other controlled factors,
i.e., it is a gap between X V , YV , on the one hand, and X S , YS , on the other hand. In its turn,
unexplained wage gap is:
Dunexplained = D – Dexplained (2.5)
Results of this method are shown in columns [3] – [11] of table 4.2. By describing changes of the
explained wage gap from adding additional controlling parameters, contribution of the added factors
can be determined.
The 4th method: applying the detailed wage decomposition (Oaxaca 1973, Oaxaca & Ransom 1994,
Yun 2005), it is possible to separate contribution of each factor both in the explained and in the
unexplained wage gap. The detailed decomposition is expressed in logarithmic points and not in
percent; nevertheless, working group will refer to it as the “wage gap”. Explained part of the wage
gap, i.e., the average difference between male and female “fair” wage logarithms, can be expressed
from equation (2.4) as
Dexplained = β 0 k ( X Vk − X Sk ) + γ 0 j (YVj − YSj ) ,
∑ ∑ (2.6)
k j
where subscript 0 corresponds to coefficients of the „fair” wage equation (free term α0 will not appear
in the gap). In order to unambiguously identify contribution of each factor, in all equations should be
used not standard but the so called normalized regression coefficients (see Yun 2005). Although this
approach has been used in calculations, for the sake of simplicity in notation it is not reflected. Terms
of this sum are referred to as characteristics’ effects as they are proportional to the gaps of average
values of male and female characteristics.
Unexplained gap can be expressed from equations (2.2) and (2.6) as
52
Denexpl. = ∑{( β
k
Vk − β 0 k )X Vk + ( β 0 k − β Sk ) X Sk } + ∑ {(γ Vj − γ 0 j )YVk + (γ 0 j − γ Sj )YSj }
j
+ αV − αS . (2.7)
Terms of this sum are referred to as coefficient effects since they correspond to coefficient deviations
of male and female wage equations from the “fair” coefficients. The two coefficient effects correspond
to each factor (Xk or Yj). We shall explain interpretation of these effects using tenure (i.e., length of
service with the given employer) as an example. The first effect is a part of the gap between the
average male’s actual and “fair” wage, which is explained by the fact that effect of tenure on male
wages differs from the “fair” effect. The second effect is a part of the gap between the average
female’s “fair” and actual wage, which is explained by the fact that effect of tenure on female wages
differs from the “fair” effect. In practice, both effects are usually added up and the sum is interpreted
as a part of average male’s and female’s wage gap, which is determined by different effects of tenure
on male and female wages.
It is important to note that interpretation of the last term (αV − αS, intercept effect) differs – it is a part
of the average male’s and the average female’s wage gap which is determined by different effect of
factors (int. al. also possible employers’ attitude) not included (unobserved) in the model on male and
female wages.
Practically there exist two more factors whose coefficient effects in detailed wage decomposition are
very difficult to separate from the effect of unobserved factors. These are: number of hours worked
and employee’s age.
Problem of number of hours worked effect is as follows: when modelling wages of full time
employees, the estimated effects of number of hours (and their square) reflect mainly overtime impact
(RS Group 2006: 95-96). In its turn, contribution of number of hour’s effect into the average gender
wage gap, as shown in the equation (2.7), is calculated at the average number of hours, which just
slightly exceeds 40 (in particular for women). For example, if one reveals that overtime for men is
paid by 20 percent more than for women (at other conditions being equal), in principle it would not be
correct to conclude that for each of the first 40 hours men receive by 20 percent more. Although
overtime effect on wages differs from the “regular” hours effect, it is practically impossible to estimate
equations where both effects would be identified separately for each gender since we do not have (or
have very few) observations of full time employees with a small number of working hours (we shall
remind that for decomposition analysis, in a sample only full time employees who work at least 35
hours a week are included). Wages received by employees who usually do not work overtime (or work
very little), after excluding effect of all other factors, can be referred to as “base wages”. In Latvia
base wages quite rarely are determined by formula: (hourly wage rate) × number of hours. Base wage
is usually a fixed part of basic wage which is determined by range of various (int. al. not included in
the model) factors and not depending on whether normal working hours are 40 or 37 hours per week
(see: RS Group 2006: 92-94). Let’s illustrate the problem with a help of schematic example (for the
sake of clearness we shall express without logarithms). Average monthly net base wage for men is 360
lats per 180 hours and for women – 300 lats per 180 hours a month. Let’s assume that women have net
hourly wage:
Ls 300 a month = (Ls 1.67 per hour) ×(180 hours a month),
but information available to the researcher does not let tell whether male wage is interpretable as
Ls 360 = (Ls 2 per hour) ×(180 hours a month)
or as
Ls 360 = Ls 135 (fixed part) + (Ls 1.25/hour) ×(180 hours/month).
In the first case one should conclude that hour coefficient effect (2-1.67)×180 = Ls 59.4 is favourable
for men and in the second – that hour coefficient effect (1.25-1.67)×180 = -Ls 75.6 is favourable for
women, whereas for men there is a large favourable effect of unobserved factors (Ls 135). Sum of
these two effects 135 – 75.6 = Ls 59.4 is equal to the hour coefficient effect determined in the first
case. Summing up, one can conclude that in the detailed wage decomposition it is useful to combine
53
hour coefficient effect with the effect of free term (unobserved factors). Gender overtime effect gap
may be commented separately.
As regards age coefficient effects, their identification is made difficult by age correlation with tenure
and professional experience as well as a fact that age – wage profiles in Latvia are qualitatively
different among employees with different education levels (see Hazans 2005: 34), but detailed
decomposition is based on models where only average effects are included. Specifications of the more
precise models for men and women differ which very disturb decomposition. Besides, precise
relationship between age and wage is impossible to show in a model where tenure is also included. In
the classical wage equation (Mincer 1974) instead of age, potential experience is used. It is calculated
as (age – 6 – number of years spent in educational system). In Latvia such variable would be difficult
to interpret as many (but not all) combine secondary school or university studies with work; besides,
duration of studies also varies within the same educational level. Therefore, when analysing gender
wage gaps, it was decided to concentrate on effects of tenure and professional experience, leaving age
as a control variable but interpreting age coefficient effects with caution.
2.9. The Audit of Information Flow

The task of information flow audit is to evaluate quality of information exchange, process of
knowledge creation (the way how gender equality documents are made) and mechanism of decision
making within the considered organization. What concerns gender equality, information flow audit
studies state administration mechanisms that creates information and knowledge about gender equality
and makes decision, that influences realisation of gender equality in direct and indirect manner in the
state.
The main objectives of the activity for the audit of information flow:
To identify responsible (decision-making) institutions and organisations that solve gender
equality or discrimination issues concerning the labour market;
To study the flow of information and the structure of decision making of identified institutions;
To identify the main information sources that are being used when preparing documents,
programs or concepts;
To identify missing or duplicate information;
To define the most significant problems faced by information “producers”, users and decision-
makers.
The selected method for the audit of information flow is grounded on the methodology offered by S.
Henczel (Henczel 2000: 210), as well as on other relevant sources (Oz 2000).
Analyzing the methods of information flow, we have to consider the fact that most of the available
theoretical material concerning the information flow is oriented towards the analysis of the
information flow of private structures. In the center of the audit of the private structure information
flow is the researched organization and the analysis of its needs. That was a reason why the
researchers as most suitable material of the audit of information flow recognized the work of S.
Hanczel, the central issue of which is knowledge not just the analysis of the researched organization’s
needs.
In order to precisely fix the organisation that realizes gender equality principles, one has to take into
consideration definite criteria. Organization that implements gender equality principles has to be able
to make decisions that would influence a large proportion of the society. This organization or its
substructure also has to be fully oriented towards gender equality policy realization.
In order not to let the situation out of control but to focus precisely on the studied issue, the
researchers as the primer indicator of the knowledge in gender equality highlighted the Ministry of
Welfare (MW) Gender Equality Department and as the direct carrier of the information chosen in MW
prepared documents which determine the politics of gender equality: “Concept Paper on Gender
Equality Implementation” and “The Programme for the Implementation of Gender Equality 2005-
54
2006”. This choice was supported by the regulative acts and by the fact that MW has direct impact on
main decision-making institution – the cabinet of Ministers.
In summary, S. Henczel brings out three stages of the audit of information system: data, information
and knowledge. Data stage analysis the needs of the researched organization, which means what kind
of data the researched organization requests in order to prepare the information. Information stage is
the analysis of the data or the placement of the data in the context of thought through problem (the
information stage has to be understood as the most essential part of knowledge and as process) and the
last stage is knowledge (described above). We have to recognize that the status of information and
knowledge is determined by the researched problem.
S. Henczel classifies knowledge in two groups: explicit knowledge – data bases, reports and other
documents that are rather easy to be acquired and check, and tacit knowledge – human knowledge or
experience and competence of employees in a company on issues that are important to the researchers.
As S. Henczel writes – it is hard to define indirect knowledge because it consists from knowledge,
education, intuition and other components that often are irrational (Henczel 2000: 212-213).
Taking into consideration the main aim of information system audit – to improve capacities to make
decision and information flow – the main attention of the activity will be paid to Gender Equality
Department of the MW. Or other institutions and organization in relation to gender equality were
studies in context with the responsible institution.
Information system audit analysis was carried out in accordance with S. Henczel’s main suggestions:
to define the main functions of the organization under consideration; to find out its role in the issue
under consideration; to fix the main drawbacks in the information flow, creation of knowledge,
communication and decision making; to elaborate suggestions and address them to the responsible
institutions.
In order to make information flow audit, two methods of research were applied: document analysis
and expert interviews. During the research 15 experts were interviews, 10 of which represented state
administration institutions (MW , Gender Equality Department of Human rights and social affair
commission of Saeima, Latvian National Human Right Office, Ministry of children and family affairs,
State Labour Inspection, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Science and Education, CSB), as well as 5 of
them represented non-governmental organizations.
Taking into consideration time dedicated to the research and wide character of implementation of
gender equality principles, information flow audit did not study structures of decision making of each
organization under consideration. Such analysis would create great amount of information that would
be had to structure and it would be more difficult to notice any interconnections of the systems,
problems of these interconnections and their solution.
55
3. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND EMPLOYMENT

In accordance with the conceptual approaches to realization of gender equality principle in the labour
market, the objective indices include economic and employment activities of men and women, as well
as dynamics of unemployment rate. For problem identification in the gender equality situation in the
labour market LFS data of CSB and EUROSTAT data were used, as well as the results of the survey
“Women and men in the labour market” carried out in the frameworks of the research GEALM.
Analysis of subjective analysis of men and women employment is based on the results of econometric
analysis of deep interviews of focus groups, as well as employer inquiry of WIF.
RESEARCH OF OBJECTIVE INDICATORS
3.1. Description of General Situation

Employment rate. Employment rate of inhabitants of Latvia has constantly increased since 2001 after
it has fallen down in 1999 and 2000 that was determined by consequences of influence of economic
crisis in Russia. A stable increase since 2001 provided constantly increasing level of employment
among men and women (see Table 3.1.1).
Figure 3.1.1. Economical activities and employment rate of inhabitants aged 15 – 64 by gender
1996 – 2005 (%)
Employment rate, females Employment rate, males

Employment rate, females Employment rate, males
85
80
75
70
65
60
66 66 68
65 65 64 64
62 61 62
55 58 58 60
55 56 57
52 55 54 54
50
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Note: Here, level of economic and employment activities for people aged 15 – 64 is analysed, but not that of the
age group 15 – 74 in order to provide time range comparison (until 2002 information on labour market indices is
available only on inhabitants aged 15 and more), as well as in order to provide comparison of indices with those
of other member states of the EU.
Source: LFS data and calculations.
However it has to be admitted that during the last years employment rage difference between men and
women has changed: employment rage among men aged 16 – 64 years in the time period from 2002 to
2005 increased by 3.3 percent points and reached 67.6%, but that of women – by 2.5 percent points
and it reached 59.5%. At the same time low employment rate of men determines low average
employment rate in Latvia in compared to EU15, whereas among women this proportion is higher that
the index in EU15 (see Figure 3.1.2). Employment rate of men and women in the concerned time
period in Latvia has increased faster that in EU15, in the result of which difference of employment rate
reduced from 8.5 percent points to 5.3 percent points but predominance of women employment rate in
Latvia increased from 1.2 to 1.9 percent points if compared to EU15.
56
Figure 3.1.2. Employment rate of inhabitants of Latvia aged 15 – 64 in comparison with other
EU member states in 2002 and 2005 (%)
EU25 EU15 EU10 Latvia
80
2002 2005
70
71 73 71 73
68
60 63 64 62
64 64 65 63 63
60 59
50 56 55 56 57 57 56 57
50 51
40
30
20
10
0
Total Males Females Total Males Females
Source: Eurostat
Figure 3.1.2 provides analysis of employment rate changes as to the gender in different demographical
groups of people aged 15 – 74. Employment rate differences among men and women are mainly
determined by employment rate difference at the age till 35 and after 55. In the time period from 2002
to 2005 this difference among youngsters remained practically unchanged, in the age group 55 – 64 it
has a tendency to reduce and in the age group 65 – 74 one could observe a considerable increase of
employment rate difference.
Table 3.1.2. Employment level of male and female at the age of 15 – 74 (in percents) depending
on the type of the settlement in 2002 – 2005
Men Women Difference
2002 2003 2004 2005 2002 2003 2004 2005 2002 2003 2004 2005
Riga 64.6 65.8 67.3 69.1 53.1 55.1 55.1 57.0 11.5 10.7 12.2 12.1
a
Large cities 52.7 55.7 57.3 58.0 45.4 46.9 46.9 47.8 7.3 8.8 10.4 10.2
Other cities 58.4 59.5 57.9 61.2 49.7 50.9 50.9 53.8 8.7 8.6 7.0 7.4
Countryside 58.9 60.0 60.1 60.5 49.2 47.5 47.5 47.9 9.7 12.5 12.6 12.6
In total 59.6 61.0 61.5 62.9 49.9 50.6 50.6 52.1 9.7 10.4 10.9 10.8
Notes: a Daugavpils, Jurmala, Jelgava, Liepaja, Rezekne, Ventspils.
Source: LFS data and calculations.
When analysing employment rate of men and women regarding living places (see Table 3.1.2.), one
can se that although in Riga the employment rate is higher among men and women, employment rate
difference also is higher. However increase in employment rate difference in the period 2002 – 2005
was mainly determined by the situation in large cities and countryside.
Economic activity of inhabitants. Increase of economic activity of inhabitants in Latvia started in

2001. Since then economic activity rate has increased among men and women, apart from year 2005
what it remained unchanged among men (69.5% in the age group 15 – 64), but economic activity of
women has reduced (from 65.3% to 69.5%), in the result of which total economic activity rage of the
inhabitants reduced (from 69.6% to 60.5%).
57
Figure 3.1.3. Level of economic activities of inhabitants of Latvia aged 15 – 64 in comparison

with other EU member states in 2002 and 2005 (%).
EU25 EU15 EU10 Latvia
90
2002 2005
80
70 7778 7879
7274 7071 7274
6970 69 70
60 66 64 66 65
6161 59 6363
59
50
40
30
20
10
0
Total Males Females Total Males Females
Source: Eurostat
Economic activity rate of the inhabitants of Latvia is slightly lower that in EU15 average rage and
higher that EU 10 average rate (see Figure 3.1.3). Moreover, it has to be indicated that in the time
period from 2002 to 2005 economic activity rage difference between EU 15 and Latvia increased (in
2002 in Latvia – 68.8%; 2005 – 71.0% and 69.6%). Increase of this difference can mainly be
explained by changes in economic activity rate among women – disregarding the fact that in Latvia it
is still higher than in other EU 15 member states, reduction of economic activity rate among women in
2005 and slow increase in 2004 determined reduction of prevalence. Economic activity rage of men in
Latvia still considerably legs behind the respective index in EU 15 member states and during the last
years, one did not observe any relevant changes on this difference.
Considering the indices calculated by the LFR on economic activity rage changes regarding genders in
different demographic groups (see Table 3.1.3), one can see that economic activity rage difference
between men and women are mainly determined by differences among people aged till o 35 or after
55. Moreover it has to be indicated that in the age group 15 – 24 and 65 – 74 this difference during the
last years has increased. Regarding education, both, men and women with high education level has
high economic activity rate. Dramatically low economic activity (about 23%) is observed among
women who have no secondary education. In this education group, there is grater difference between
economic activity rage among men and women (17 – 21%) and this difference has not reduced during
the last years.
Unemployment rate. In this subchapter, when considering indices obtained by LFR, the notion
“unemployment rate” is used to describe proportion of economically active inhabitants in labour
search rather than registered employment rate.
Increase of economic activity rate and employment rage since 2001 took place simultaneously with
reduction of proportion of searchers of labour. Proportion of women-searchers for labour in Latvia is
lower that that of men (see Figure 3.1.4), but in other years, this difference reduces gradually by
reducing the number of male searchers for work if compared to that of women.
58
Figure 3.1.4: Proportion of jobseekers among economically active inhabitants aged 15 – 64 by

gender division, 1996 – 2005 (%)
Specific weight of jobs eekers, females Specific weight of jobs eekers, males
Specific weight of jobs eekers, total
25
21
20
20
16 15 16
15 15
15 13
15
14 14 14 11 11
10 12 9
11 11 11
9
5
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Source: CSB LFS data.

Disregarding reduction of number of searchers of labour during the last years, the average proportion
of searchers of labour in Latvia in 2005 still was one of the highest in the EU, however it has to be
indicated that it is generally determined by high proportion of men, where as the proportion of women
is lower that the average index of EU 15 and considerably lower than that of EU 10 in this respect (see
Appendix 3.1.6 figures a and b). Only in five member states of the EU (Sweden, Latvia, Ireland, Great
Britain and Estonia) proportion of female searchers of labour is lower that that of men (See Appendix
3.1.6, figure c).
Kinds of employment
Differences among men and women exist not only in economic activities or unemployment rate.
Situation study shows that belonging to one or another gender can also influence kinds and
circumstances of employment, i.e. status of employment, chosen profession and field of employment,
thus influencing incomes, working time etc. Appendix 3.1.4 provides comparison of data 2002 – 2005
concerning employment of men and women in the age group 15 – 74 and taking into consideration
their status of employment, working hours, kind of labour contract and amount of wage.
Among men and women, the majority of employed work as employees (84 – 87% men and 88 – 90%
women). Proportion of employers among men is about two times higher that that of women
(respectively 4 – 5% and 2%). Proportion of self-employed men is higher than that of women
(correspondingly 6-7% and 5-6%). Unremunerated persons are the smallest group of employed among
men and women. These people help their family members and during the last years this group has
reduced for both, men and women - from 4.2% to 2.5% for men and from 4.5% to 2.1% for women).
Proportion of employed in the period from 2002 has increased for both, men and women; however this
index has increased more for men (respectively 89 – 94% and 85 – 89%). In the group of full time
employed people those who work 15 – 39 hours per week are prevailing, however it has to be
indicated that this proportion among women is two times higher than that among men (respectively
10-9% and 5%). In the time period from 2002 to 2005 the proportion of men and women has reduced
in case if they had to work part time but they would prefer working full time, but still proportion of
women is higher than men (respectively 3.3% and 2.8% in 2005). In the period under consideration
proportion of part time employed (those who work less than 40 hours per week but would prefer
59
working less, as the wage would increase) among men and women reduced, but this group of women
is larger (respectively 4.7 % and 2.9% in 2005).
Since 2002 the number of temporary labour agreements increased among both, men and women. The
part of temporary agreements is slightly higher for men (10.7% and 6.5%). When considering the time
division, for which labour agreements were concluded, it has to be indicated that in 2002 and 2003
agreements for the time period of 6 months were prevailing among men and women, but in 2004 and
2005 the number of agreements of shorter time period increased.
Gender influence on the amount of wage is very relevant. Although proportion of people who receive
minimum wage of less has reduced considerably since 2002 among both, men and women, but it is
still two times higher for women than for men (respectively 16.9% and 8% in 2005). Number of
receivers of net wage in the interval from minimum wage to LVL 100 is higher among women by
about 1.5 times. In total, number of people who receive less than LVL 100 per month in the time
period from 2002 to 2005 has increased from 40% to 25% for men and from 62% to 44% for women.
It has to be indicated that wage is influenced by part time employment that prevails among women.
It has to be indicated that specific amount of women, the wage of who is in the interval of LVL 100 to
LVL 200 since 2002 has increased faster than that of men, that is why proportion difference as to the
gender in this interval of wage receives has reduced. At the same time it has increased if we consider
wage in the time interval from LVL 200 and more. It has to be indicated that since 2002 the proportion
of people who refuse to provide information on their incomes has increased in the CSB data of LFE.
Considering the situation in the time period from 2002 to 2005, once can see that there still exist
significant differences of men and women as to professions (see Table 3.1.5). There are many high-
qualified representatives that are not related to work among women (more that 40%, but among men –
26-28%), which can be explained by the fact that women more often work as specialists. Professions
that require low qualification and are not related to physical work are more spread among women –
about 1/3 of women and 1/10 of men work as servants or employees in sales or service field. Whereas
there are more high qualified employees among men (almost 50%, and for women – 11 – 13%). In
general it has to be indicated that division of employed men and women as to professions in the time
period from 2002 to 2005 has become more unbalanced, which can be attested by growth of DI index.
In the division of employed men and women as to the sectors of national economy (see table 3.1.6)
one can observe a considerable influence of the gender. Specific weigh of men who work in
agriculture, forestry or fishery is bout three times higher that the corresponding index for women, in
production – about two times higher, whereas women work more in service sector. In general women
more often than men work in non-market service sectors, which explain high proportion of women
working in the public sector.
60
3.2. Review of the Results of the Survey “Women and Men in the Labour
Market”
Characteristics of employed inhabitants. The same as labour statistics, the results of the inquiry
“Women and men in the labour market” show that main sources of incomes for men and women
differ. Men often are entrepreneurs and employers (3.1 and 0.8%) and high qualified employees
(50.8% and 38.1%). Whereas there are more specialists among women (22.9% and 12.6%) and
qualified managers of office, officials and servants (15.3% and 6.6%).
It is not typical for the situation of Latvia, but CSB inquiry shows that those are women who fulfil
duties of high level manager taking into consideration active age (2.9% and 2%) and there are more
men in the positions of mid level managers (5.9% and 4%).
In all age groups all generations are represented, however there are more young people aged 25 – 44
among entrepreneurs or managers that older people, but there are less young people in the positions
that do not require high education.
Division of representatives of both genders in equals as to the basic groups of professions: men more
often are legislators and higher officials (8.0 and 6.4%), women are senior specialists (19.5 and
10.8%), specialists (20.3% and 8.9%) and servants (6.5% and 1.6%). Women more often work in
service and sales spheres (24.8% and 8%), but men – as qualified workers and equipment operators
(39.3% and 20.7% against 6.1 and 3.2%).
Figure 3.2.1. Profession in the main workplace (%)
% Female [n=719] M ale [n=610]
30
Craft and related workers
6 The most prevalent occupation among males
21
Plant and machine operators and as s emblers
3
11
Profes s ionals
19
9
Technicians and as s ociate profes s ionals
20
9
Elementary occupations
11
8 The most prevalent occupation among

Service workers and s hop and market s ales workers females
25
8
Legis lators , s enior officials and managers
6
2
Skilled agricultural and fis hery workers
1
2
Clerks
7
1
A rmed forces
Base: currently employed respondents [n=1329]
Single-answer question (the sum of answers per gender compose 100%).

Source: GEALM survey “Women and men in the labour market”.
61
Additional work characteristics. In addition to the basic work, 15.2% of men and 13.1% of women
have the second work. More than 83% from performers of basic work do their basic duties, on which
they have concluded agreement. Performers of piecework with or without an agreement have the
second work – respectively 21.4 and 23.1%, as entrepreneurs or self-employed – 20.7 and 17.4%.
More than a half of performers of additional work have this as a regular source of incomes.
This is the main reason for doing it equally by men and women – 78,5% and 78,7% additional work
doers. Men a bit oftener than women mention a desire to maintain a qualification and capacity for
work as a reason – 6,5% against 2,1% of women, which may be indicative of the fact that men’s main
work is not connected with their profession. 8,6% of men and only 5,3% of women do additional work
in order to obtain new information, knowledge and qualification. Other reasons are mentioned mostly
by women.
There are more enterprises in the group of average enterprises (20 – 99 employees) where women are
prevailing – 56 – 57%, and in small enterprises (less than 9 employees) – 51%. In large enterprises
with 100 and more employees balance of employees is the most equal: 24% of the enterprises are the
ones where the number of men and women is the same, and there is an equal amount of enterprises
were one or another gender is prevailing (36,8%).
Profession and position influences considerably contractual relation at work. In regular job, for which
there as a contract concluded with the employer, there are more women – 89.2% and only 77.5% men.
But the rest more often have piecework fulfilled on oral agreement (3.8%) and on the basis of an
agreement (1.8%), which are rarely fulfilled by women (in total 0.8%). Men work less on the basis of
an agreement or oral agreement for an indefinite period of time in elaboration of different projects (3.4
n 3%, whereas 2.8 and 1.3 % for women).
Unoccupied inhabitants. The survey “Women and men in the labour market” reveal gender
differences among unoccupied people. Non-working men are mainly unemployed (36.6%),
students/pupils (33.2%) and retirees and disabled (24%). Comparatively large part of women have
already retirees (35%), which now is allowed to do earlier, as well as apart from students or pupils
(22.1%) and unemployed (16.1%), proportion of unemployed women is considerable – 10%, but in the
age group 25 – 34 even 22.7% of them use leave for child care, which at present is not done by men.
Moreover, 12.9% of women work in the household, which is done by men by 10 times less.
Activity of labour search is stimulated by the hope to find work. The data of the research show that
equal proportions of representatives of the genders are trying to fins work – 44.4 and 44.2%. A similar
proportion is sceptical – 46.8 and 46.7%. Those are mainly young people who hope to find work –
62.5%, but it reduces in the rest age group reaching 5% in the pension age group. These hopes reduces
wish of unemployed to work part time work: only 56.8% of men and 33.4% of women would be ready
to work regular working time or even more, but 26.7 % of men and 44.5% of women would like to
work part time. About 43% would like to have a regular work, but 18.1% of men and 13.1% of women
are ready to have seasonal work – especially youngsters who have to study in winter.
28.8% of respondents admitted that they do not want to work now or later. The majority of these
people are retirees or people of pre-retirement age.
62
Figure 3.2.2. Activity of jobseeking (% - division of answers in percents)
Male [n=262] Female [n=411] %
Are you looking up for the Do you want to work in W hat is pos sibility to find a job in
job now? wage labour (now or later)? your opinion?
_________________
75 NA
76 9%
59 64 Fairly/very
high
Fairly/very 44%
40
low
33 47%
24
22
No Yes No Yes
Base: rcurrently unemployed respondents, but
Base: currently unemployed respondents [n=673]
probably willing to work in wage labour [n=479]
Notes: The figure shows answer division to three questions. Each of them is question of one answer where sum
of answers forms 100%. In the cases in answers of men and women are compared for a question, full body of
answers (100%) is formed in regard of a particular gender.
Source: GEALM survey “Women and men in the labour market”.
3.3. Wage Gap Analysis

Essence of the problem. Wage differences for men and women exist in all countries. As it can be
seen in the Figure 3.3.1, as Eurostat assumes, in 2005 average wage of women per hour in the EU will
be by 15 lower that wage of men, using wage of men as basis of comparison. When expressing this
difference in percents from wage of women, one should admit that wage of men exceed wage of
women by 17.6%. In Estonia, Slovakia, Germany and Austria this difference reached 20% but in
Spain, France and Ireland – from 11 – 15%. In Latvia – 17% and in Lithuania – 15% this difference
corresponds to the average index in the EU but one has to take into account that data of the Baltic
States are obtained from reports of enterprises to CSB and this means that unregistered incomes are
not taken into consideration and there is imprecise calculation of working hours (especially extra
hours). As other studies show, men more often have undeclared incomes then women have and this
means that wage difference in even grater. Disregarding imperfection of the data, Figure 3.1.1
provides concept on the “typical” values of wage differences. It is important that gender wage
difference reduces gradually, however in general this takes place slowly. In Lithuania and Hungary
radical changes in increase of employees in the public sector were observed. It has to be taken in to
consideration that usage of other source in definition of wage difference may cause important changes
in wage differences calculated. Examination of the figure shows that this has taken place in Ireland in
2004.
63
Figure 3.3.1. Difference of hour work wage for males and females in the European Union
and its particular countries (percentage of male’s wage) 1995, 2000, 2005
1995 2000 2005
10
Poland 15
11
Hungary 21
22
11
Ireland 19
20
12
Slovenia 14
12
France 12
13
13
Spain 15
13
15
Lithuania 16
27
15
EU-25; EU-15 16
17
16
Sweden 18
15
17
Latvia 20
17
Denmark 15
15
19
Czech Republic 22
21
20
England 21
26
22
Germany 21
21
24
Slovakia 22
24
Estonia 25
27
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Notes. The data can not be fully compared taking into consideration particular years or countries because
different sources are used. Data of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania are obtained from reports of enterprises, which
means that no unregistered incomes are seen there and these data are characterized by imprecise account of
working hours (especially extra hours). It can be assumed that similar drawbacks can also be seen in data of
other member states. In Latvia the data of 2000 were obtained from profession research carried out by the CSB,
but the data of 2005 – from quarter surveys of enterprises. Data of Ireland on 2005 were obtained from different
source (SILC survey). Change of sources and/or methodology has taken place in Estonia, Slovakia, Germany,
Denmark, France.
Source: Eurostat.
In order to determine potential discrimination of women in the labour market, several approaches are
elaborated in the scientific literature (see, for example, Blau and Kahn (2000), Newell and Reilly
(2001), Bayard e.o. (2003), Jurajda (2003; 2005), Jurajda and Harmgart (2004), Korkeamaki and
Kyyra (2006), as well as Chapter 12 in the book Ehrenberg and Smith (2005)). The aim of these
approaches is to understand what part of the wage difference can by explained by characteristics of
employees and enterprises and how large the unexplained part is. Although the unexplained part may
favour discrimination, it should not be excluded that some part of if still can be explained if the
researchers had in their dispositions such variables that are usually measured: level of responsibility at
work of difficulty of work (which can differ in the frameworks of one profession), level of
productivity of a person or specific factors of an enterprise. These features often are not measured
because they are difficult to observe and to describe in comparative or meaningful entities.
The figure 3.3.2 shows that proportion of average “official” wage for men and women has changed in
the time period from 1996 to 2006. As it can be seen, in this time period the proportion has increased
from 78 to 84 % (difference of wage of men and women has correspondingly decreased from 22 to
16%), however in 2005 the difference of gender wage increased for more that 2 percent points (most
likely because of flow of labour force abroad). In the result of this, if compared to 1997, the difference
has reduced only by two percent points. It has to be indicated that difference of wage of the genders
(unlike difference of hour wage) can partially be explained by the fact that men work more hours than
women.
64
Figure 3.3.2. Proportion of average “official” gross wage for male and female (percentage of
male’s wage) 1996-2005.
85 84
84 84
83
82
82 82
81
80
80 80
80
79 79
79 78
78
77
76
75
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Note: Data per 1st quarter of each year. Wages are expressed in values of full time units.
Source: CSB.
In the circumstances of Latvia the data of CSB that are obtained from reports of enterprises (data of
wage research and professions research) can not be used fro analysis of wage difference because there
is no reason to assume that the amount of unregistered of “envelope” wage for men and women is
equal. Due to similar considerations proportion of unregistered working hours should be analysed
using other sources. Due to the above mentioned considerations the available data of anonymous
inhabitant survey could be used.
Observed gender wage gap and its dynamics. As shown in annex table 3.3.1 (column [2]), in HBS
and LFS 2004-2005 data average female net wage was between 78 and 80 percent of average male
wage; in its turn in WIF 2005 data this ratio was 72 percent. The largest difference between female
and male wages in WIF data is observed in the upper part of wage distribution. As it was mentioned
above, LFS-2005 data is biased towards the lower part of wage distribution and it incompletely
reflects more rapid male wage growth in 2005. In WIF data this effect might be slightly overestimated.
In WIF better than in LFS are represented well paid employees among whom gender wage gap is even
larger. One more difference in WIF and LFS sample structure is made by female share: 53.2% in WIF
sample versus 48.6% in similar age LFS sample (after data weighting). Female share in WIF research
corresponds to what results from SSIA (State Social Insurance Agency) data on all employees who
were legally paid in the first three quarters of 2005 (the prepared data was commissioned by WIF
working group). In turn, LFS data was weighted using the population register information which does
not correspond to the actual situation in the state as majority of Latvian population working abroad are
not excluded from the register.
Unambiguous and clear short term tendency in the size of full gender wage gap is not observed: HBS
and WIF data shows that in 2004-2005 the gap has increased compared to 2002 but LFS data shows
the opposite tendency (annex table 3.3.1, columns [2] and [4]). Taking into account that wages are
more precisely measured in HBS and WIF data, one can assume that the first conclusion is more
plausible. According to the HBS data, female and male average net wage ratio has not changed
between 1997 and 2004. It shows that obvious long term trend in this respect also is not observed.
Gender wage gap at other conditions being equal. Comparing employees with similar age,
education, nationality, marital status and work contract type as well as tenure (in WIF data – also the
total experience in profession) and number of hours usually worked per week, who also work in one
sector and the same region, both in private or both in public sector, in 2005 the average female wage
comprises 76.1% (WIF) to 78.6% (LFS) of the average male wage (see 3.3.2 table). Interesting that
the difference between WIF and LFS results now is much smaller than in case of uncontrolled (full)
wage gap. If basic group of professions (qualification level) and number of employees in enterprise are
also additionally controlled for, gender wage ratio increases only by one percentage point (this result is
65
shown in table 3.3.2 only in case of LFS), but controlling 27 groups of professions (i.e., adding
professional differentiation by work content within one qualification level), gender wage ratio reaches
78.5% according to the WIF data and 81.5% according to the LFS-2005 data. These results indicate to
relatively small role of professional segregation (vertical segregation in particular) in gender wage gap
formation.
Other results reflected in table 3.3.2 show that gender wage gap (after excluding effect of other
factors) is slightly smaller in public than private sector. While on the contrary, differences between
urban and rural areas as well as between employees with higher education and without it are not
consistent. Moreover, all these differences are not statistically significant.
Table 3.3.2. Full time working female and male average wage ratio (at other equal conditionsa)
in 2005 (in percent of male wage).
LFS data (2005, age 15-74)
All Form of property Location of Higher
employe enterprise education
es Private Public Urban Rural Yes No
sector sector
Wage ratio without profession control 78.8 77.1 81.8 78.4 81.6 80.9 78.7
Wage ratio with 9 basic groups 79.7 78.7 82.5 79.5 80.4 80.3 79.4
profession control b 27 profession groups
81.8 81.1 83.3 82.1 80.6 79.7 82.6
(two-digit codes)
Proportion of women 48.2 42.3 60.0 49.5 42.6 61.2 44.5
LFS data (2005, age 18-64, without higher level
managers)
Wage ratio controlling 27 profession groups
81.5 81.3 81.5 81.8 80.1 77.5 83.2
(two-digit codes)b
WIF data (2005, age 18-64, without higher level
managers) c
Wage ratio controlling 27 profession groups 78.5 77.0 80.7 78.1 79.9 79.6 77.9
(two-digit codes)b
Notes: a Controlled factors age, education, nationality, family status, industry/field, kind of agreement, working
hours per week, tenure, sector of enterprise, field, region of location, urban/rural.
b
In addition, number of employees is controlled in an enterprise.
c
In the data of WIF knowledge of the Latvian language is controlled instead of nationality (3 categories); in
addition, professional experience is also controlled (in number of years), as well as presence of collective
agreement.
Source: Data and calculations of LFS and WIF employees’ survey.
In graph 3.3.3 are summarised female and male wage ratio results at other equal conditions in different
points (percentiles) of wage distribution, using HBS and WIF data. Since there is no information in
HBS data on hours worked, tenure and company sector, in the upper graph the first three bars in each
group show gender wage ratio in 2002, 2004 and 2005, controlling only for age, education, marital
status, region, rural/urban area and work contract type. In the lower graph profession is also controlled
for. The fourth bar (WIF2005*) shows gender wage ratio in 2005 if number of hours worked, tenure,
experience in profession (in years) and Latvian proficiency are also additionally controlled for.
Notations from q10 to q90 denote the respective percentile – point where male and female wage gap is
reflected. If all range of the obtained wage values were divided in 100 parts irrespective of their real
numerical value in lats, then each part is one percentile. Thus, in graph 3.3.3 notation q10 shows
female and male wage gap in point below which is only the tenth part of wage distribution. The higher
is bar in graph 3.3.3, the closer is female wage to male wage in the given point of wage distribution
range and the smaller is gender wage gap. Had height of bar reach 100% mark, it would mean that
female and male wages in the given point are equal.
66
Figure 3.3.3. Female and male wage ratio (in percent of male wage) at other equal conditions a in
different wage distribution points. Full time employees 2002.-2005.
(a) without profession control
HBS2002 HBS2004 W IF2005 W IF2005*
82%
80%
78%
76%
74%
72%
70%
68%
66%
64%
62%
60%
q10 q25 q50 q75 q90
W age dis tribution percentiles
(b) with profession control
HBS2002 HBS2004 W IF2005 W IF2005*
84%
82%
80%
78%
76%
74%
72%
70%
68%
66%
q10 q25 q50 q75 q90
W age dis tribution percentiles
Notes: Controlled factors: Age, education, family status, region, rural/ urban, work contract type. At WIF 2005*
data (each group’s the last bar) the following parameters are controlled in addition: working hours, tenure,
working experience in profession (in years), and knowledge of Latvian.
Source: HBS and WIF data and calculations.
Comparing in graph 3.3.3 the first three bars in each group, one can see that, first, gender wag gap in
2004 overall was smaller than in 2002 – it had decreased in the lower and upper part of wage
distribution. In turn, in 2005 the gap again increased in the whole wage range and exceeded level of
2002. In the lower part of wage distribution (the 10th percentile) increasing wage inequality was
observed within professions ; in the 25th and the 50th percentile it became apparent through promotion
or professional mobility; whereas in the 75th and the 90th percentile worked both factors – total
increase of inequality was 6 percentage points, but within professions only 4 percentage points.
Second, in the whole period and irrespective of controlled factors the estimated gender wage gap is the
smallest in the lower wage distribution part – in the10th and the 25th percentile. In turn, the largest
gender wage gap (other conditions being equal) in 2002 and 2004 is observed in the 50th and the 75th
percentile, but in 2005 – in the 75th and the 90th percentile.
67
Third, comparing the last two bars of each group (WIF2005 and WIF2005*), one can conclude that
estimated gender wage gap without profession control (graph 3.3.3 (a)) substantially decreases after
adding hours worked, tenure, experience in profession and Latvian proficiency to the group of
controlled factors. Wage gap in various points of the distribution decreases as follows: by 4-5
percentage points in the lower part of the wage distribution, by 8 percentage points in the 50th and the
75th percentile and by 6 percentage points in the 90th percentile. Contribution of each factor later will
be estimated by means of the detailed decomposition method. Within professions (graph 3.3.3 (b))
total contribution of the extra added factors in decrease of gender wage gap (WIF2005 and WIF2005*)
is approximately 2 percentage points.
Fourthly, comparing graphs 3.3.3 (a) and 3.3.3 (b), it is visible that in the whole wage range the largest
part of gender wage gap is within professions. This result is demonstrated in graph 3.3.4 which shows
female and male wage gap within professions and professional segregation effect. Basing on the 2005
data calculations (controlling for all available factors), one obtains gender wage gap G1. It is calculated
by deducting from 100% the ratio shown in the bar WIF2005* in graph 3.3.3(a). Gender wage gap
within professions G2 is obtained in a similar way from data shown in graph 3.3.3(b), but the
professional segregation effect is a difference G1 - G2.
Figure 3.3.4. Female and male wage gap (in percent of male wage) at other equal conditionsa in
different wage distribution points.Full time employees, 2005.
Effect of profess ional segregation In profess ions

0,3
0,25
0,2
0,15 0,21 0,25 0,26

0,20
0,1 0,20
0,05
0,03 0,04 0,03
0 -0,01 0,01
q10 q25 q50 q75 q90
-0,05
W age distribution percentiles
Notes: Controlled factors: Age, education, family status, region, rural/ urban, work contract type, awerage
working hours per week, tenure, working experience in profession (in years), knowledge of Latvian. Effect of
professional segregation is evaluated at level of two-digit code (27 groups of profession).
Source: WIF data and calculations.
Analysis of the explained gender wage gap. Analysing gender wage gap, the main concepts should
be separated. First, the full gender wage gap is discussed which is a gap between actually observed
male and female average wages and it is expressed in percent of female average wage. Second, the
explained gender wage gap is discussed which is a gap between the forecasted male and female
average wages, taking into account measured differences of employees’ characteristics, and it is also
expressed in percent of female average wage. In calculations geometric means are used. One should
note that women in Latvia are better educated than men: according to the 2005 LFS data, among full
time employees with higher education were 28.2% of women and only 16.7% of men; also according
to the WIF data (that refer to employees between 18 and 64 years old) with higher education were
30% of women and only 16.3% of men. Therefore, it is etiological that when forecasting female and
male wages basing only on age, education, nationality (or Latvian proficiency), marital status, work
contract type, region and work in public or private sector, male average wage should be lower than
female average wage by 1 to 5 percent (depending on data source and year, see column [6] in annex
table 3.3.1). On other words, unexplained gap exceeds explained wage gap.
68
After adding to the wage explaining factors tenure (in case of WIF also previous experience in
profession) and hours worked, wage gap changes by 1 to 2 percentage points for men (columns [6] and
[7] in annex table 3.3.1). The average tenure for women is larger than for men (7.8 years for women
and 6.2 years for men according to the WIF data; 8.5 years for women and 6.5 years for men
according to the LFS data); whereas men work on average by almost 2 hours per week more than
women. The detailed wage decomposition shows that contribution of difference in hours worked
(significance) in gender wage gap does not exceed 2 percentage points, and it is partly offset by
contribution of difference in tenure.
After adding to the set of wage explaining factors also company’s sector of activity, the forecasted
male average wage exceeds female wage already by 5 to 10 percent (column [8] of annex table 3.3.1).
Both according to the WIF data and LFS data, after inclusion of sector the explained (or productivity)
wage gap increases by 8 to 9 percentage points for men (columns [8] and [7] of annex table 3.3.1). It
means that choice of employment sector explains 8 to 9 percentage points of gender wage gap (if
profession is not controlled for). Thus, men on average more often work in sectors where relatively
high wages are paid (namely, in construction, forestry, energy and water supply, transportation),
whereas women – in sectors where relatively lower wages are paid (namely, in education, health care,
hotel and public catering areas). In case employees (men and women) work in one profession but in
different economic sectors (thus, with profession control), then contribution of sector choice in gender
wage gap does not exceed 3 percentage points (it is a difference between data in columns [12] and [11]
of annex table 3.3.1 after exclusion of effects of tenure and number of hours worked). More precise
distinction between effects of sector and profession choice will be made by using the detailed
decomposition method (see table 3.3.4).
Comparing columns [9] and [6] of annex table 3.3.1, it is obvious that gender “vertical” professional
segregation in the nine basic groups of professions increases gender wage gap by 6 to 8 percentage
points according to the LFS-2002, LFS-2005, HBS-2002 and HBS-2004 data and by 10 percentage
points according to the WIF-2005 data if employment sector, tenure and number of hours worked are
not controlled for. Since the three factors – namely, sector, tenure and number of hours worked
correlate with profession, then, by controlling for all these factors, “vertical” professional segregation
increases gender wage gap by only 3 to 4 percentage points (see columns [10] and [8] of annex table
3.3.1. Although in the gap between columns [10] and [8] number of employees effect is also included,
it is small). In its turn, “horizontal” professional segregation in 2005 increased gender wage gap by
extra 3 to 4 percentage points and in 2002 – by 5 percentage points (it follows from the comparison of
columns [12] and [10] of annex table 3.3.1).
To sum up, in annex table 3.3.1 (columns [4], [5] and [11]) it is obvious that both in 2002 and in 2005
just about half of male and female average wage full gap is explainable by differences between
“average” man and “average” woman (for full time paid employees) cording to the following
parameters: age, education, nationality (or Latvian proficiency), marital status, work contract type,
profession, number of hours worked, tenure, company location, company ownership sector, sector of
activity and number of employees. The flipside, thus, is a result of gender discrimination and/or effect
of other (not included in the model) factors. One such factor, for example, is higher male geographical
and professional mobility: monopsony model of the labour market (see Ehrenberg & Smith 2005:
Chapter 5) forecasts lower wages to employees with limited mobility.
The detailed decomposition of gender wage gap. Decomposition results (according to formulas
(4.6), (4.7) given in the methodology section) are summarised in table 3.3.4. We shall remind that
there are differences between the two data sources: in the WIF data age range is smaller (18-64 years)
and top level managers are not included: the LFS data overall is biased downwards compared to the
actual wage distribution. However, conclusions drawn from both data sources on reasons for gender
wage gap largely are the same. In the following part will be commented only those effects that make at
least one percentage point. These effects in table 3.3.4 are marked in two colours depending on gender
in favour of that they work: in blue – in favour of men (coefficient value in the table has a plus sign),
in red – in favour of women (coefficient value in the table has a minus sign).
As regards the observed factors, the largest contribution in the gender wage gap gives gender
segregation across professions, sectors, as well as public and private sectors. Sum of effects of these
three factors (in table 3.3.4 they are highlighted) is equal to (according to the WIF data) or even
69
exceeds (according to the LFS data) the total explained wage gap (which, in turn, makes about half of
the total wage gap); effects of other characteristics are much smaller and they compensate each other.
Table 3.3.4. Detailed decomposition of the gap of gender average wage logarithms according
to data of 2005. Full time employees.
WIF LFS
Factors or factor groups
effects (explained
effects (explained
Character trait
Character trait
(unexplained
(unexplained
Ratio effects
Ratio effects
difference)
difference)
difference)
difference)
Total
Total
Education (5 or 7 categories) -0.033 0.002 -0.031 -0.033 0.014 -0.019
Nationality (2 categories) -0.001 0.006 0.004
Knowledge of Latvian (4 categories) -0.003 -0.010 -0.013
Family status (2 categories) 0.006 0.010 0.016 0.007 0.012 0.019
Work contract type (2 or 3 categories) -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.001 0.000 -0.001
Tenure and experience in profession -0.009 0.029 0.020 -0.011 0.002 -0.008
Of that
Tenure a -0.011 0.071 0.060 -0.010 0.002 -0.008
Total experience in profession b 0.001 -0.042 -0.041
Age 0.014 -0.126 -0.112 0.012 -0.135 -0.123
Profession (27 categories) 0.058 -0.020 0.037 0.059 -0.057 0.003
Industry/ Field (14 categories) 0.068 -0.026 0.042 0.053 -0.020 0.032
Public or private sector 0.032 0.006 0.038 0.015 -0.013 0.002
Collective agreement -0.004 -0.011 -0.015
Number of employees
(5 or 7 categories) 0.008 -0.012 -0.004 -0.002 0.002 0.000
Location of enterprise: 6 regions 0.012 0.015 0.027 -0.003 0.013 0.010
Location of enterprise: rural//urban 0.000 -0.009 -0.009 0.000 0.003 0.003
Survey month 0.000 -0.022 -0.021 -0.001 0.000 -0.001
Number of average working hours per week a 0.013 -0.386 -0.372 0.018 0.519 0.536
Coefficent (factors that are not included in a model) 0.000 0.709 0.709 0.000 -0.246 -0.246
Total 0.159 0.139 0.298 0.111 0.101 0.212
Including average working hours and excluded
factors 0.013 0.323 0.336 0.018 0.273 0.290
a b
Notes: Variable is included in models in linear and quadratic form. Model includes the previous
professional experience (total experience minus duration of labour relations, if this difference is positive and
zero otherwise) and its square, as well as a variable of indicator for employees whose total professional
experience is less than 1 year. Source: data of LFS and WIF employees surveys and authors’ calculations.
The main channels through which segregation affects wage inequality in favour of men, is company
ownership sector (private or public) and company's sector of activity (for example, according to
NACE classification). Data comparison shows that: (i) around 75% of men (paid employees) work in
private sector and among women this proportion does not reach even 60%; (ii) 16% of men and just
2% of women work in construction with high wages; (iii) around 30% of women work in education,
health care and service sphere (sectors with low wages), whereas among men this proportion does not
exceed 7%; (iv) almost every fourth man works in such sectors with relatively high wages as power
sector, transport and communications, forestry and fishing; among women share of these sectors is
below 9%; (v) 43% of women and only 13% of men are employed in such low paid professions as
public servants and employees of trade and services (including simple professions of trade and
services).
Table 3.3.4 shows that larger number of hours worked determine 1.3 to 1.8 percentage points of the
gender wage gap. If tenure is fixed, wage decreases with age (at other equal conditions). Average
wage of full time male employees is by approximately one and a half years less than average age of
their female colleagues, and it explains extra 1.2 to 1.4 percentage points of the gender wage gap. On
the other hand, about 1 percentage point is compensated by the fact that average tenure for men is also
shorter than for women. 3.3 extra percentage points are compensated (reduce the wage gap) by the fact
70
that among women compared to men are more persons with higher education and less – with basic
education.
The following part will deal with coefficient effects. Interesting that compared to segregation effects,
profession and sector coefficient effects work in favour of women. Although on average women work
in relatively low paid sectors and professions, men in the same sectors and professions compared to
other men, have even worse indicators. In case of the WIF data, it partially offset segregation effects,
but in case of LFS almost completely offset gender segregation in professions and ownership sectors
and partially – segregation sectors.
Table 3.3.5. Wage structure contribution of full time employees in various sectors into total
gender wage gap (in percentage points) according to data of 2005.
Sector WIF-2005 LFS_2005
Transport, communications 1.2 0.2
Manufacturing and mining 0.8 1.7
Forestry and fishing 0.0 0.5
Energy, gas and water supply 0.3 0.0
Construction -0.3 0.5
Financial intermediation 0.0 0.2
Public administration -0.2 -0.8
Other services -0.3 -0.6
Agriculture -0.4 -0.5
Hotels and restaurants -0.4 -0.6
Real estate and business activities -0.5 -0.3
Health -0.7 -0.9
Trade -0.7 0.3
Education -1.6 -1.9
Source: WIF and LFS data and staff calculations (results of wages’ detailed decomposition)
Table 3.3.5 reflects coefficient contributions of separate sectors in the total gender wage gap according
to the WIF-2005 and the LFS-2005 data. Positive (or, contrary, negative) contribution means that in
the respective sector after excluding effect of other factors wage deviation from the average (un-
weighted) wage of all sectors for men is larger (or, contrary, smaller) than for women. Hence, in
sectors with negative contribution wage structure can be considered as relatively favourable for
women, which still does not exclude a situation that men are on average better paid. One can see that
only in two sectors (transport and communications, as well as manufacturing and mining industry)
wage structure is definitely in favour of men. In three other sectors (gas, water, and power supply;
finance; forestry and fishing) wage structure is neutral according to results of one source and slightly
in favour of men according to the other. As regards construction, where relatively few women are
employed, and in the WIF sample are only 19 observations of women, preference should be given to
the LFS result which is based on substantially larger number of observations; hence, wage structure in
construction is modestly in favour of men. In trade, according to the WIF data, wage structure is in
favour of women, whereas according to the LFS-2005 data it is slightly biased in favour of men. In all
other sectors wage structure is in favour of women, and it is particularly pronounced in such
traditionally feminized sectors as health care and education.
Age coefficient effect is quite large (around 13 percentage points) and also works in favour of women.
Both for men and for women age coefficients in wage equation used for wage decomposition are
negative. Thus, at other conditions held equal, employee with average age (40-42 years) receives
smaller wage than, for example, employee of younger generation (24-30 years) with the same tenure at
the enterprise, however in case of women this difference is substantially smaller. It means that
regarding wage advantages that younger employees receive compared to older employees are larger
among men than women. Since older employees on average have also longer tenure, it may partially
or fully offset negative effect of age.
Much more interesting are effects of tenure and professional experience coefficients. These two
factors can be separated only in the WIF data. As shown in table 3.3.4, although men benefit more
from tenure, whereas women – from total experience in the profession, the summary effect (around 3
percentage points) is in favour of men. In order to reduce correlation between variables and ensure
71
more precise coefficient estimates, in model were included not total but previous experience in
profession (total experience minus tenure if this difference is positive, and zero otherwise) and its
square, as well as indicator variable for employees with total experience in profession less than one
year.
Figure 3.3.5. Male and female forecasted wages (in lats) within the given profession depending
on tenure and previous experience in profession.
Male, previous experience in profession 5 years
Male, previous experience in profession 1 year
Male, none previous experience in profession
Female, previous experience in profession 5 years
Female, previous experience in profession 1 year
Female, none previous experience in profession
230
220
210
200
Forecasted wage, Ls
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tenure in profession, years
Note: Other variables (see table 5.4), including profession indicators and age, are fixed (using their average
values for men and women).
In graph 3.3.5 are displayed male and female forecasted wages depending on tenure and previous
experience in profession, assuming that other controlled variables (see table 3.3.4), including age, are
fixed at their respective average values for men and women. Thus, when interpreting the graph 3.3.5,
one should take into account that employees' age is fixed; there are compared employees of the same
age with different tenure at one moment of time. The graph shows that women receive larger
"premium" for previous experience in profession (for the first year – about 17%, for the second –
about 1.2%, ..., for the tenth – 0.6%; men for the first year – 6.5%, for every next – 0.5%). Having no
previous experience in profession, after the first year of tenure women also receive higher increment
than men (15.8% compared to 8.5% for men), although it can be noted that women without experience
get relatively lower "starting wage" compared to "normal" wage than men. As a result, during the first
year of tenure employees without previous experience in profession have very large gender wage gap
(42%), whereas after the first year it decreases to 33%. As regards effect of tenure duration in
enterprise starting from the second year of labour relations (at the given previous experience and
within the given profession), male wages increase on average by 1.6% a year (in the second year – by
2.2%, in the tenth – by 1.3%), but female – only by 0.4% a year. Hence, as of the second year of
labour relations, gender wage gap is larger for employees with longer tenure (at other equal
conditions). This phenomenon is explained by larger male mobility: in order to "bind" a man to the
company, employers agree to increase their wage more than to women.
In order to use the model shown in graph 3.3.5 for forecasting wage growth during career, age effect is
also to be taken into account. Age of employees is fixed in the graph (employees of the same age are
compared). As mentioned above, age effect at fixed tenure and experience in profession on average is
negative: for men it is minus 0.9% per year and for women – minus 0.6% per year. However, also in
this case male wage growth in the course of time is more rapid. One should also take into account that
72
such model would forecast growth of real wage. Considering increase of nominal wage of particular
employee during a year, growth of nominal wage in the state should also be "added" to it.
In decomposition shown in the graph 3.3.5 wage equation with profession control is used. However,
effects of tenure and professional experience on wages act also through promotion, therefore these
effects are analysed in the model also without profession control. In that case, starting from the second
year of labour relations (given the previous experience), male wages grow on average by 2% a year (in
the second year – by 2.6%, in the tenth – by 1.5%), whereas female wages – only by 0.8% a year.
Thus, taking into account also promotion possibilities, employees with longer tenure have larger
gender wage gap (at other equal conditions); whereas, the longer is previous experience in profession,
the smaller gender wage gap. Using this model to forecast wage growth during career, again one
should take into account growth of nominal wage in the state, as well as age effect: for men – minus
1.1% a year and for women – minus 0.9% a year.
As shown in table 3.3.4, marital status and regional coefficients also work in favour of men: married
men receive larger "premium" than married women, as well as men receive larger "premium" for work
in Riga. However, the largest contribution in gender wage gap comes from factors not included in the
model: effect of the free term (to which hours worked coefficient effect should also be added) exceeds
the full wage gap in case of both LFS and WIF. Although one of the "not included factors" might be
discrimination, there exist many other factors that are hard to measure which may induce gender wage
gap.
RESEARCH OF SUBJECTIVE INDICATORS

3.4. Wage gap perception
Statistical analysis of the wage gap still does not give complete and adequate understanding on gender
equality concerning wages, as individual differences in productivity and work content of employees
not reflected in the objective data are not taken into account. Therefore it is important to aggregate
information also on fairness of remuneration from subjective point of view of employees. For this
purpose answers to the following questions obtained within the framework of WIF research where full
time paid employees were surveyed will be used: "Regarding your basic work, to what extent do you
agree with the statements:
(1) My wage corresponds to my work done;
(2) I feel adequately rewarded compared to people that work in similar position in other
companies;
(3) Am I satisfied with the amount of wage received?”
Results summarised in table 3.4.1 show that in any of the three aspects only every third woman
positively perceives her wage ("Rather agrees" or "Completely agrees"). While on the contrary, among
men this share is substantially larger (in two cases 45% and in one case – 42%). It implies that overall
men are more satisfied with their wage.
Table 3.4.1. Perception of fairness and size of wage of employed men and women
(col. %)
„My wage „I feel adequately rewarded „I am satisfied with the
corresponds to my compared to people working in amount of wage received”
work done” similar position in other
companies”
Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total
Completely
disagrees 18.6 26.1 22.6 17.5 22.9 20.4 20.5 27.8 24.4
Rather disagrees 31.7 37.9 35.0 27.5 30.9 29.3 32.1 37.8 35.2
Rather agrees 32.7 23.1 27.6 31.9 25.6 28.5 34.6 24.4 29.2
Completely agrees 12.2 9.2 10.6 10.0 7.5 8.7 10.4 8.0 9.2
Hard to say 4.8 3.8 4.2 13.2 13.1 13.1 2.3 2.0 2.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Positive perception 44.9 32.3 38.2 41.9 33.1 37.2 45.1 32.5 38.3
Notes: 4040 respondents.
Source: WIF employees survey and staff calculations.
73
In order to understand what factors affect male and female satisfaction with their wage, as well as to
find out to what extent gender differences in perception of wage fairness are explainable by observed
characteristics of employees and enterprises, econometric analysis using ordered logit regression was
made (see table 3.4.2).
Results of the model [1] indicate that such factors as education, work correspondence to education,
age, Latvian proficiency, marital status, region and type of populated area of the company, practically
do not help to explain gender differences in perception of wage fairness: after excluding effect of these
factors, the difference between male and female forecasted probabilities to agree with any of the above
mentioned statements (1), (2), (3) is between 10 and 13 percentage points, i.e., it practically does not
differ from the average difference of the probabilities.
When additionally controlling for work contract type, existence of collective agreement, economic
situation of company, ownership sector, sector and number of employees, unexplained gap
substantially decreases but still remains statistically very significant and reaches 6 to 8 percentage
points (model [2] of table 3.4.2). Adding professions to the group of controlled factors does not
change results significantly (models [3] and [4] of table 3.4.2). One can conclude that men are
substantially more than women satisfied with size and fairness of their wage also within one sector and
profession. As we have mentioned in the review of researches previously made, similar results were
obtained by Mihail Hazans (Hazans 2006: 260) in the framework of research “Quality of life in
Latvia” but his conclusion is based on a much smaller sample and fewer control factors.
Table 3.4.2. Differences between men and women in wage fairness perception (percent-points)
Estimated statement
„I am
„My wage „I feel adequately
satisfied
corresponds to rewarded compared
with the
my work to people working in
Average probability of affirmative amount of
done” similar position in
answera to the statement [expressed wage
other companies”
from the data of table 3.4.1] received”
Average probability for men 0.473 0.482 0.463
Average probability for women 0.338 0.382 0.332
Average probability gap 0.135*** 0.100*** 0.130***
Model Controlled factors explaining Difference between probabilitiesb of male and female
No difference in answers in each of the forecasted affirmative answers (at other equal
models considered conditions)
[1] Gender, education, work correspondence
to education, age, Latvian proficiency,
0.126*** 0.101*** 0.127***
marital status, region and type of
populated area (rural/urban) of company
[2] The same as in model [1]+ work contract
type, existence of collective agreement,
economic situation of company, 0.072*** 0.058*** 0.077***
ownership sector, sector, number of
employees
[3] The same as in model [2]+ wide group of
professions (9 basic groups of 0.070*** 0.058** 0.069***
professions)
[4] The same as in model [2]+ small group of
0.069*** 0.057** 0.072***
professions (25 groups of professions)
a
Number of respondents 3871 3519 3956
Notes: a Answers “Completely agree” and “Sooner agree” are taken into account. Respondents that could not
answer (“Hard to say”) are excluded.
b
Results of the ordered logit regression.
**, *** - estimate is statistically different from zero with confidence probability 90%, 95%, 99%.
Source: WIF employees survey and staff calculations
74
When speaking about one’s experience and observation concerning wage differences of men and
women, employed inhabitants in the focus group discussions mentioned the following explanations of
the situation:
Men are physically stronger than women and that is why they deserve higher wage: “Actually
one can not compare a woman to a man. If they both are given spades, a man will do more
than a woman.” (FGD inhab., man., 20-40, LV, Liepāja)
Traditional role of a man is to be the main earner in a family, which is why he deserves higher
wage. Among elder respondents of the survey there exists an opinion that a man should earn
twice as much as a woman. In the present circumstances of labour force deficit men do not
want to work on poorly remunerated work and that is why a man has to be paid more in order
to preserve him in the position: “A man feels ashamed to receive low wage. He will find a
work there he will be paid more.” (FGD inhab., man., 20-40, LV, Liepāja)
A man is paid more because he is asked to give more return. Unlike women, men at work
think only about their duties, which is why it is possible to ask more from them. Both, men
and women emphasize that during the working time women are anxious about what happens
at home and probably this is why they are less attentive when fulfilling their duties.
Women more often work in less remunerated field and professions. It is influenced by:
o Choice in favour of the corresponding working conditions: “A woman does not
choose wage but environment. A man can choose worse job for better wage.” (FGD
inhab., man, 20-40,LV, Liepāja)
o Higher risk of unemployment especially in the pre-retirement age when because of
lack of qualification, outdated education and less power there is limited choice of
labour and higher level of preparedness to accept any, even poorly remunerated work.
“There’s nothing to do, especially in our age.” (FGD inhab., woman, 50-65, lv.,
Cēsis)
People who work in state institutions do not agree to the statement that women are paid lower wage.
Experience and practice of an institution to define precise wage rates excludes any possibility of
gender discrimination. “In our state institution there is one definite rate, no matter whether the wage
is paid to Anna or John.” (FGD inhab. woman, 50-65, lv., Cēsis)
When considering wage difference mechanism from the point of view of employees, one can see that
about 40% of employers agree to the statement “men often receive higher wage for the same work
than women”. It is important that respondent of deep interviews denied this statement rather strictly.
46% of employers agree to the statement “women more often agree to work less remunerated work
than women”. When examining this opinion of employers in details, we can see rather wide spectre of
answers in it – many employers agree that there exists such tendency, however many additional factors
should be taken into consideration (personal character traits, family status, etc). All respondents
admitted that it is easier to employ women for lower wage, whereas others answered that they have
never considered such possibility, but others denied such possibility: “It has never happened in my
enterprise that a woman asks less than a man. There have been different cases but it never depends on
the gender.” (DD woman)
Employees from small enterprises who agree to the above mentioned statement are the most
numerous. Employers who were inquired in the quantitative research and who mainly are managers of
affiliates, personnel department managers and bookkeepers, i.e. employees who are related to
personnel selection or wages, agree to the statement that men receive higher wage for the same amout
of work (42% of women and 31% of men), as well as to the statement that women agree to accept less
remunerated work (respectively 50% and 37%).
In general all employers inquired denied possibility that belonging to one or another gender could
influence the wage – it depends first of all from professionalism and in many cases from experience
(length of service), as well as amount of work and personal contribution. Representatives of the
75
enterprises the manager of which is able to determine wage and fond of bonuses denied that wages
could be differentiated in relation to the gender – the main is the fact that an employee works
professionally and with motivation.
Employers claim that it is possible to avoid gender discrimination in enterprises where there is a fixed
wage for each position. Summarised work is also popular when a person receives wage in accordance
with the worked hours, or wage for the job done: “The wage is divided into categories. If my secretary
were a man, I would not pay him more that. There is no difference.” (DD woman)
Thus there emerges a contradiction between clear and equal methods of wage calculation and a half of
inquired employers that think that in general men usually receive more fro the same work, but women
usually agree to work for lower wage. When considering concrete cases, one can see that
“transparency” in wage determination in enterprises is reduced by:
Wage intervals in position categories – in several enterprises there exist categories of positions
where there is a fixed wage rate and this wage has maximum and minimum limit. Thus wage
for a definite position may vary and the employer takes decision in regard of the wage.
Keeping wage in secret – in private enterprises wage lists are not made public, thus an
employee in not aware of the wage of the colleague. Principles of wage determination in this
case are up to the employer. In this situation employer is able to determine different wages
more easily basing on demands of each employee and interests of enterprise. “We are one of
the enterprises that do not make the wages public. Our employees do not know and they
should not know what the wage of their colleagues is.” (DD woman)
None of the interviewed employers did not admit that men receive higher wage in a concrete
enterprise but one can single out the factors from their answers that influence wage difference between
men and women:
Profitable fields – usually “masculinised” fields, for example, construction or forestry are
more profitable that feminized branches, for example, health care or education that are funded
by the state. “Women work as shop assistant and receive VLL 2.50 per day, whereas men who
work in auto shops and fishermen shop receive more because goods there cost more.” (DD
men)
Less working hours – employers remind that if the wage depends on working hours, those are
women who receive less. It is related to division of family duties that exist in the society that
determine that women more than men should get involved in household works and/or child
care.
Different wage requirements – this is one of the main factors that determine wage difference
between men and women. Like employers, experience of employees show that men often do
not agree to work low remunerated work. “…Women here are more employed than men
because men do not work for that low wage.” (DD woman)
The reason why it is so is the fact that women are characterized by aspiration for stability and
emotional safety, as well as their wish to avoid risk and confrontation of intermediary persons.
“Yes, I agree. The explanation for this is the fact that men demand more. They do the boss and they
ask. If you want me to do this, I will do it for this or that sum. A woman is more modest and kind, and
she does not dare to go and ask it. I think this is their fault… Women have to change and demand
more.” (DD woman)
“I assume that wages of men are higher than that of women, but both genders have equal rights to go
and ask for higher wage. As I mentioned before, women usually do not do this.” (DD woman)
“Concerning the wage, each has his or her own limit. Then it is appropriate to speak about the fact
that this limit is lower for women but it is higher for men. Maybe in the moment when an employer
asks the amount of desirable wage, women name lower sum than men.” (DD woman)
As employers consider, reduction of wage difference is the task of female employees, and the main
difference that determines wage difference in this case is dare, self-evaluation and high self-
76
confidence. However, considering gender theory, then this is the very aspect where typically feminine
behaviour model prevails.
Moreover, as employers think, in our society women very often are earners in the family and they are
made to work for lower wage in order to survive and reduce unemployment risk for the family. In this
case acceptance of a lower wage is a positive short term solution in relation to long-term
unemployment.
“… a women is ready to do a lot of work. She is going to do everything and to work the least
remunerated hobs, but in the end it turns out that she earns more than a man. But men are
maximalists. They say if they will not be paid as they ask, they will not work and they better remain
unemployed.” (DD woman)
However, as some employers admit, nowadays the amount of wage depends not so much on the
gender but on professional qualification and skills of persons, as well as from intelligence and
individual traits (ambitions, abilities to fight and defend one’s interests).
3.5. Labour Market Segregation and Concepts about Professions of Men

and Women
EMPLOYERS
When concerning horizontal segregation of the labour market that exists in Latvia – division into
“feminine” and “masculine” professions, the main concepts on factors that effect different division of
employees as to their gender into professions were found out in the deep interviews with employers.
General indices of the inquiry of employers on division of employees as to their gender do not
contradict to the one described in the statistic: typically masculine profession is construction (in 54.5%
such enterprises 76 – 90% of employees are men, but in 15.7% of enterprises there are 91 – 100%
men). High employment of men also can be seen in agricultural sector and production, as well as in
the sphere of transport. Prevalence of men in these fields can be explained by inappropriateness of
hard work for women: “if this is physically hard job, it can not be done by a woman. Physiologically
she has other functions. If she wants to become a mother, give birth to healthy children, she can not
work as tractor driver.” (DD man)
In construction, agriculture and production field there are not so many employees who think that it
would be possible or necessary to employ men and women in equal proportions (24.2%). As it can be
seen in Figure 3.5.1, employers in these fields think that “the field is not meant for representatives of
one particular gender”, and in this case it concerns women more. This is the most popular answers
among employees in construction. In the fields where men are mainly employed there exists an
opinion that they “are better in this field”.
Women are more employed in state administration, education and health (in 67.6% of enterprises in
this sector there are 51 – 90% of female employees; in 13.3% of cases there are 91 – 100% of female
employees) and in sales, hotels and service field. However the majority of employers think that there
are no obstacles for employing men and women in equal proportion in these fields (respectively 64.4%
and 62.2% from inquired employers), but representatives of a concrete gender “do not apply for
vacancies”. This indicates that feminized fields are more open than masculinised ones and if a man
wants to work in one of the feminine fields then it would be easier to do for a man than for a woman
who would like to work in “masculine” field – in construction, transport or agricultural or production
sphere.
77
Figure 3.5.1. Obstacles to employ males and females in equal portion in an enterprise (%)
% Agricultural and production s phere
Construction
Sales, hotels and s ervice
Transport, communications , finances et.al. Commerce
State administration, education and health
10
Dominating images of more appropriate labour 17
8
character for males /females in society 17
23
7
Lack of particular vocational education among 14
11
females/males 16
30
18
22
Males /females are better in this field 16
14
8
9
8
Mos tly males /females apply for vacancies 22
30
36
69
The field is not meant for repres entatives of one 86
59
particular gender 55
30
7
13
Historically formed traditions 8
17
18
3
Amount of incomes 16
9
27
11
5
Other 1
6
4
0 20 40 60 80 100
Base: all respondents who have obstacles in their enterprises and who gave concrete answer, n=366
Notes: Question with several answers, sum of answers >100
55% of all respondents (n=800) have no obstacles or limitation for employing men and women in equal
proportion.
Source: WIF/ GEALM employers’ survey.
When analysing these data in accordance with the size of the enterprise, it can be seen that
“inappropriateness of labour character” for women or man is mentioned the most frequently in small
enterprises and as the size of the enterprise grows; the number of employees who agree to this point of
view reduces. Whereas the fact that representatives of one gander usually apply for the vacancies of an
enterprise (obstacle for 9.7% of inquired employers) is less frequently mentioned by employers in
small enterprises (7.1%) but the most frequently – in large enterprises (16.9%).
Conception about what positions are the most appropriate for representatives of a particular gender
makes us think that there exists a definite body of characteristics that pertain to men or women. This
division also is one of the factors, on the basis of which development of an employee in accordance
with the position is determined.
Arguments that are used by employers in deep interviews when explaining segregation of labour
market or division of professions into “masculine” and “feminine” can be divided in the following
groups:
Physiological differences between a man and a woman;
Differences in way of thinking, activities and decision making between a man and a woman;
Accepted norms of behaviour – stereotypes (“formed historically”, “it is accepted”).
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Concepts of employers on characteristic features of men and woman reflect the main stereotypes about
work of women and men.
Characteristic features of male employees: Characteristic features of female employees:
cold blood; more concentration skills;
objectiveness; attention, preciseness;
ingenuity; sense of responsibility;
creativeness; intuition;
technical and exact thinking; logic thinking;
bravery when initiating unknown loyalty to employer;
processes; independence.
ability to make decisions faster.
A very important aspect is usage of physical power at work, which shows that the work is more
appropriate for men. Women who do physical work loose a part of femininity in the eyes of
employers. Works that emphasize femininity are related to service, care and physically easy works and
less stressful works. The notion of “masculinity” is related to positions or groups of professions that
require decision making, physical power and economic activities.
Like the rest of employments, employers also think that what is “feminine” and what is “masculine” is
learned in a family. Often children take over the same role relation as it has existed in their families,
and on the basis of this they create their understanding of role division. Employers admit that
assumptions that exist in the society on professions that correspond to each gender influence labour
market segregation. Often inquired managers of enterprises admit that the present stereotypes may turn
out to be wrong, but still employers and employees are subjected to them.
Vertical segregation also is a fact that men more often are employed in higher positions and it can be
explained by different role of a man and a woman or perception of features characteristic for them.
Real vertical segregation is illustrated in profession division as to the gender found out with the help
of the quantitative inquiry of employers. Division of the status or position of the respondents as to
their gender shows that 59% of enterprise owners are man and 90% of bookkeepers are women. When
all employers who occupy high positions were inquired, it turned out that 45% of managers and
presidents of the board were women, whereas 55% - men.
Two statements were used in measurement of factors that influence vertical segregation in employer
inquiry: “if a woman occupies high position, she looses her femininity” and “work there one hast to
make decisions is meant for men rather than women”. In general both these statements were equally
supported (average value correspondingly 1.9 and 1.8 in the scale from 1 (don’t agree) to 4
(completely agree)).
When comparing division of answers as to the gender of the respondents, one can see that evaluation
differs among men and women in relation to both statements. 15% of female employers and 34% of
male employers agree that women loose their femininity if they work in high positions
(correspondingly 79% and 62% do not agree). Whereas 22% of female employers and 38% of male
employees agree that responsible positions are meant for men (correspondingly 84% and 66% do not
agree). This statement is admitted as correct among employers who are older than 40. As the age of
employer increases, the more they agree to this statement. It is important that employers in
masculinised fields tend to agree to this statement.
A more explicit difference between both genders can be seen in the results of the active age inhabitant
inquiry “Women and men in the labour market”. In comparison with the point of view of employers,
proportion of men and women when agreeing to the statement “work there one hast to make decisions
is meant for men rather than women” is higher (correspondingly 27 % and 58%).
In the quantitative stage of the inquiry – deep interviews with employers understanding and arguments
for these statements were studied.
a. “Work there one hast to make decisions is meant for men rather than women”.
Those who do not agree to this statement think that in order do fulfil responsible duties, professional
and personal characteristics, not gender is determinant, moreover women in this respect are more
categorically disposed than men. The majority of respondents still think that representatives of both
79
genders admit that both genders may be good for it. “Decisions are made by people, not men or
women”. (DD woman)
“Of course, decision making processes are different, but both, men and women are able to make
important decisions”. (DD women)
“Men often make decisions fast but often not correctly, but a woman is sloe and cautious and often
more precise. So, in general I can not agree to this statement”. (DD man)
“I think that a man has ability to be philosophical, but women take decisions faster.” (DD woman)
However it has to be indicated that conviction about differences in decision making processes is the
main argument for those employers, too, who agree to the mentioned statement. It is based on the most
common gender stereotypes, including ungrounded suppositions on cognition skills of a man.
(2) “Women in high position loose a part of their femininity’.
When explaining this statement in deep interviews with employers, we can single out different views.
First of all, both polarities – strict “no” that does not correspond to reality, and strict “yes”. When
justifying one’s opinion on the fact that women in high position do not loose their femininity, the
respondents mention some women who have been actively involved in economic and political life of
Latvia, inducing the president, chairman of Saeima and ministers. It is often indicated that the position
makes to take more care about one’s looks. There also was an opinion that a person occupies high
position when they have already formed their personality and style, which is why it does not change
much during the time. The third opinion manifests the image of neuter employee because, when
fulfilling work functions, gender is of no importance there. At the same time in the interviews also the
fact that the notion of “femininity” is open and it is differently understood and interpreter was
mentioned.
“I do not agree. There are very feminine women who occupy high positions. They are kind and
charming.” (DD man)
“Obviously… of course, if you fulfil your duties, you are no more woman but an employee and you
have to do that disregarding your gender. If she is not able to accept it, it is hard for her to fulfil her
duties [..]. It is hard to say what exactly we think about femininity. We still look like women.” (DD
woman)
“She is able to scold a driver as she wants. She has no more femininity if she works there. She can
cope with everything. Those who are not involved think that this is ridiculous. But the enterprise
develops and everything’s good.” (DD woman)
EMPLOYED INHABITANTS
In the focus groups of employed inhabitants, the participants discussed about division of profession,
position and field into “masculine” and “feminine” and possible reasons of segregation. Both, men and
women declare that “actually everyone can do any work”. But if we pay attention to the present
situation in the labour market and to the experience and conceptions of employees, it turns out that
there exists conviction that there are professions that are not quite appropriate for men of women.
The main factor that determines that a profession is fit for a man is the necessity to use physical
power. Physically hard and dirty jobs are considered to be jobs for mails. Members of the groups often
express the idea that actually a woman can to this work but it would be better if she did not. Like
employers, participants of focus group of inhabitants also emphasized that physical work may harm
women’s health and appearance: “I come home and I smell foul because of diesel. I don’t think that I
would be glad if my wife would smell the same.” (FGD inhab., man, 20 – 40, LV, Liepāja).
Productivity of female employees would not be as high as that of men. On the other hand, there are
also opinions that if a man tends to choose an easy job, this is a shame for him.
A particular meaning when considering the wage of a man is the amount of it. At the same time it is
assumed that women are ready to work for a wage that is considerably lower that needed to live good
enough in the name of idea and social welfare. Women are more ready to work for low wage also
because of advantages that she sees in her work – pleasant and interesting occupation, etc, whereas
men are characterized as ambitious, rational and their choice of work is determined by the wage. As
80
they are ready to do physical and dirty work, it is easer for men to find any work than for women.
Apart from characteristics of work and wage, other important factors of labour market segregation are
conceptions about characteristics “that pertain to women or men”. It is assumed that women are more
faithful, loyal and responsible than men. “Women are more loyal and they always fulfil their duties. If
you employ a woman, she will work for that enterprise. But a man may have some parallel business.”
(FGD inhab, 20 – 35, lv., Riga) But men should better choose the work that requires logical thinking
and analytical skills. Women, unlike men, usually fulfil their task and do not ask whether it has to be
done this way, not that way, as men usually do. “A man is analytical. When you make him do
something, he starts evaluating whether you have divided duties correctly.” (FGD inhab., man., 35-55,
Rus., Rīga)
In the group of men it was assumed that dutiful attitude of women to work, less requirements to
employer are related to insecurity of the working place and concerns about possible difficulties of
finding a job. It is also assumed that women are better when fulfilling monotonous, precise and routine
works. “None of men is able to do this monotonous work [..]. They do not have patience.” (FGD
inhab., man., 35-55, rus., Rīga)
Men say that an important advantage of women in the labour market is their appearance and
education, but they don’t believe that a woman, especially elder one, could master technical works, for
example, to be a computer specialist.
Concerning vertical segregation, participants of the focus groups indicated that men have better carrier
possibilities. Although women are better educated, they often occupy lower position, which is
influenced by time spent for training and child care. “A man finds a work as soon as possible, but
women study as long as possible. Then a man has longer length of service, the boss notices him and
that is why he becomes the next candidate.´ (FGD inhab., man., 20-40, lv., Liepāja)
Concepts of Problems of Men and Women in the Labour Market
When analysing problems defined by the members of the focus groups, we can observe existent and
accepted gender roles, as well as common stereotypes and stereotypes that influence labour market
segregation.
81
Figure 3.5.2. Projective method – bubble of ideas “What is a male/female concerned about in
their work”
What a man is concerned about in his work?

Fear to loose job
How to have several works
Wage How to coordinate several
If there will be no work, then
How much will I earn? I can works? How to find second
there will be no wage.
not earn much enough. work?
Stability and confidence that
How to earn more? I have to
there will be some work..
earn money.
Work collective and circumstances

Show oneself as a good Unity of the collective, working time,
employee circumstances;
How to show myself better? In order to collaborate, understand
Do work and show myself from each other and fell the team – count on
the better side. somebody;
I wish they don’t find better There should be women, no problems
specialist. and we should be friendly.
Will I be able to fulfil my duties?
What a woman is concerned about in her work?
Fear to loose job Thoughts of family and

I depend on one person; I Wage house
may loose work; if I will be Will the wage be satisfying? What to prepare for
pregnant, will I be fired? Low wage; discrimination if supper? Will I be in time
compared to men. to take children? What
happens at home, have
children had dinner?
Show oneself as a good employee

How to do the job so that everyone Work planning
would be satisfied? Will the How to manage with everything? Will
management be satisfied? I do the planned works? I have to do it
Do the job well, everything should be till night falls!
ok when they will check everything.
Work collective - relations

Relations to colleagues and
Self actualization management; mutual relations;
Attitude of employees; attitude of
Take into consideration her opinion; employees to her, microclimate.
self actualization; to be in shape, to be
attractive, creative.
Source: FGD of parents with small children and employed inhabitants.

In the emotional level, both, men and women are concerned about psychological problems at work
that are related to their confidence or doubts about their skills, will to get positive evaluation.
Men more than women are concerned about the wage, as well as a possibility to have several works.
But women are more oriented to prove their skills in the present work in order to receive higher wage
and evaluation for her work from the side of the employer.
When man and women are compared, it is mentioned that it is more difficult for men to accept
unemployment. They often have depression and then it is harder for them to rejoin the labour market.
It is stated that a woman is more responsible for her work and family and that is why she will look for
a possibility to earn – a little bit but enough to survive.
82
Problem that concerns both genders in the labour market but are more related to women is difficulty to
find work from young people who have no labour experience and difficulties to find a work in
preretirement age.
3.6. Working Conditions

In the survey “Women and men in the labour market”, when characterizing their labour conditions in
accordance to several criteria set in the questionnaire, both, men and women agree to the statement
that their work is responsible (respectively 94.9% and 94.1%). Almost 90% of representatives of both
genders sat that their work is useful for society and more that 80% of women and men think that their
work provides possibility to help others. A similar proportion of women and men (85.8% and 87.2%)
admit that their work correspond to their abilities. About two thirds of employees characterize their
work as interesting and creative (65% of women and 66.1% of men).
For women the work provides possibility to be in the society (93% of women and 85.7 of men). Men
admit that their work provide possibility to work independently (67.5% of men and 62.6% of women).
But there are also considerable differences in opinions of men and women as to working conditions.
Men more often than women evaluate positively their wage (respectively 53.4% and 39.5%) and
carrier possibilities (43.6% and 35.6%), where as they admit less that their work is safe (62.5% and
76.2%) and they indicate that they do not have to work on the days off 42.8% and 50.6%).
Female entrepreneurs and managers of different levels expressed their content with the wage and
carried possibilities more often that other employees. When comparing these fields, employees of the
finance and real estate sector showed more positive evaluation. Satisfaction with the wage is greater in
the private sector (43.7%), whereas there are better carried possibilities in state and municipal
institutions (39.5%). Although in general women are not so often as men subjected to the necessity to
work during holidays, the women who occupy leading posts usually do it more often than colleagues
of the opposite gender.
It is interesting that there is a similar situation among men when evaluating wage in relation to the
work form (employees in private enterprises are more satisfied that those who work in state and
municipal institutions), but evaluation of carrier possibilities in both types of enterprises are similar.
Those are usually men who occupy position of highest or middle management who evaluate their
work as safe (respectively 83.3$ and 80.6%), specialists (71.4%), employees in education (76.5%) and
sales (71.4%)
Both, men and women who work on the basis of an agreement have provided more positive evaluation
on almost all aspects of work, if compared to employees who work on oral agreement. There is a
similar tendency in division of answers of women concerning education – the higher education, the
more frequent positive evaluation for different labour conditions. Whereas education level among men
has no considerable impact on the above mentioned aspects of work.
Men feel more secure for their working places than women: considerable trouble about possibility to
loose work was expressed by 34.8% of men and 39.6% of women who are working at present. On the
other hand, 33.3% of men are sure about their present working place, while the same opinion was
expressed by 27.3% of women. It has to be indicated that these concerns become more expressed for
elder people.
Men are more positive about their chances to find work. Optimistic and pessimistic views as to this
question are approximately divided among men: 43.4% think that it would be easy to find an
appropriate work, whereas 49.5% - that this is a hard process. In the group of women the number of
“optimists” is two times smaller that that of “optimists” (respectively 31.4% and 60.6%).
Similarly to the questions on lose of job; young people admit that they are surer about possibilities to
find a new job. If in the age groups 15 – 24 and 25 – 34 about half of respondents say that that this
would be no problem for them (respectively 52.7% and 48.5%), then in the age group 35 – 44 only one
third can say the same (35.5%). Whereas in the group of respondents who are older that 45, there is
only one fourth who can say the same.
Availability of social security at work for both genders does not differ much. Hoverer when working
in state or municipal institutions, employers pay social insurance for women in the full amount –
83
80.0% or for a part of the wage – 19.2%, while for men – only 69.7% and 24.6%, i.e. for 6% of men
social instalments are not made at all. Women more often admit that they can attend training courses
founded by the enterprise (52.4% and 47.9%). Men are more frequently paid health insurance (40.2%
against 35.3%). There is almost no difference in bonus system: it is received by 30.3% of men and
29.5% of women).
What concerns the role at work and characteristics of working place, choice of both genders is less
similar: men would prefer to be employers (43.7%) rather than women (36,5%) but women would
prefer to be employees (47,6 against 42,7%), which corresponds to the present proportion among
entrepreneurs. Not everyone who has expressed their wish to become an entrepreneur possesses
necessary skills, but though the majority of them have these skills. Anyway, taking into consideration
answers of the participants of the inquiry have no reason to think that Latvian people have no
resolutions to start entrepreneurship.
When asked whether they would prefer to work in a small or large enterprise, 45,4% of men and
53,1% of women mentioned small one. Only a little bit smaller part of men would like to work in a
large enterprise - 35,4%, bur women would to it twice as less - 25,5%. This in fact corresponds to the
present situation in Latvia, where 65% of employees work in enterprises where there are not more than
50 employees. This situation show desires of women.
Wish of men and women to work in private of public sector also corresponds to the actual situation:
men prefer private enterprises - 49,1% against 34,8% of women, but women prefer working in state
and municipal institutions: 45,8% against 35,1% of men.
In comparison with evaluation of actual circumstances that more or less differ from men and women,
suggestions about importance of different working aspects almost completely corresponds for
representatives of both genders:
Good wage - 98,4 % of men and 98,6% of women;
Good working conditions - 96,9 and 97,2%;
Security - 95,6% of men and 97,6% of women;
Responsibility - 95,9 % and 94,1%;
Pleasant colleagues - 94,7 and 95,0%;
Interesting work and creativity - 86,1 and 86,9%;
Possibility to plan working hours - 80,2 and 80,1%;
Possibility to work independently - 77,4 and 76,7%;
Carrier possibilities - 75,4 and 75,3%;
Labour responsibility - 69,4 and 68,7%.
There are slight differences for the following aspects:
Possibility to help others - 75,5 of men and 80,0% of women;
Use for the society - 75,3 and 80,1%
Possibility to communicate with people - 74,7 and 80,8%;
Long vacation - 75,4 and 81,2%
Possibility not to work on holidays - 74,5 and 83,9%;
Not to high workload - 81,6 and 88,7%.
It has to be concluded that for men and women the main aspects of work influence the result, but
social aspects and possibility to coordinate work with rest and family life is more important form
women, but they are not of no importance for men either.
Factor analysis of working motivation for men and women. In order to evaluate at what extent
situation of men and women in the labour market is influenced by personal attitude and working
motivation, we used range of factors elaborated by F.Hercberg. Both employed and unemployed
respondents evaluated importance of each given aspect at work and the results were analysed with the
help of factor analysis method.
Groups of personal attitudes obtained in the frameworks of this research at some extent corresponds to
the hierarchical model of needs elaborated by A. Maslov (Маслоу 2001: 77-96), and that is why basic
needs characteristic to a person were used for their definition.
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Matrix of factor correlation that is shown in the Table 3.6.1, shows classification of all motivation
aspects in 3 factors. This factor division was obtained by analysing the common selection and male
respondents separately:
1) “Need for accommodations” is some sense can be called basic – physiological or existence
needs and factors of this group indicate secondary importance of work. It is characterised by
such aspects of work as holidays, long vacation, not to tense work and possibility to plan
working hours. In the context of our research, analysis of this factor group shows that a man is
a little bit lazy.
2) “Need for security” in the context of work is more related to psychological, emotional and
economic provision. It is characterized by working conditions, like wage, good and safe work
that corresponds to one’s skills and pleasant colleagues (for women), etc.
3) “Need for self realization” in the context of this factor merges need for self-esteem and need
to be evaluated positively by others, as well as self-realisation and need for realization of
one’s skills, knowledge and talent. The factor merges aspects of work that are related to
interesting work, possibility to work independently, responsibility and work that is useful and
necessary for the society.
When considering answer division of women (see matrix of factor correlation in Table 3.6.2), four
groups of factors were formed, where in addition to three above mentioned factors, another one
emerged.
4) This factor called “Need of Altruism”. It could be related to social needs of a person or a need
for belonging and love, which is characterised by such aspects as responsible work that
provides a possibility to help others, which is useful for society and provides possibility to
communicate with people.
In continuation all factors were analysed in relation to their importance and taking in to consideration
different aspects, for example, position, profession, personal duty, education, as well as desired work
forms and the fact how much time they would like to devote for family, house works or friends.
A relevant difference in the importance of groups of factors were observed in the questions on attitude
and priorities, that supplements explanation of differences among people as individuals, but it does not
reflect some particular differences of one or another gender in the labour market.
Remunerated work. When analysing common selection and men, one can see that among the
respondents who do not want to change the amount of time that is at present dedicated to work, there
is an increase in need for safety and importance of self actualization, but decrease of importance of
need for accommodations. In the group of four factors that explain division of women answers, one
can see that in the group of women who want to preserve the present labour time proportion, there is
an increase of need for security and social need or need for altruism, and decrease of importance of
need for accommodations.
In the group of men who would prefer spending more time in work, one can see decrease of all factors
of working motivation or importance of needs, but in the group who would prefer work less, there is
an explicit need for accommodations. In the group of women who would be ready to dedicate more
time for work, there is a tendency for the need for altruism to decrease, but its importance becomes
higher for those women who would be ready to spend a lot more time in work. Moreover in this group,
there is an increase of importance of need for self actualization, which manifests once more that
women more often feel need fro possibilities to realize themselves at work.
Logical need is considered to be the need for accommodations and increase of its importance among
those people who want to devote less time for work. There have not been relevant differences
observed among men and women.
House works. When analysing the majority of respondents – those who want to preserve the present
situation in fulfilling household work, one can see that the importance of the need for self realization
decreases for men, and the need for accommodation decreases for women. For women, need for
security and social evaluation – need for altruism increases.
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As it is known and as proven in the research, the majority of household works are fulfilled by women.
Factor analysis show that it is at some extent related to need for social appreciation of need for
altruism. The more a woman wants to spend more time in household works, the more expressed this
need is, but among women who would prefer to devote less time for household work, the need for
altruism decreases considerably.
Whereas the most expressed need for accommodations (laziness) among women and men can be
observed in that group of people who want to spend less time in household works.
It can be observed that increase or reduction of the proportion of household works for women do not
show important correlation with the present factor of need for self realization. Whereas when we take
into consideration desires and needs of men, one can see that importance of these needs is increased in
the group of people who would like to spend more time in house works. This does not indicate a
relevant gender difference, but it can be explained by the fact that this factor includes aspects
characteristic for needs of altruism for women, for example, possibility to help people and responsible
work.
Communication in a family. As communication in a family is a field for which men, nor women
would not prefer to spend less time, then factor analysis does not show relevant differences. The only
tendency is that need for accommodations is higher among those people who do not want to change
anything, but importance of this factors reduces in the groups of people who would like to spend more
time with families.
Friends. Communication with friends, too, in accordance with opinion of the majority of inquired
people, should not be reduced, but, on contrary – increased. There is more explicit need for
accommodations and need for self realization among those who would prefer increase the time spent
together with friends.
Wage. Asked whether employed people would prefer work more and earn more or work the same
amount of time and earn the same wage or work less and earn less, it if would be possible taking in to
consideration the present workload and wage, both, men and women would prefer to preserve the
present situation, however men showed greater readiness to work more. 54,6% of men and 58,6% of
women would not prefer work more, but 42,1% of men and 35,9% of women would prefer work more
in order to earn more. A small number of men (2,0%) would be ready to work less and earn less, but
this idea was accepted by more women (5,6%).
Analysis of working motivation or factor analysis of values shows that the biggest importance was to
the need for security fro people who are ready work more in order to earn more. But for women who
would like to work less and earn less, pay more attention to the need for accommodations.
When considering the differences in importance of working motivation factors in all groups of
inquired, one can observe tendencies that confirm the theory and that shows that need for self
realization becomes more important if basic needs – physical and security are satisfied.
In the groups with the lowest incomes, men and women warning not more than LVL 60,
importance of the factor of self realization reduces but for women, importance of need for
security increases and that of need for accommodations reduces;
In the income group LVL 61 – 80 one can observe decreased importance of the need for
accommodations;
In the income group LVL 81 – 120 women have explicit need for security, whereas the
importance of the self realization factor is low;
In the income group LVL 121 – 200 for both, men and women one can observe an explicit
need for accommodations, which manifests itself the most in the next group of incomes;
In the group of incomes LVL 201 and more, the importance of the need for self realization
increases and is the highest in both groups – that of men and women.
But importance of the need for altruism does not change depending on incomes of inhabitants.
Professions, positions and fields. In general, when analysing influence of motivating factors on
professions, positions and fields, one can observe some differences in importance of labour aspects.
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Need for self realization increases in the group of self-employed people and in the group of average
level managers and it is rather explicit for specialists and qualified office staff. This factor is less
important among men working in construction, women servants or working in sales, but this index is
the lowest for auxiliary workers or low-qualified female workers.
Importance of social recognition or need for altruism is higher among female specialists working in
health care and social assistance sector as well as qualified employees.
Importance of need for security is higher among specialists, especially among men, as well as among
qualified workers – men employed in construction and production and women employed in
manufacturing and sales.
Importance of need for accommodation is higher among male employees who are self-employer and
among qualified male employees. Whereas importance of this factor for women is reduced among
low-qualified employees but it is higher than among specialists and qualified office stuff.
3.7. Satisfaction with Work

Satisfaction with work probably is the determining indicator when concerning gender equality among
employed people. Satisfaction includes wage, working conditions and content, possibilities of self-
realization and carried and other factors that are relevant for employees. Satisfaction is a subjective
factor that characterizes comfort of a person in available working circumstances and situation. When a
person is dissatisfied with work or definite important conditions, they are motivated to change it. In
addition, satisfaction with work has a positive influence on working motivation and thus –
productivity, too. Women may “leg behind” men in one or another aspect of work (for example,
wage), but in general women is as satisfied with the rest of working conditions as men, which means
that it is possible to assume that there also exist other aspects of work where women are more
advantageous and thus wage difference is compensated.
However in the first detailed research on satisfaction with work in Latvia that was carried out in the
frameworks of the project “Life Quality in Latvia”, it was discovered that “women in Latvia are less
satisfied with work (especially with wage and possibilities to reach their aims at work) than men (in
equal circumstances)” (Hazans, 2006:253). The author of the research indicates that “in the
international context, this is rather unusual situation: in the researches that use old data of EU or
OECD, the opposite situation can mainly be observed.” (Hazans, 2006:253; 255).
In the basis of the results of M. Hazans, there lies data of 2005 of 666 respondents where the scale of 5
was used for evaluation of satisfaction. A year later (April 2006) in the research of GEALM, the
respondents were offered the scale of 10 to evaluate satisfaction with work in general, as well as with
possibilities to coordinate family life with work. This time the selection was twice as big and there
were more questions on working place in the questionnaire, which provided possibility not only to
check once more whether women are less satisfied with work, but also to compare influence of
different factors on satisfaction of men and women with their work.
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Table 3.7.1. Classification of male and female satisfaction evaluation in 2006 (col %)
Evaluation Satisfaction
(1-dissatisfied, With possibilities to coordinate family life and work With work in general
10-satisfied) Men Women Men Women
1 to 4 14.2 15.4 7.2 10.2
5 to 6 24.3 22.9 23.4 24.4
7 to 8 40.6 39.7 35.6 35.5
9 to 10 21.0 22.0 33.8 29.9
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Number of respondents 606 713 607 713
Note: Respondents who could not answer (“difficult to say”) were excluded; they were less than 1%.
Source: data and calculations of GEALM research “Women and men in the labour market”.
Table 3.7.1 compares evaluation of men and women of their satisfaction. The image shows that both,
men and women are equally satisfied with possibilities to coordinate family life and work, whereas
satisfaction with work in general among women is rather low (1 to 4) and there are only some high
evaluations (9 to 10).
Table 3.7.2. Gap between male and female satisfaction with the possibilities of coordinating
family life and work with the work in general. 2006
Evaluated statements
Average evaluation a [expressed from the Satisfaction with
data of Table 3.7.1.] possibilities to Satisfaction with
coordinate family life work in general
and work
Average evaluation for men 6.84 7.41
(standard divergence) (2.03) (1.92)
Average evaluation for women 6.77 7.17
(standard divergence) (2.20) (2.06)
Difference of average evaluations 0.07 0.24**
(standard mistake) (0.11) (0.11)
No of Controlled factors that explain evaluation Difference between prognosticated b
model differences for each considered model evaluation of men and women
(in other equal conditions)
[1] Gender, education, age, nationality, family
status, living place (6 regions and 0.10 0.28**
city/countryside)
[2] The same as in model [1]+ labour agreement,
0.06 0.30**
sector of property, field, number of employees
[3*] The same as in model [2]+ wide group of
0.21 0.42***
professions (9 basic profession groups)
[3] The same as in model [3*]+ narrow group of
0.13 0.32**
professions (20 groups of professions)
a
Number of respondents :
Men 606 607
Women 713 713
In total 1319 1320
a
Respondents, who could not answer (“difficult to answer”) were excluded b. Results of linear regression were
obtained with the help of maximum plausibility method by admitting mistake heteroskedascity and mistake
correlation in the framework of selection points.
**, *** - Evaluation is statistically different from zero with the plausibility possibility 95 – 99%.
Source: Data and calculations of GEALM survey “Women and men in the labour market”.
The table 3.7.2 show the results of test of hypothesis whether satisfaction level is equal among men
and women. The hypotheses were tested with the help of statistical and econometrical tests in equal
circumstances. As we can see, there is no reason to reject the hypothesis that satisfaction of men and
women with possibilities to coordinate family life and work is equal. Evaluation difference of
satisfaction with work in general is statistically considerable – it is higher for men (0.24 in average and
0.28 to 0.42 points of the scale depending on controlled factors in equal circumstances). Although the
difference is not big in the scale of 10, the assumption that women in Latvia are a little bit less
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satisfied with work than men is proven. As it was mentioned above, it is possible that wage difference
of men and women is compensated in other ways and the total result is reflected in satisfaction with
work. Although the data show that satisfaction of women is slightly lower that that of men, this
difference is smaller that that of gender wage. This means that the assumption that there exist other
aspects of work that compensate lower wage of women must not be denied.
Analysis of factors that influence satisfaction of men and women with work are reflected in the Tables
3.7.3 and 3.7.4.
Table 3.7.3 includes three models. Model [1] assumes that education, age, nationality and living place
determines profession and other aspects of employment. Model [2] includes kinds of labour
agreement, sector of enterprise property, field and number of employees that are controlled, whereas
profession is not. Model [3] controls profession (20 groups). Both, model [1] and [2] show that men
are less satisfied with work because of secondary education, but in other levels of education there are
no relevant differences in this respect. Whereas women with higher education are more satisfied than
others (in equal circumstances but without controlling profession). When the profession is controlled
(model [3]), difference between education levels disappears.
Among both, men and women, Russian employees evaluate their satisfaction by 0.5 lower that
Latvians (in equal circumstances); this difference among men is greater – 5% and among women –
10%. Men of other nationalities are even less satisfied with their work, but women of other
nationalities do not differ from Latvians.
There is an interesting difference between gender because of influence of family status: married (or
partners who live together) men are considerably (by 0.5) more satisfied with work than those who
live without a partner, but for women family status does not influence their satisfaction.
Among men, living place has not important impact on satisfaction with work. Whereas in the Riga
basin, women are less satisfied with work (in equal conditions) if compared tot those who live in Riga
or Vidzeme.
Among both, men and women, employers with labour agreement for a definite period of time are less
satisfied than those who have an agreement on unlimited period of time. Among women, cases of
agreements with definite time (3%) and unregistered employment (5%) can be observed less rarely
than among men (correspondingly – 5% and 11%). However negative influence of “unstable” labour
relations on satisfaction with work is more explicit among women. For example, employees with out
labour agreement evaluate satisfaction by 1.4 less than those who have an agreement for an indefinite
period of time (in equal circumstances) and this difference varies at the level of 5%. Among men, this
difference is bout 0.5 and it is not relevant.
Influence of the field of employment on satisfaction of men and women can be seen in the Figure
3.7.1. Three fields where men are most likely to be satisfied (finances and commercial services,
construction, power supply) are also highly evaluated by women. State administration and social
insurance, education, as well as health care are the fields where satisfaction of women is rather low but
it exceeds the average index. Women are less satisfied if they are employed in manufacturing,
transport, communication sector or agriculture.
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Figure 3.7.1. Forecasted satisfaction in work of males and females depending on sector of
employment (in other equal condition), 2006
Notes: fields are ordered due to satisfaction level: JK – finance and commercial services; F – construction; E –
power supply; H – hotels, restaurants; CD - manufacturing; O – other public, social and individual services; G –
sales; I – transport, communications; L – state administration and social insurance; M – education; AB –
agriculture, forestry and fishery; N – health care.
Source: Data and calculations of GEALM survey “Women and men in the labour market”.
Statistical analysis show that those women who work in state or municipal institutions are more
satisfied with work (in equal conditions); evaluation difference compared to private enterprises is 0.5
points (does not reach statistical relevance).
Size of enterprise has an opposite impact on satisfaction of men and women with work: women are
most likely to be satisfied in small enterprises, but men – in large ones. It is interesting that women
who work in average enterprises are the less satisfied (in equal conditions).
Analysing the results of model [3] provided by Table 3.7.3 one could draw the following conclusions
on influence of profession on satisfaction with work.
Lawyers, economists, finance specialists, bookkeeper and other senior specialists of social and
natural sciences (2.4 group of profession) are the most satisfied with work (in equal conditions)
among women and men. Evaluation of satisfaction of the representatives of this group exceeds
evaluation of specialists of the same fields by 0.7 points. Whereas evaluation of specialists and
senior specialists of other groups, as well as that of employees in the field of sales and services in
general does not differ from evaluation of reference group.
Among men with wide spread professions, operators of equipment and assemblers (8.1% of
employed men) and representatives of simple professions (sales and service field in particular –
2.5%), as well as qualified employees in agriculture (2.1%) are the least satisfied. Evaluation of
satisfaction of representatives of these professions is by about 1 point lower from that of the
reference group (in equal conditions).
Whereas among women the lowest satisfaction level is expressed by workers of precision and art
(7.3 group of profession) (4.8% of all employed women) and operators of equipment (1% of
employed women).
Determination coefficients of the Table 3.7.2 shows that all above mentioned factors in total explain
only a small part (18%) from satisfaction of employees: about a half of this part is explained by
profession and characteristic features of the enterprise.
In table 3.7.4, the body of determining factors is supplemented by number of average working hours
per week, net incomes of employees, regime of working and aspect of enterprise management policy.
The last factor is important because in theory and other surveys it is indicated that taking into account
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time of employer and friendly environment positively influences satisfaction of a person with work
and its regime. Inclusion of the above-mentioned factors in the model increased explained difference
for men to 28.5% and for women to 30 %, which means – for about a half, if compared to model [3]
illustrated in Table 3.7.3.
It is interesting that among both, women and men, satisfaction reaches the maximum when there are 4
working hours per week, but those who work 35 – 39 hours are less satisfied. Men who systematically
work 50 and more hours per week, as well as women who do not work more than 40 h per week level
of satisfaction does not differ much from that of employees who work 40 h per week. One can assume
that extra hours for these groups are sufficiently compensated. Unfortunately one cannot say the same
about men who work 41 – 49 hours per week: their satisfaction level (in equal conditions) is by 0.5
lower.
It is surprisingly that a possibility for an employee to plan his working hours has no important effect in
satisfaction with work (in the frameworks of one profession and field). In the case of men, the same
concerns the necessity to work in holidays. Women however are more satisfied (by 0.5 in equal
conditions) if they do not have to work in holidays.
Representatives of both genders highly evaluate the possibility to use unpaid vacation or a day off
(satisfaction of men higher by 0.4 and that of women – by 0.8), as well as the fact that meetings are
held during working hours. Level of satisfaction of women is by about 0.5 higher (in equal conditions)
if the enterprises organises undertakings where their families and relatives can participate.
In order to obtain cleared conception on satisfaction differences in relation to gender, analysis of data
of WIF research was used in GEALM research. The data of WIF study provide information on
working attributes and it provides wider selection that allows analyzing the results in more retailed
subgroups.
It has to be indicated that in the WIF questionnaire, the question on satisfaction was another working
and it was measured using another scale. The question was: “How satisfied you are in general with the
present position in your working place?” The word “position” could be associated not only with
contents of work but also with the position of an employee in the hierarchy. WIF study provided the
scale of 5 (see Table 3.7.5), not the scale of 10, as in GEALM research. It is known that perception of
respondent of the distance between two points of scale may vary depending on the fact whether this is
the scale of 5 or the scale of 10. It also has to be taken into consideration that WIF selection includes
only full time employees (apart from higher rank managers), but the selection of GEALM – all
employees (aged 18 – 64 in both surveys). This means that proportion of some inquired groups do not
correspond in the selections, for example, in the WIF selection there are relatively few employees with
an agreement for a definite period of time.
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Table 3.7.5: Satisfaction of employed male and female concerning their position in their
main workplace (col. %)
Men Women Total
(1) Very dissatisfied 2.9 3.1 3.0
(2) Rather dissatisfied 10.4 11.4 11.0
(3) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied 25.2 22.0 23.4
(4) Rather satisfied 47.4 47.4 47.4
(5) Very satisfied 14.1 16.1 15.2
Total 100 100 100
Dissatisfied (1+2) 13.3 14.5 14.0
Satisfied (4+5) 61.5 63.5 62.6
Note: 3022 respondents (full time employees aged 18-64).
Source: Data and calculations of WIF employees’ survey.
As it can be seen in the Table 3.7.5, satisfaction level of full time male and female employees is rather
similar: a bit more than 60% of employees are satisfied with their position, and 14% - dissatisfied.
Econometric analysis also shows that gender does not influence satisfaction with the position (Table
3.7.6). The only one of the six models where the index “women” is “almost important” (p = 0.139), is
the one where field, size of enterprise and sector of property are controlled but profession – is not.
Excluding kind of agreement, field, size and sector of enterprise from the model or including
indicators of professions, gender influence on satisfaction becomes irrelevant. One can conclude that,
in comparison with men of the same education level and age, women have fewer opportunities to
develop but more successful choice of field, type of enterprise and kind of labour agreement
compensates it.
Table 3.7.6. Gender effect and satisfaction with one’s position in the main workplace. 2005
No of Index
model Controlled variables of the model Of evaluated Level of
coefficient and its importance of
standard error evaluation
(t-value) (p- value)
[1] Gender, education, experience, education, age, knowledge of
Latvian, location of enterprise and type of populated place
(city/countryside). -0.78 0.440
[2] The same as in model [1]+ kind of labour agreement,
collective agreement, sector of property, field, number of
employees -1.49 0.139
[3] The same as in model [2]+ basic group of professions (9) -0.97 0.333
[4] The same as in model [2]+ detailed group of professions (25) -0.70 0.485
[5] The same as in model [4]+ wage system, number of -0.18 0.854
working hours per week, amount of bet wage, tempo of
work, flexibility of working hours, work at night and
holidays, additional advantages
[6] The same as in model [4]+ fairness of wage -0.07 0.942
Notes: WIF employees’ research. 3022 respondents (full time employees aged 18-64). Results of ordered logical
regression. t-value is evaluated as proportion of evaluated coefficient and it standard error. Differences (t-value)
are considered to be statistically important id the level is 0.05 (p-value) or less.
Gender specifications emerge when analysing factors that influence satisfaction for men and women
separately. The results of this analysis are summarized in the Tables 3.7.7A.-3.7.7F (which include
models [1] – [6] described in Table 3.6.7).
Table 3.7.7A of the appendix includes the main indices that characterise human capital of employees,
as well ad location of an enterprise. It can be seen that employees with higher education disregarding
their gender are more satisfied with the position than others (age, Latvian language skills, family status
and region being the same). For other levels of education there are no relevant differences. Whereas
men with primary education, as well as those with professional education are more satisfied than those
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with secondary education and industrial education. If the work does not correspond to education,
satisfaction considerably decreases and this effect is more explicit for women than men.
Impact of Latvian language skills on satisfaction of women is irrelevant after inclusion of variables
that characterize enterprise (Table 3.7.7B); women with average of weak knowledge of Latvian this
effect reduces when profession indicators are added (Tables 3.7.7C., 3.7.7D.). This means that
language skills on satisfaction may be explained by the fact that women are rather limited if this is not
their native language; women with weak have hampered access to “good’ professions. Women with
weak skills work in professions there language shills do no play important role.
Satisfaction differences among men with good knowledge of Latvian and men whose native language
is Latvian are statistically irrelevant after inclusion of variables that characterize enterprise, profession
indicators, wage and work attributes into the model (Table 3.7.7E). This means that a man with good
language skills (but not perfect) receive less that men with similar age, education level who work in
the same field and region and whose native language is Latvian. Men with average or weak knowledge
are less satisfied with the position than men with the native language when all above mentioned
factors are controlled, including wage and work attributes and subjective evaluation of wage (Table
3.7.7F).
Employees in Zemgale are more dissatisfied than the rest, and this effect is particularly explicit among
men. Until the age of 60, person age has no impact on satisfaction with the position (the same as on
satisfaction on general); elder women are more dissatisfied than the other. Men aged 25 – 29 are the
most satisfied with the position. It is interesting that children in family do not influence satisfaction
with the position, but men with children aged 7 – 18 are more satisfied that others.
Table 3.7.7B also includes labour agreement and indices that characterize enterprise apart from
education, age, Latvian language skills, family status, region and type of populated place.
When compared to employees who have agreement of indefinite time, employees who work without
written agreement are less satisfied (more explicit for women). Agreement for a definite period of time
(11 – 12 % of respondents) influences negatively satisfaction of men. Collective agreement in an
enterprise has no relevant impact on satisfaction.
Work in public sector influences negatively satisfaction of men with the position, but it has a
considerable influence on that of women. In equal conditions, satisfaction of men with the position
depends on field of employment (sector of economic activities), but still employees in production are
less satisfied than others. Women are more satisfied when being employed in state administration,
individual and commercial services, and less satisfied if employed in power supply industries (less
than 1% of women). Let us indicate that the results in relation to women employed in finance and
power supply sectors have to be interpreted with prudence because they do not correspond to the
results of GEALM. One of the explanation is that situation of enterprise is controlled in WIF data.
Moreover, in the data of GEALM, due to comparatively large selection finance and commercial
service fields were merger together.
Models with indicators of professions, apart from wage and work attribute variables are summarized
in Tables 3.7.7C., 3.7.7D: the first deals with 9 groups of professions (“vertical” scale of professions)
but each basic group is divided “horizontally” in several subgroups. Effects of professions in these two
tables reflect indirectly influence of wage and work attributes on satisfaction. It is surprising that in
equal conditions there are more men satisfied with the profession - qualified employees, craftsmen,
operators of equipment and assemblers (these professions are not better than others in regard or wage
and conditions); the next are managers, senior specialists and employees in sales and service field who
do not have relevant differences in satisfaction. Servants and simple workers are even less satisfied
(Table 3.7.7C).
In rare professions (1% of men employed), leading positions are given to operators of equipment and
assemblers, senior specialists of educational institutions, metal working, engineering, mining industry
and construction employees (Table 3.7.7D). When comparing the data of GEALM and WIF,
differences in satisfaction show that “satisfaction with position” and “satisfaction with work” can not
be considered as synonymous. Employee can be satisfied with the position but not with work in
general. The second formulation is more meaningful because it includes working conditions and
contents. Disregarding low satisfaction level with working conditions, content or other aspects, an
93
employee can be satisfied with the positions, especially if it corresponds to his skills and ambitions in
genera.
Satisfaction with the position among women is different: the higher the profession group is situated on
the vertical scale, the more satisfied employers are with their position: the most satisfied are managers,
who are followed by senior specialists, specialists, servants, employees in sales of service field,
qualified workers and craftsmen, operators of equipment and simple workers. The only exception is
the sixth basic group (qualified employees in agriculture and fishery) – they are the most dissatisfied.
The highest satisfaction level in rare professions (professions represented by 1% of women) pertain to
physicists, chemists, engineers, senior specialists of social sciences and specialists, managers, physics
and engineering specialists and senior education specialists (Table 3.7.7D).
Influence of other factors does not change when compared to results already described in tables 3.7.7A
and 3.7.7B.
It would be perfect if everyone could choose the most appropriate professions, then satisfaction of
employees with their positions should not differ much in case if influence of other factors is excluded
(including wage and work attributes). Table 3.7.7E is the most corresponding to this situation. It
includes control of the above mentioned factors. Table 3.7.7.F also includes evaluation of conformity
of work basing on the opinion of employee. It is interesting that satisfaction of men and women does
not change in comparison with the Table 3.7.7D. Nevertheless the positions of men in sales, as well as
in agriculture and fishery are better. This indicates that employees of these professions are less
satisfied with the wage, conditions and attributes, but more satisfied with the profession. Position of
managers of small and average enterprises decreases, which shows that the main source of satisfaction
here is good wage, conditions and attributes. These results who that regarding from the subjective
point of view, one can really speak about “masculine” and “feminine” professions.
Further in the text, influence of wages, additional advantages, working condition and other attributes
on satisfaction with the positions will be described (Tables3.7.7E., 3.7.7F). First of all, it is to be
indicated that with the increase do working hours per week, satisfaction of men decreases but that of
women – increases: strength of effects is equal, but symbols are opposite. Effects are evaluated taking
into account average number of hours (43.6 h for men and 41.5 h for women). This reminds of
opinions expressed in the focus groups that men have to work more in order to earn more and maintain
the role of family supplier but women in this respect are freer and often perceive work as a possibility
to realize themselves. These results in general coincide with those of the GEALM study on satisfaction
in general.
It is normal that satisfaction with position is positively related to wage (in equal conditions). This
effect is more explicit from women than men. Wage effect on satisfaction decreases (and becomes
statistically irrelevant for men) when evaluation of fairness of wage is controlled. Fairness effect is
extremely high: in comparison with employees who answered “rather not” to the question “does the
wage corresponds to the work done?”, employees who answered “rather yes” or “yes” possibility of
satisfaction is by 12 – 13 (or 18 – 20) percent points higher. It increases considerably the effect of
wage duplication. Fairness effect also has gender characteristics: data on those who are sure that their
wage does not correspond to the job done (each 5th man and 4th woman) and those who answered
“rather no” (32 % of men and 38 % of women) show that dissatisfaction is more explicit among
women (satisfaction is by 9 percent points lower). This means that women more then men consider
that they are not appropriately paid and in these situations women are more dissatisfied.
In some enterprises the wage can be influenced by the following factors: (i) amount of work (ii)
quality of work; (iii) wage in similar enterprises; (iv) creation of group plan; (v) fulfilling of
individually elaborated plan; (vi) length of service; (vii) (formal) qualification of an employee.
It turns out that differences in compensation system have no important impact on satisfaction of
women and have slight influence on satisfaction of men: men perceive negatively influence of formal
qualification on the wage. This could be related to education level of men and women – formal
education of women is higher.
In the enterprises where employer helps the employees to coordinate their family life and work, as
well as there the working place may be characterized as “family-friendly”, satisfaction of both genders
increases considerably (the effect is more explicit for women than men). Men and women are more
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satisfied with the position if employees can change their working time if it is necessary. Night work
influences negatively satisfaction of women but working on holidays influence negatively both – men
and women. In general, one can conclude that the aspects that are related to coordination of personal
life of an employee with work are very relevant for representatives of both genders.
Men evaluate positively business trips, remuneration of cell phone communication expenses and
clothing as non-monetary remuneration but training courses, seminars, conferences and gifts decrease
their satisfaction. Women evaluate positively presents, but service computer at home lessens their
satisfaction. An opinion was expressed in the WIF quantitative survey of employees that if an
employee provides cell phone or other appliances necessary for work, then it is possible to demand
that employee is available after working hours. A computer at home for women reflect what has
already been stated – women are rather dissatisfied with the fact that work affairs reaches them even if
they are at home. Controlling correspondence of the wage to the job done, effect of additional benefits
remains unchanged for men and is irrelevant for women.
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4. GENDER AND MOTIVATIONS OF STUDY PROGRAM’S

CHOICE
In order to find out the impact of the gender on the employees’ choice of their education and
professional qualification, a qualitative study will be carried out among the students. There are many
different prevailing views among the students regarding their choice of certain study programs. These
views are based on action models the students have learnt in their families and schools; the models are
put into practice depending on the interests and abilities of an individual and the availability of
resources. Describing factors that influence the formation of motivation of choosing certain study
programs or professions, it is concluded that there is no essential difference regarding the existence
and importance of these factors for both: women and men. Therefore, at the beginning of the report of
the results, mechanisms of the formation of motivation witnessed during the study and common for the
youth will be revealed. In the continuation, various influences of different factors and gender
constructs in the context of studies and the labour market will be looked at.
4.1. Factors Influencing the Choice

Interest is one of the notions used equally by men and women who are studying; they use it as a
reason for their motivation to choose the current study field. That is closely linked to being aware of
one’s abilities and their successful application; however, circumstances which have influenced this
process are different. To a great extent it also has an impact of a family and taking on its values. To
the same extent it is important that the chosen subject is not difficult for acquisition: ‘Well, in fact
already since the form 7 it was totally clear that I would be an interpreter because languages were the
only thing I was learning without any difficulties. [..] As I’m very lazy by my nature, then I chose the
only thing that didn’t cause me any problems.’ (a student, male)
However, not always good marks in a particular subject have been the main reason for continuing to
study this subject. Particularly it is true in situations when marks have been good in several subjects: ‘I
was almost equally good at languages and Maths. But I understood that Maths was just a subject I
was good at, I wasn’t interested in it.’ (a student, female)
To great extent the choice is made on teachers’ account, their skill to raise pupils’ interest matters –
here one has to take into account both: teachers’ proficiency and available material resources. The
choice of a profession or studies can be essentially impacted by success of just one effective teacher.
Rather often teachers urge the most talented pupils to choose those study programs at universities,
which are to do with their particular subjects; they devote their free time to additional preparation of
these pupils. ‘We had a very good teacher of Chemistry. [..] He was the teacher who gave everything
he knew, unless pupils were ready to take it. He was observing who was good at it and who wasn’t.’ (a
student, female)
Discrepancy between interests and profiles of classes is a frequent fact. However, the inclination of
pupils learning in the science profile classes to choose social sciences or the humanities can be
indicative of problems in schools’ curricula. Rather often in the unofficial hierarchy at schools the
profile of the sciences is more prestigious and pupils who are doing well learn in these classes. But not
always they do it because of their own intentions regarding future occupation or place in the labour
market. ‘There were two classes – a class of the humanities and a class of the sciences. The difference
lay in the fact that pupils of the sciences class worked more on Maths. Those learning the humanities
didn’t have to learn any subject more than others. They were just in this class learning the humanities.
In fact, they didn’t do well they barely graduated from school having ‘fours’ (the last mark that means
‘tested’) (a student, a female)
If pupils are more interested in certain subjects, they must look for alternative ways to broaden their
knowledge apart formal education – based on their interests and participation. Several surveyed
students pointed out the importance of such kind of activities in making the choice of the future path.
Partially it was carried out in the form of participation thus building on pupils’ experience; they could
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do it in self-governments and firms created with a learning aim, but most often it was done in different
clubs of interests. Although the free will of a young person matters when choosing interest clubs, one
must remember that more often parents are the ones who involve their children in interest clubs.
Moreover, if pupils do not continue these activities, they develop certain skills and an idea of pupils’
abilities. The study reveals that even in those cases when aspirations of parents are acknowledged to
be a negative experience, it still lets youngsters make their desirable model of spending free time, their
career and family in future.
‘I attended art club since the first form. Everybody told me that I had to do it but I quit it when I was
in the third form. I really regret that nobody made me continue it because if I had continued, I would
have been able to enter the Academy of Culture. And everything would have been in a different way.’
(a student, female)
‘My childhood was books, tutors, folk and modern dances, swimming, gymnastics and drawing. [..]
There were thoughts only about future and education. [..] Maybe it was needed to ruin the child’s
childhood in such a creative way to make somebody of this child in the end. But that was too much. (a
student, male)
Occupations of parents as the first more closely examined field leave certain impact in all cases;
however, there are fields where taking on parents’ professions is more often. Especially it is true with
a regard to medicine - the study participants of both genders acknowledged influence of parents or
other relatives – physicians - as the most important factor in choosing their profession. It is interesting
to mention that in both cases decisions in favour of medicine as the possible future profession are
taken after looking through other possibilities.
‘Both of my parents are doctors. Although they never made me learn this or the other subjects more, I
understood from listening to conversations what I should choose.’ (a student, male)
‘Already then when I was a child I knew I would be a doctor. [..] I knew I had to do that. [..] I was
told everything very seriously like an adult not like a four-year old. It is possible that it left impact on
me.’ (a student, female)
However, not always being aware of one’s interests means their putting into practice with a help of the
study program. Approximately two thirds of the students state that they have chosen their study
programs only after careful examination of offers and information gathering – enquiring relatives and
friends, visiting the open-doors days of faculties or attending the annual exhibition ‘School’. Attention
has to be paid to the fact that pupils usually apply for several programs except for those pupils who are
confident about their choice and can enter universities without complications. ‘I did not even submit
my papers anywhere else. Others most probably thought I was crazy.’ (a student, male)
There is a string of psychological, financial reasons because of which students have given up their
initial wishes. One of the most essential factors is the identification of relevant segments of the labour
market – either money winning or job-guarantee. Then follows weighing up one’s self or parents’
financial possibilities in comparison to the length of studies or period of time when a student needs
parents’ back up. Thus initial wishes and objective constraints are levelled. These ones are
supplemented by subjective reasons, which are due to changes of interests regarding the need to
maintain ontological safety. ‘I wanted to become a doctor very much, but I understood that my family
couldn’t afford that. [..] Moreover, it wouldn’t be possible to study and work simultaneously. I
sacrificed myself. [..] Chemistry was a must at that time and I realized I wasn’t against it. I knew I had
to have education with which I would have a job.’ (a student, female)
Rather often the mastered study program is initially chosen as a secondary, meaning, temporary choice
after being unsuccessful in entering the priority program. Nevertheless, these students keep on
finishing the program they have started. None of the interviewed students had tried to enter their
priority program again. ‘But that happened very suddenly – oh, I didn’t enter, okay, let it be
construction, that isn’t as good, of course [as architecture] but still somewhere around the topic. [..]
Well, during that year I changed my mind.’ (a student, male) During studies it can be seen how well
students are informed about demands of the labour market, advantages of particular fields and their
own abilities, however, these ideas may occur only in the study process. ‘At student doesn’t even know
those advantages one can get if one finishes teachers.’ (a student, male) During school years prestige
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of a study program is more important. This fact is also revealed by the programs chosen by pupils who
do not have their clearly shaped interests; they choose – law, economy, etc.
Stereotypes are also an essential factor in the formation of motivation – they are the basis for a
person’s decisions in circumstances when there is a lack of precise information. Stereotypes are much
used by respondents themselves and their authorities too – their parents, teachers, later lecturers and
employers. Ideas regarding professions that suit either women or men impact the choice, study process
and also possibilities for promoting oneself in the labour market.
‘My mum and also other family members think that it [construction] isn’t a profession for a woman.
When I tell people that I study construction, they ask me – will you be a construction worker? Silly.’ (a
student, female)
‘It may be that universities in their programs are tended for needs of a certain gender. [..] I wouldn’t
like to believe that they do it on purpose. I think it happens automatically.’ (a student, male)
As regards satisfaction with their choice, the students, especially senior students, show their
dissatisfaction being more and more critical. Part of criticism is of a study program – opportunities,
rights and status of students at an establishment of higher education. Problems are various – beginning
with a lack of possibilities to put theory into practice and finishing with not equal communication
between the students and lecturers or the administration. Some students had tried to solve these
problems either by submitting suggestions to the management, thus wanting to change the system
(being unsuccessful in the majority of cases), or doing it individually. These complications impact a
view of the youth on the education system in general making them question a way of getting
knowledge in the future. ‘A friend of mine told that the first education [higher education] is just for
sake of having education. What can one learn in school of a small town? A person hasn’t seen
anything. A person doesn’t know how people work. [..] A person chooses a thing that seems to be
exciting. A person starts to think about a second education more seriously. (a student, male)
4.2. Impact of School on the Formation of Motivation for Choosing Studies

Differing interests of the youth and their successful application in the real life can be seen already at
basic school. However, when thinking about the impact of school, in each particular case a string of
problems can be noted. These problems concern a process of getting education and the situation it has
made in the labour market.
The surveyed students stress a lack of qualified teachers to be a problem. The situation in the labour
market is characterised by a lack of workforce. In that way the education and experience new teachers
have got let them find a job and career prospects in better paid fields. Most often schools use the
personnel they already have to fill in missing teachers, sometimes it happens that teachers have to
requalify but pupils do not consider it to be the most successful way out. ‘It happens because there is a
lack of teachers and teachers can attend those courses of requalifying. [..] They don’t then understand
things themselves yet, but try to teach others. How can it be?!’ (a student, male) Meantime there is no
wish to change something in this situation – the surveyed students acknowledge that only few of those
who are teachers-in-making plan to work in the field of education. There is no balance between rights
and duties of teachers and pupils at schools, and it decreases prestige of a teacher as a profession.
‘Right now we have such rights and duties of pupils that a teacher is in a position of an idiot. A
teacher doesn’t have any rights. A pupil can do anything. A pupil mustn’t be touched. A teacher
mustn’t say anything to a pupil. And a pay is also silly, of course.’ (a student, female) New teachers
sometimes have negative tension when experiencing problems with getting adapted at new school,
new staff. ‘New teachers find it difficult to be among older colleagues because there is a thought that
new teachers will make the old ones leave their jobs.’ (a student, male)
Thus pupils experience a lack of support and do not get too high motivation to study. Teachers’
attitude and psychological climate at school or in a class can leave impact not only on pupils’ marks
but also on their choice in the future. ‘We were told at school that we couldn’t do anything that we
didn’t know anything and I was in a class of weaker pupils. And I graduated from secondary school
with an idea that I couldn’t do anything.’ (a student, female)
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Segregation of professions is just partly due to the education system. Inclination of boys towards
technology starts already in their families. Traditional stereotypes of parents regarding interests of
boys and girls are taken on indirectly – in a way of games and division of chores at home. ‘Already in
childhood there aren’t many girls who would play construction games. It is learnt somehow by time. It
depends on parents.’ (a student, male)
Schools as the second significant agent of socialization could change this situation; however, right
now it does not happen like that. Teachers teach pupils their point of view concerning things which are
suitable for women and which for men. ‘In the first form I drew that I wanted to become a pilot. A
teacher, who was very strict, tore my drawing into pieces and told me that a girl could be a doctor or
a teacher.’ (a student, female) It seems quite natural that boys at school have handicrafts for boys and
girls have handicrafts for girls. It is not heard that parents would choose any other principle for
learning these subjects.
Further inclination towards one or the other direction can be impacted by differences of learning
styles. Interest of boys in certain (rather often science) subjects stays because they are better at them
without additional effort. Girls, meanwhile, try to have good marks in all subjects. Witnessing a fact
that boys are better at achieving good results can lead to ideas that are linked to particular features of
each gender. Specifically organized and carried out events could change this situation. ‘Girls have
rather blurred ideas regarding technologies because they aren’t taught that at school. It should be
done even more at school. If you have decent basis you can use these things also in the future.’ (a
student, female) ‘In the Maths class a half was boys and a half was girls, but pupils who had applied
for programming were just boys, I think. In the beginning there were also girls, but then they
disappeared. I don’t remember whether any girl stayed or not.’ (a student, male)
The surveyed students appreciate the importance of the higher education, ranking lower education one
can get at vocational schools. Moreover, they are sure that those pupils who continue their studies
neither at secondary schools nor at universities will have more serious problems in their lives.
However, it is acknowledged that these problems are more urgent for boys. On the one hand, for boys
it is more difficult to comply with the rules of secondary school and live in that school environment.
‘Those who decide not to go to secondary school are the biggest brawlers. Teachers usually like that
these pupils don’t learn anymore.’ (a student, male) On the other hand, in order to be a man of
stereotypes of the society – a man breadwinner – a boy has to start working the sooner the better. ‘A
man has to provide a family and they realise that at secondary school. [..] A man loses his job and a
woman leaves him because a woman doesn’t need an unstable man.’ (a student, female). The choice
of the youth not to study is also fostered by the situation in the labour market because there are
possibilities to earn money and be economically stable without higher and even without secondary
education, for example, working in construction or forest exploitation. ‘Boys went to vocational school
and now they have stayed there in the countryside, work in sawmill and become the habitual
drunkards. They are lazy, lack in initiative and aren’t confident enough to go on the things started,
have complexes because girls are more hard-working.’ (a student, male) As a significant alternative
the students mention a popular possibility to work abroad.
The problems mentioned show that there is a need to pay attention to consequences which can arise
during teaching/learning process by men overtaking ‘traditional’ value orientation – less interest in
studies and early involvement in the labour market which can lead to abandoning the education
system. ‘The biggest problem is the fact that secondary school isn’t obligatory anymore. [..] Then
pupils would go study there. [..] In our country vocational schools aren’t popular.’ (a student, male)
4.3. Division of Men and Women in Study Programs

Unequal division of genders in study programs often is justified by a statement that young men
correspondingly choose the sciences but girls give preference to the humanities. However, this
division is not too strict – young men study also the social sciences and humanities but more often
they choose programs where after the graduation they can have bigger income or an access to other
resources, for example, power – so the choice is the politics, economy, law. This fact reveals differing
existing values that affect actions and also displays different possibilities of certain education
programs to gain influence in the public domain both for women and men. ‘There, where there are the
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politics and public relations, are more young men because these fields have more to do with career
and challenges.’ (a student, female)
Not in all cases but still it is observed that the students do not mind the traditional division. It is
explained that there are particular skills that women and men have and they have to use in the chosen
fields. Young women who have chosen untypical professions experience greater tension and a need to
prove themselves. ‘I understood it myself that there in the sciences have to be more men. It has to be
so also at work. [..] To be frank, guys are more capable in these fields. At least in our course. They
have practical skills and it helps them to go through courses. We also have such lecturers who say that
guys will understand but girls should have a look at pictures. [..] But sometimes there is an urge to
prove that also we are and can be as good as guys.’ (a student, female)
As regards the impact of a gender on the study process, the young people say that it does not make any
difference – nowadays everybody can study. However, there is a distinction between differing
interests and aims which are closely bound to studies and ways how goals are reached. These
differences can be noticed also in learning styles which sometimes are linked to ideas concerning
skills of men and women. It is typical of men to think practically and analytically, they are better at
putting hands on things they have thought about and it is enough for them to have their practical
experience to go through studies. ‘Boys learn less than girls. But they do it because they don’t need it.
All girls are diligent but those guys who want to become interpreters are just talented.’ (a student,
female)
Girls are said to be diligent, conscientious, hard-working and responsible. ‘Yes, I see that it’s a matter
of diligence – learning goes on. If I studied so hard I would have tens.’ (a student, male) ‘Girls – they
work more diligently, they put things down and that is very good because their notes can be copied.
[..] And, no doubt, girls are more conscientious in their studies.’ (a student, male)
The young people get confused when they are asked to explain reasons for the existing differences.
They assume that males get used to particular attitude towards them already at schools, occasionally –
having not so strict demands. Right now there are also possibilities for men to have bigger income
without having education, for example, in forestry and construction. Girls think that there is no wish
and need for boys to waste their time in studying but they, on contrary, have to prove their abilities in
the society where – in reality or just stereotypically- men are prevailing. Women develop their skills
rather quickly making men lag behind and it once again results in using simple stereotypes for keeping
their identities. Women are aware that higher education is the safest way to a well-paid and, what is
more important, to a permanent job. At the same time due to these reasons women not as often as men
are ready to work in very well-paid spheres that require working outside an office; men do not mind
that.
‘Women without higher education don’t have any prospects. They can be just street sweepers,
shop-assistants, and conductors.’ (a student, female)
‘Maybe the reason is that it’s not so easy for women to get a job and therefore they work
harder to be superior to men.’ (a student, male)
‘In Latvia there is a practice that men are brought up by the idea that they are better than
women anyway, so why to work harder? For my part, I think [..] that women have to do much
more to achieve something than men have to do and then they work really hard.’ (a student,
male)
‘I have observed that in the real life women start to provide men. They start to teach men
therefore they [men] don’t have to do anything. Thus men lose an opportunity to take on
responsibility.’ (a student, female)
In the analysis of the study participants’ discourse it is seen that lecturers take part in making
stereotypes live in the real life, they directly or indirectly impact motivation of a particular gender. The
students who are studying in programs which are untypical of their gender tell about specific attitude.
‘[RTU] lecturers think that there is no place for women at this university.’ (a student, female) ‘A part
of surgeons [..] in their lectures say that, to their mind, women aren’t cut out for being surgeons. [..] A
part of women who know this attitude don’t even try ’to break in’ there. (a student, male) According to
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the experience of the men, lecturers are usually more responsive to them, for example, trying to help in
problem situations or even helping to find a job. However, that is also the reason that sometimes
lecturers expect more of men because ‘they must know that. [..] It is acceptable for girls not to know
that.’ (a student, female)
The study allows talking about certain features that influence one gender more than the other and the
respondents identified these features as being characteristic of a gender (not themselves). When
explaining the fact that there are more women with higher education than men, the students mentioned
several factors why young men do not graduate from universities:
Men usually do not regard studies to be the most important thing in their lives as women
usually do and rather often men are indifferent to the learning process itself. Men pay attention
to the impact their studies leave on their career. If the current job at some moment is offering
more than the possible occupation after getting higher education it is rather possible that
studies will be interrupted.
During studies men are more inclined to entertain themselves (that is characterised by using
strong alcoholic drinks in big amounts) and get a job but these factors influence their
performance in studies. Then there is a possibility to have learning debts and it results in
abandoning studies. ‘A student during the years of studies just ‘burns out’. A student can’t
cope with so many changes and sudden problems, and, of course, the active life of students
can be blamed too.’ (a student, male)
It is observed that men need competition and not so much with women but among men
themselves. Girls’ determined work and activity fosters their success regarding higher
education thus leaving negative impact on boys’ wish to compete. Boys sense that in the end
the result will be the same or at least satisfactory and they will be helped anyway. However,
there is certain confidence that if it was worth applying their skills (if there was the aim and
reason for that) boys’ achievements would be much higher.
‘It is possible that they [men] have special attitude towards them. [..] I have observed that men are
cherished and spoilt already since childhood. They are treated specially also at school. [..] They have
other interests. One more reason could be that men choose to get a job quite early. [..] It is really
important for them to have enough money for themselves and sometimes also for their families.’ (a
student, female)
‘[In our course guys] would be very knowledgeable if only they worked a bit harder. But they stop at
the idea – why to have more if I can do with less. Gradually this ‘less’ will reduce if there is no
growth. It is an individual trait that men don’t want to put effort into their work.’ (a student, female)
Gender constructs do not change also in conditions when women or men dominate in particular work
collectives. Although the students do not view disproportion of genders as an obstacle for studies, a
gender is of importance for maintaining psychological comfort among them. There is no competition
in such circumstances and it cannot even arise – the students are well aware of this situation. ‘There
were more guys in the first course, but still few – we were four guys. Then we were only two. In the
beginning it was difficult to get accustomed to the idea that there were only girls, girls, girls. Wow,
that was great in the beginning – girls! But in the end you feel that you want to see a guy.’ (a student,
male)
4.4. Students and the Labour Market

Current and estimated opportunities in the labour market. Majority of young people are certain
about their place in the labour market stating that there will always be a need for qualified specialists.
This argument is also used in cases when a student has not analysed the demand for a particular
profession in the labour market before making a choice in favour of one or the other study program.
The interviewed students are ready to change their job if they get a new, better offer. The young
people do not consider loyalty to their employer to be an important factor – development of their
career is more significant. It is characteristic of the years of studies when a job in the field of studies is
treated as a complement to studies that provides necessary experience and a place for practice. The
experience students get in their first job sometimes is more important than the salary.
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The students’ ‘work ethics’ requires that students are able to combine productive and successful work
with their learning and other responsibilities. The ability to be enterprising and active is of utmost
importance for students’ successful entering the labour market because not always higher education
can do that. Those students who have not had such a ‘flight’ experience problems in entering the
labour market also in the future. ‘Therefore one must plan life and set goals while young because then
one can work in various spheres. But when a person gets older than 40, then the scope of possibilities
in the labour market isn’t so various anymore.’ (a student, male)
In the interviews there are different ideas on what kinds of compromises students are ready for at the
beginning of their professional career. They are aware of their strengths and weaknesses – mainly a
lack of practical experience. Thus the students are ready to limit their rights and are ready to work
without a relevant salary, and sometimes are even ready to stand up for their employers’ actions.
However, this is more typical of the women who took part in the study, they are ready to work more
for a lower salary stressing that it is an inevitable stage of their career. ‘It depends – one must realise
how fast he/she can go up the career ladder. If there is this opportunity to work somewhere else – why
not do that. [..] I have an aim for myself to work there where I will be able to stay on.’ (a student,
female) ‘In a couple of years women will be the real leaders!’ (a student, female) The interviewed men
on their side more often are ready to leave a job which does not satisfy current needs not paying so
much attention to the possible opportunities of growth.
Combining studies and work. Although the working students mention their ability to combine
several duties as their advantage, not always employers have positive attitude towards studying
employees. Rather often students take up even a full-time job only on a condition that they would be
allowed to attend lectures especially in cases if their time-table is flexible enough. However, young
people do experience tension when combining duties of studies and work, and because they try not to
miss anything, they are ready to work under not so satisfactory conditions unless employers allow
them to work and study simultaneously. Not all employers let the working students use study vacation
which they have to have by law and not all students are informed about such an opportunity. ‘It is very
unpleasant that students themselves do not have information regarding those things they have to get
by law [at their work].’ (a student, female)
However, also negative consequences of combining studies and work have to be mentioned – little
input in the studies because having a full-time job while studying means working in holidays and also
during the time which is meant for studying; and that is very important when exam sessions draw
closer. ‘Right now I have to go two days to school. But it would be advisable to work part time to be
able to devote some time to studies. I have a full-time job. Okay, I attend those lectures but I don’t do
anything else for my studies.’ (a student, male)
Possibilities for women and men in the labour market from the students’ point of view. As
regards possibilities for women and men in the labour market, the young people reflect all those
different opinions held by the society in general; they both: admit and deny existence of unequal
attitude in the labour market. Gender stereotypes expressed in this group clearly show influence of
school and families. A part of youngsters explain that the segregation of the labour market stems from
the history. Some of them associate it with the influence of the years of the USSR which is still felt in
the attitude of employers. Sometimes men themselves say that the society is ‘patriarchal’, although
this term ‘patriarchal’ in the most cases is used as an excuse for the unclear structure of the society in
the transition period. ‘It is historically so that women cook. [..] Women could have not so responsible
but still significant duties.’ (a student, female)
A great deal of judgements on division of women’s and men’s roles in the labour market are due to
different physiological qualities such as physical strength (men) or appearance (women), and not so
often mentioned psychological features: for men – logic, analytics, authority; for women – being
emotional, conscientious, etc. with which as important the students identify sectors significant to each
gender. Already at school boys pay attention to economic conditions and, in some cases, low
qualified work is more appealing to them than long years of studies.
‘Men work in forestry. I think that also in a profession of doctors there should be more men. [..] I
think that it’s psychologically very difficult for nurses to do their job, men would stand that better. I
think that they would be better because they are emotionally stronger. Of course, there are also
women who are strong enough.’ (a student, female)
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‘Girls get work because Latvia is going to work on recreation, meaning tourism and relaxation
opportunities. It is logical that beautiful eyes and nice figures are preferred. If a guy has brains, he
will get a job.’ (a student, male)
Women do not want to involve themselves in certain fields, like, politics admitting that they are not
interested in it or are even afraid. ‘There are many clever and talented women and they would be more
suitable for such positions.[..] Maybe they don’t want that. I don’t want to be engaged there too.’ (a
student, female) It is acknowledged that a great demand for employees in the sector of services
guarantee work for women with primary or secondary education. However, they are not as well paid
as men with the same level of education just working in different sectors. Therefore those girls who
study expect greater opportunities of their higher education and find it to be a means of reducing risk
of poverty. ‘On the one hand, I would like to work in science but this job would not be well-paid.
Therefore my aim for the time being is to earn money. I would like to work for a big company so that I
could live nicely. I would like to live not counting money in order to survive.’ (a student, female)
Taken into account that men can earn good money without higher education, the biggest benefit for
them from higher education is a higher status in the social hierarchy. ‘A social status is important –
respect of society depends on that. That is more important than a salary.’ (a student, male)
Regarding horizontal segregation, the students say that people who work in an untypical sphere of
their gender are looked upon as zealots or fanatics or it is believed that this is just a temporary
workplace for them. For example, being a teacher can be regarded as one of those professions which
people take up if there is a crisis in their life – they become unemployed, and which people quit if they
do have an opportunity and they are enterprising enough. ‘I don’t know whether men would like to be
teachers. It has just happened in their life and so it is. One can’t find a job and therefore becomes a
teacher. It’s not like you are a teacher just because you like it. The same is true for office-cleaners.’ (a
student, male)
In those sectors where a lack of specialists is noticeable a goal-cantered recruitment program is
needed. It is possible that first of all comes a system of different bonuses for students who are to enter
these study programs. One of the ways could be – to create more budget places or offer bigger grants
on a condition that a student agrees to work, for example, at school for a definite number of years. As
pointed out by a student of pedagogy right now the situation is that ‘those who graduate from the
faculty of education don’t go to work at schools. They take up different jobs. [..] There should be an
agreement stating that if you are in a budget place you have to work in this particular sector for a
certain time.’ It is also important to create an adequate system of salaries in those sectors where
salaries are rather low thus fostering a flow of new employees and stopping leaving of the current
employees.
4.5. Combining Studies and Family

The students were also asked to what extent their studies can be impacted by a birth of a child. To
their mind, the only problems could be physical problems for pregnant mothers – getting to and from
lectures, etc., but in general as the combination of studies and work also the combination of studies
and a child teaches parents (especially new mothers) to plan their duties and be more mobile.
‘[Women] manage to do more than a half of those things they managed to do before giving a birth to a
child.’ (a student, female) The students are informed about opportunities for both parents to take a
maternity/paternity leave and the young men do not see any problems why they would not use that.
If on a level of discourse in the combination of studies and a family essential obstacles are not found,
then regarding the real life practice – financial provision becomes very important. Senior students of
bachelor programs do not plan to have their families yet because first of all they want to become
‘stable’. ‘I have understood that I need a stable work place. Thus one already gets some kind of
provision for the life. Then one can plan to have a family. (a student, female)
‘I think I will be ready for a child only then when I am stable at my work and in the life. [..] If a
woman marries, she gets a husband who earns money. Then there is this feeling of security from him.
If a lady has a job herself, then this is even much better feeling of security.’ (a student, female)
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An academic year for one of a newborn baby’s parents is the only way out if there is not enough
money for a nanny or there are no relatives/acquaintances at which a baby could be left. More often a
father leaves studies in order to earn money while a mother is sitting at home taking care of a baby
thus sticking to the ‘traditional’ division of roles. ‘I have friends who have their newborn baby. They
don’t study anymore and they try to manage. Studies aren’t in the first place anymore. The most
important thing is not the child but the process of trying to manage somehow their lives. The main
thing is to provide conditions for the family and the child. [..] I know also successful stories – one
young girl with a child studies and makes her career. But, first of all, there has to be support from the
family and the country. (a student, male)
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5. FAMILY IN THE CONTEXT OF WOMEN’S AND MEN’S

EMPLOYMENT
This chapter describes a meaning of work in lives of women and men, how the target groups look on a
family. It also describes a current and preferable division of family duties and a preferable time
division among different spheres of life that give an opportunity to better understand mechanisms of
harmonization of work and family life and necessary improvements.
5.1. Importance of work

No doubt, work plays an important role in peoples’ lives. Both for men and women work is a means of
achieving and securing welfare. However, money is not the only reason why people work. There are
other important factors – possibility to show one’s skills, be in contact with other people, to develop
and improve oneself. When analysing views of the focus groups (the employed people and parents of
little children) on the necessity for work, a comprehensive variety of peoples’ basic needs can be seen.
Figure 5.1.1. Projective method – finishing of sentences: “I need a job in order to …”
.. providing material needs .. perfect myself, achieve the aims

Get paid; earn money for a normal life; Live; perfect myself; get experience and
provide a family; not to die of hunger and be improve my knowledge; achieve my aims;
able to keep a family; have something to exist broaden my outlook and knowledge
on for me and my children; earn some money
apart pension to live better
.. be together with other .. get emotional

people satisfaction
Be able to communicate I need a job Enjoy what I have done; to
with other people; not to sit to.. be happy; to get pleasure
at home
.. feel needed .. prove myself

Feel needed for a society; to Get higher in my life; to
prove myself as a necessary prove myself and my
member of a society knowledge in medicine; prove
myself
Source: GEALM FGD of the parents with little children and employed people.
Correspondingly to these groups of arguments the importance of work in peoples’ lives can be
discussed looking at three main levels of needs:
Material – a possibility to earn in order to provide oneself and a family, to raise a level of
welfare;
Social – communication with other people, a need of belonging;
Emotional (mental) – satisfaction, proving oneself, self realisation and self perfection.
It has to be noted that regarding the spectrum of individual needs there are no essential differences
between women and men. However, as different people took part in the study (regarding age,
occupation and income), in certain groups there are common features concerning the importance of
particular needs.
Women (20-35) with a high income level more often than in other groups mention exactly possibility
to perfect themselves and achieve their aims. For elderly ladies (50-65) with a low level of income it is
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important not only to earn money but also to feel needed, moreover, work helps them to keep fit and
not to give in to daily routine. ‘It is very nice that I got a job. I am very happy. If my pension was
bigger I would like to work anyway. For sure. Because what is the sense of those 300, 400, 500 lats if
you are at home. A bit more or little but I would like to work just to be out of home. (FGD inhab,
female, 50-65, Cesis)
For middle-aged women (30-39) with a middle level of income, with children the main thing
is to provide their families, especially if they bring their children up alone.
Men more often than women mention a possibility to earn money in order to secure welfare
for themselves and their families as the main factor – ‘to feed a family’.
Fathers with little children mention most often work as a means of getting money. It is
explained by the current or recent experience and responsibility of becoming the sole provider
for a family that is experienced after a birth of a baby.
Apart individual needs for work the respondents were asked to put down also their opinions
regarding reasons why a man and a woman needs a job. In this way the main ideas regarding
differences of women’s and men’s needs for work were found out.
Figure 5.1.2. Projective method – finishing of sentences: “A man/woman needs a job because…”
Why does .. .. need a job?

..a man .. ..a man ..
To feel normal; to take care of a

To earn money; to provide a family, to ensure
family so that a wife and
good life conditions for a family; to feel
children are fed, dressed and
selfsufficient; to perfect myself; to be needed both
educated; to be the main bread-
in a society and a family
winner in a family
.a woman..
So that she feels independent,

To realize herself; to feel
socially significant; to realise
independent, self confident,
herself; to be busy with
respectable; to prove herself; to
something and to prove herself
perfect herself; to be financially
that she is able to provide herself
independent; to have a sense of
financially; so that a family could
belonging to her work collective, to
enjoy her results; so that she
be aware what goes on in a state,
could have a rest from her family
society, town; not to be overtaken
by a family life
Source: GEALM FGD of the parents with little children and employed people.
The respondents of all age and income groups of both genders were united in their opinion that a man
needs work mainly ‘to provide himself and his family’. Only then other aspects are mentioned – social
needs and creative self-expression. But on the contrary to the women’s beliefs the men as important
ones mention other aspects too, for example, opportunities for growth and exciting field of work (‘if
there is no growth in a company, you will go there where there is this growth’).
The women admit that a family and children are the most important in their lives and work comes
after that. Work – that is an opportunity to perfect oneself and complement a budget of a family.
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Although the material aspect is important more important to women’s mind is growth, development
and opportunity to be together with other people.
Also to the men’s mind women need work to perfect themselves and prove themselves professionally
and complement a budget of a family. On the contrary to the women the men mention such an aspect
as ‘relaxation from a family’. On their side the women mention a significant factor why they do need
work – ‘an opportunity to be independent of a man’. This independence more often is understood as
material independence – to be materially independent. However, emotional independence is
mentioned too – a woman has her own life, her own work, an opportunity to prove herself.
Some mothers of little children write that the ideal would be a situation when a woman lives at home
and a husband is able to earn as much money as it is enough for providing a family on his own.
However, majority of the respondents disagree with this point of view and claim that in a situation of
excellent material conditions work for a woman is needed as an opportunity ‘to be in a society’ and
realize herself.
5.2. Importance of Family from Woman’s and Men’s Point of View

The focus group of the parents with little children discussed the meaning of a family. In this target
group it can be seen that for both: the women and men a family serves as the main means of satisfying
basic needs. It gives emotional safety and stability. Main needs why a family is necessary are similar
for the men and women. These are – continuation of a kin (self continuation), support, feeling of
security, stability, taking care of others, a wish to be together with somebody.
Figure 5.2.1. Projective method – completion of sentences: ‘A men/woman needs a family to...’
Children as a continuation and

Not to be lonely
fulfillment .. to be together with somebody (a
.. to give birth to children; to
husband/wife); not to feel lonely;
continue a kin and make life
to be loved
meaningful andaalonealonealonenotalone,vie
FAMILY
is needed to..
Taking care of others
Support and feeling of security .. to take care of children
.. to be happy and get support; to and husband; to have
spread peace of soul and cosiness; somebody to take care of; to
stability; to be supporting; to be an have a loving person who
aim for self development would take care of me
Source: GEALM FGD of the parents with little children.

For both genders the meaning of a family and basic needs are similar. Although motivating factors are
different they can be included in one stable idea about the structure of a society. The men think that a
woman needs a family to take care of a husband and children. While the women think that for men it
is important to have somebody who would take care of them. A man thinks of a family as support that
lets him express himself and develop. Therefore for the men a family is like an urge that makes them
achieve something in their lives. A woman can express herself through a family as a woman and
mother; she can realize her need to take care of others. At the same time it is very important to get
support and appreciation from a family – ‘in order to feel loved, needed; to have somebody to live for’.
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5.3. Sharing of Duties in a Family

Answers on questions regarding a sharing of duties in a family (in the survey ‘Women and men in the
labour market’ carried out within the study GEALM) show that looking after children is mainly done
by women if there is a child who is 2 years old or younger. In this group 60% of the women admit that
they look after children themselves. 23.7% of the interviewed men and women choose grandparents to
be the ones who look after children. And just in 11% of cases their fathers look after children. Also
children 3-6 more often are looked after by mothers (30.7%), while only in 7.5% of cases it is done by
fathers. However, the biggest part of children (36.8%) at this age attends preschool establishments.
The biggest part of the men (66.5%) admits that they always fix things at home themselves. And in
their turn the women admit that doing laundry (83.9%) and cooking (81.1%) are the duties they are
responsible for. Also in other domestic chores women are involved to a greater extent, for example,
80.6% of the women do cleaning themselves (19.4% of the men do that). Also the men acknowledge
bigger involvement of women in domestic chores – they say that women do all domestic chores except
repairing things. A small proportion of levelling amount of domestic chores is witnessed in the age
group 35-44, but above 44 (and especially in the group 55-65) there is a tendency for the women to be
the ones who take up majority of domestic duties.
Taking into account the experience of the respondents of the focus group regarding a division of duties
in a family several differing models can be looked at.
Short-term division of duties in a situation when there is a newly born baby at home – a woman
is responsible for home while a man works.
Most often in the group of the parents with little children it was mentioned that if a woman has a
maternity leave or do not work, then all domestic chores or the biggest part of them is done by her.
During the period when a woman has a maternity leave or does not work this model is found to be the
most acceptable by the women and men too.
In the experience sharing discussion both: the men and women call this model of dividing duties to be
‘a classic variant’, ‘traditional’. The men describing their model of a division of duties use words ‘I
am satisfied with that; my wife is satisfied too; we both agreed on this model’. But the women do not
use words ‘I am satisfied’, they say ‘I accept the current situation; my responsibilities are...; I do this
and that’. Therefore it can be assumed that the women although do agree to have such a model do not
feel completely satisfied and would like to have bigger support from their men. ‘I would like him to
understand that it is not easy to have a child in one hand, cook with the second, clean house with the
third and take a dog out with the fourth hand.’ (FGD family, female, Russian, Riga)
When telling about their family experience the women say that men are too overwhelmed by their
work to be ready to help them. In some cases it is mentioned that a husband does not even want to take
part in domestic chores thinking that it is not his responsibility.
The men who took part in the study admit that during the time when a woman does not work for
money she does the biggest part of domestic chores. However, they try to help their wives with taking
care of a child and also other things. The men think that if a wife started to work again then a division
of duties would change and it would be equal. When sharing their experience the men say that none of
domestic chores is difficult for them and they can perform them – they can cook, clean a house, and
take care of a child too. They do not find these things to be disrespectful for them. It is stressed that
they would take even a bigger part in a domestic life and in bringing up children but they are limited
by the need to work and make money.
It is characteristic of this model that men have home where to return to relax but for women home is
like a place of work during a period of a maternity leave.
Traditional division of duties in men’s and women’s responsibilities stressing already mentioned
division of home and out of home spheres.
Also in the focus group of the employed people the most widespread is the model where the main part
of domestic chores is taken up by a woman. The biggest part of domestic chores is a woman’s
responsibility and men do not involve because they either work much or there is no a man in a family.
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It is important to mention that rather often women do not even want their husbands to take part in
domestic chores. It is explained that women do not trust their husbands that they would do domestic
chores well enough and that they like to be in charge of domestic chores, and that they do not want to
fight against the existing order. ‘I have four men at home and none of them washes dishes, just me. [..]
If I cannot do anything peacefully I wouldn’t run after them everyday and shout because of each dirty
plate. I’d better do it myself and there is peace at home.’ (FGD inhab., female, Russian, Rezekne)
In some families there are certain duties that are done just by a woman or by a man. For example, a
man is responsible for cooking. But a woman does the laundry because a man does not like doing that.
There is an agreement between a man and a woman – ‘we are dividing all domestic chores except for
laundry, he doesn’t do the laundry’. A division of domestic chores ‘by half’ means that there are
duties for men and duties for women. But sometimes in reality it means that a woman does almost all
the routine things alone.
This model is based on the perception that a man is the main provider of a family and that is why his
main responsibility is to work out of home. A woman’s task is to take care of children and house
despite the fact that she works for money too. In this way an idea of ‘women’s’ and ‘men’s’ duties at
home is formed.
‘The wife does all the women’s things in a kitchen, does the laundry, and cleans the house. I fix things
if there is a need. [..] She isn’t working right no but I’m working. I’m fully satisfied and so is she. We
divided duties and we are not going to change anything about that. My family resembles my family in
childhood.’ (FGD family, male, Russian, Riga)
It is observed that also in the families with little children there is a division of duties in men’s and
women’s tasks not taking into account whether a woman is working or not. It means that the system of
dividing domestic chores that worked during a maternity leave will continue to work and a woman
will continue to do all the things at home.
It has to be pointed out that only some of the respondents think that taking care of a house and children
is their responsibility despite the fact that she works for money herself or not. These views are usually
taken from the parents’ family where a mum was the one who took care of the house and a father’s
responsibility was just to work.
As regards parents’ experience several participants of the study acknowledged that they do not want to
have such a practice in their families and in their own families they try to divide domestic chores
according to the principle of equality. However, not in all cases it is easy to do because a partner may
have different ideas and experience which he thinks to be acceptable. ‘I think my husband resembles a
father. [..] The father never did anything at home – everything had to be done by a woman. ‘ (FGD
family, female, Russian, Riga) If a man holds an opinion that a woman has to do ‘women’s tasks’ and
he does not have to be involved then aspirations of women to change something have usually resulted
in nothing. ‘I have to do 80% of domestic chores. It will be so, nothing will change if nothing has
changed during these years. I have understood his position. I become more and more peaceful. I put u
p with this situation. If I am annoyed by dust, I do cleaning myself. He does not even see that.‘ (FGD
family, female, Latvian, Riga)
Both: a man and a woman are equally actively involved in domestic chores depending on the
situation.
More rarely observed principle in the division of domestic chores is the existing agreement that they
are done by the person who has time at that particular moment. Therefore there is no such a division as
women’s and men’s duties. This kind of division exists in families where both partners are working.
‘We are doing everything equally because she works too. In fact, there is no so much work to do at
home.’ (FGD family, male, Russian, Riga) It has to be noted that in those families where both parents
work rather often services of nannies, helpers and other professionals are used. ‘If we need something
in holidays then we ask a nanny and she is happy to earn something. ...if we are at home, then we [my
husband and me] cook together. We bath a child together, take a child out together. The husband
plays with our daughter because she wants that badly.’ (FGD family, female, Latvian, Riga)
In those families where a child is brought up only by a woman a division of duties depend on that
whether a woman and her child live alone or together with other relatives. If a woman lives just
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together with a child then all domestic duties are her responsibilities. But if she lives in a family of her
parents then a division of duties corresponds to that this family has accustomed to.
The way how duties are divided in a family to a great extent depends on the experience that is got in
the parents’ family. A part of the respondents of the study have grown up in divorced families where a
mother has been the main breadwinner therefore they think that a woman has to do everything under
her own steam – ‘she brought us all up, educated, did everything on her own, I try to be like she was’.
But those men who have grown up in incomplete families try to help their wives not to repeat
experience of their parents’ families when a woman is overloaded.
Experience of parents is taken over in cases if both parents were involved in upbringing of children
and organisation of the house life. ‘In our family domestic chores are done by a person who has time
at that moment. [..] It was like that in my family and also in my husband’s family, I think it runs in our
genes.’ (FGD inhab., female, Russian, Rezekne) Those women who have been brought up also by
their fathers hope that their husbands will do the same. However, not always expectations come true.
Those women who in their parents’ families have witnessed that the mum is the one who does
everything but the dad has not been involved in that, in their own families try to escape such a
situation. ‘In my family my mother and sister, and I - we did everything for our father. He did just
some really masculine things – fixed a loose screw and worked with a drill.’ (FGD inhab., female,
Russian, Rezekne)
In general it can be concluded that the experience of parents’ families means much and impacts a
formation of new families. Those who have seen positive relationships, based on the principle of
equality and mutual understanding try to repeat this experience also in their own families. But those
who have seen negative examples of their parents try not to repeat the same family model. However, it
is not easy to achieve because a family is a place where two persons with different experiences meet
and if the attitude to this experience is different than it is difficult to make a common agreement.
Having a look at stereotypes which impact peoples’ views and correspondingly their behaviour in the
quantitative surveys of GEALM it was estimated to what extent people do agree to various statements
regarding a role of a man and woman in a family. Similarly to other surveys (for example, MPORC
2001:282) also the major part of the active age respondents of the survey ‘Women and men in the
labour market’ think that a man is the main breadwinner but a woman has to take care of a house and
family. The statement ‘a husband has to earn money but a wife has to take care of a house and family’
is supported by 68% of men and 61% of women. What is more important – this statement is more
popular in older generations. This statement was also popular among fathers of little children and they
base this opinion in their experience. Having a look at the results of ‘The survey of the families with
little children’ it can be stated that people fully agree to it or rather agree (77% of men and 62% of
women).
As regards a division of work and family people tend to agree with a statement ‘On average a family
life suffers from the fact that women work full time’ – in the survey this statement is supported by
68% of men and 72% of women but in the survey of the families with little children this statement is
supported by 73% of men and 65% of women.
5.4. Preferable Division between Work and Private Life

In the survey of GEALM ‘Men and women in the labour market’ a measurement on differences
regarding a preferable division among different spheres of life was carried out. A more profound
tendency to work out of home or problems of a family is seen in answers to questions to which of
these spheres the respondents would like to devote more time than they have devoted. In both cases
the most popular answer turned out to be ‘as much as right now’. The men are more satisfied with the
current situation – 41.2% would keep the existing working hours, 51.5% - would not change time
devoted to domestic chores; the women correspondingly – 37.6% and 46.5%. Similarly many
respondents of both genders are among those who would spend more time for both these spheres of
life: 30.1% of men and 27.6% of women would work more; 28.9% of men and 28.7% of women
would spend more time on domestic chores. But mainly women would reduce their load in both
spheres – a paid workload would decrease 21.1% of women (15.6% of men) and workload at home
would decrease 22.7% of women and 15.8% of men.
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If regarding time division for both spheres none of them has predominance, then for communication
with a family at least a half of both genders would like to devote more even much more time – 50.4%
of men and 56.3% of women. There are a bit few of those who would like to keep the amount of time
they devote to the communication in a family right now – 43.1% of men and 37.9% of women. And
only 2.0% of men and 3.3% of women would reduce the amount of time spent for communication.
Such a division of answers undoubtedly shows what the majority of people consider to be the most
valuable in a family life and to what they would devote time they would get if they had an opportunity
to reduce their workloads.
As the preferable amount of working hours both: the unemployed men and women mentioned 40
hours per week (correspondingly 48.1% and 30.2%). However, a big part of women expressed their
wish to work part time – 36.5% of women and only 21.4% of men would like to work just up to 34
hours a week. But among men there is a wish to work more than 40 hours a week (correspondingly
8.7% and 3.2%). A wish to work not a full week (up to 34 hours) prevails among those respondents
who are in charge of domestic chores (35.5%) or those who share these responsibilities with somebody
else (31.7%). However, it has to be noted that also 22.4% of those who do not participate in doing
domestic chores have expressed such a wish.
5.5. Influence of a Family on Working Capacity and Input in Work

The participants of elder focus groups defined stereotypes existing in the society and which are also
found among employers regarding women with little children as employees:
A woman with little children cannot work as fruitfully as possible because her children often
fall ill;
A woman with a family and little children is more responsible and takes her work more
seriously.
In the course of the study it was found out that the first prejudice is sometimes created by the mothers
having little children themselves because, first of all, they stress their need to have a flexible job to
‘be able to stay home if a child falls ill’ and, secondly, they admit that would not want to enter the
labour market until a child is of a particular age. ‘Until a child is 2.5 years old he often gets ill and I
will be taking sick-lists anyway, so there is no sense in going to work.’ (FGD a family, female,
Russian, Riga)
Due to their particular arguments employers look upon women with little children as less
valuable employees:
Women of this group mainly choose to have a part-time job – a mother has to spend more time
with her child. ‘A woman is a woman, there are very many problems, a mother takes care of
children and they are also the ones who most often go to schools.’ (DD, man);
An employer has to be aware that these women work fragmentary and are bound to miss work
– a mother might have to leave work because of a sick child or because of other reasons.
In order to check the assumption that women with children and especially with little children are not
favourable for employers because they often miss work the results of the survey ‘Women and men in
the labour market’ were examined paying particular attention to the absence from work in different
target groups.
It is concluded that, first of all, the results of the survey regarding the absence from work on account
of an illness or other reasons (except of a vacation) in the period of the last six months there are no
statistically significant differences among women and men. The biggest proportion of women and men
(65%) admit that they have not been absent even a day from their work. There are no statistically
significant differences also in other cases: on average 4.7% of respondents of both genders in the
period of the last six months have not been at work for more than 20 days, 4% of the respondents have
missed 11 – 20 days, 8.7% of the respondents have missed 6 – 10 days, but relatively short absence
from work (up to 5 days) is observed in 15% of cases.
Secondly, there is no statistically evident and significant correlation between the missed days and
having children. There is a slight difference (however not important if the number of the respondents
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is taken into account) regarding answers of the respondents with and without children (up to 18 years),
but there is almost no difference regarding answers of women and men. In this division of answers it
can be seen that work is not missed by 66% of women and men who do not have children and 64% of
employees of both genders who do have children.
Regarding the size of the representative sample of the respondents, differences between group
divisions of the age of children and the number of children in a family are insignificant. Having a look
at the most different group (working parents who have children 3 to 6 years old) 61% of men and 63%
of women have not missed a day at work in the period of the last six months. On overage 65% of all
employees have not been absent from work single day. The study shows that there are no sound
arguments to claim that women with little children miss work more than other employees.
If two previous stereotypes regarding women with children as employees are compared then the most
widespread is that that women with children are suitable and good employees. In the quantitative
survey of employers the respondents were asked to rate their attitude towards the statement: ‘Women
after a maternity leave are very motivated to return to working circles.’ The answers show that 90% of
the employers (women and men) completely or rather completely agree to this statement. ‘Mothers
have returned from their maternity leave and we see how energetic and willing to work they are, they
are overwhelmed by ideas and they throw themselves into work. (DD woman)
Commenting this statement, employers mentioned a string of factors that limit women’s after their
maternity leave activity and efforts put into work. These are mainly problems of a practical nature
concerning the organisation of care of a child – a lack of places in kindergartens, subordination of
work to a child’s care, etc. However, on the other hand, an idea about women with children as more
stable responsible part of employees has been formed due to the other negative stereotype – young
women without children as potentially unsecured employees with expected long maternity leaves. ‘I
would rather take on a woman who already has 2 children not a young specialist who is not married
yet and who does not have children. If two women came, I would definitely take on the one with 2-3
children because I know that she will work for years, for ages. With an 18 year old I know that it will
be one child for two, three years.’ (DD man)
From the employers’ point of view a fact that a women or amen brings up children accounts for
greater stability and a more mature personality. ‘She got to know that I had a child and told me that it
kept me down to earth because of bigger sense of responsibility.’ (FGD a family, female, Latvian,
Liepaja)
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6. PARENTS WITH LITTLE CHILDREN AND THE LABOUR

MARKET
Families with little children is the target group which in the most obvious way reflects the division of
gender roles existing in the society, moreover it shows the situation in the labour market which has a
link to possibilities of combining family life and work. This chapter of the study describes the results
of the quality stage (a discussion of the focus group) of the target group of the parents with little
children and the results of the examination of the quantity stage of ‘The survey of families with little
children’. They provide information on ways how parents with little children involve themselves in the
labour market revealing the experience before giving a birth to a first child and also experience of the
current situation and possibilities to return to the labour market for those parents who have used a
leave for child care.
6.1. Employment of Parents before Birth of Child

If parents are involved in the labour market before giving a birth to a child, it gives them a possibility
to get a respective allowance in the case of giving a birth to a child – social guarantees and exemptions
which are defined in the Labour Law and respective laws as well as in the regulations of the Cabinet
of Ministers. When people combine rearing of children and professional activities they can improve a
material situation of their families, satisfy their personal wish for professional development (a career),
social contacts, etc.
68.5% of the interviewed women and 95.2% of the inquired men had paid employment before giving a
birth to a child (including those who worked officially and unofficially). Fathers in general were
employed in more cases than mothers-to-be. Those women who were married or co-habitat were
employed more often than not married ones, but those ones who are younger more often did not work:
75.3% of 16-20 years old women did not work before giving a birth to a child.
Correspondingly to the age women with primary education (or a lower level education) constitute a
minor part of the women who were employed before giving a birth to a child – 36.4%. Having a look
also at other levels of education it is seen that the higher the level of education the bigger proportion of
women is employed: 63.2% of women having secondary education and 88.3% of women having
higher education worked before giving a birth to a child. Before to give a birth to a child the
participants of the study mainly worked in commerce and public catering, education and industry. Not
so often – in the field of healthcare and social service, public utilities and information technologies,
also in state administration. In Vidzeme 81.0% of women worked before to give a birth to a child, in
Riga – 80.5%, around Riga – 73.3%, in Kurzeme – 49.4% (the lowest number), in Zemgale – 52.6%
and in Latgale – 57.6%. Among women the biggest proportion is taken by commerce and services, for
men – qualified workers.
Before giving a birth to a child 70.1% of the employed mothers-to-be worked a full working week or
even more than 40 hours in the permanent workplace. This kind of workload was characteristic of
women 31-40 years old (75-79% of the respondents of the mentioned age group); of women who are
in high appointments at work; of women who work in state administration, commerce and public
catering, as well as in healthcare and social care. Young women (16-20 years old); women with higher
education; women living in Latgale; women who were employed in education, public utilities and
women who did low-qualified jobs worked less than 20 hours a week before giving a birth to a child.
Women in Kurzeme and Riga; qualified specialists and craftswomen and women working in
education, public utilities worked part time (20-39 hours a week) before giving a birth to a child.
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6.2. Changes in Working and Family Life after a Birth of a Child

Waiting for a baby.
A birth of a child is an event that changes a life of a family. Already before a birth of a child a mother-
to-be and father-to-be think of many disturbing questions even though their child is planned and
wanted. The most significant thoughts and ideas of both parents regarding opinions of the other gender
were revealed in the study of the focus groups using a method of projection – ‘a bubble of thoughts’
technique.
Figure 6.2.1. Projective technique: “What are the thoughts of a mother to-be/father to-be?”
Health of the expected baby; childbirth Feeling of insecurity

The planned baby is here and the main Confusion, fear of unknown things. Does
thing is – his/her health. Let the child be such a young person need that? What
healthy and delivery of the child – without about education, career, etc.? Did it have
complications. to happen like that!? Why now? What will
happen?
New responsibilities Wellbeing of a wife and health of

a baby
How will I manage to take care of
a child? Will I be a good mother? How to treat my wife not to make
her stressed?
Welfare of a family
Relations in a family
How to provide my family? I will
Well, I will totally depend on my husband. have to work more. I have to look
What if he is not happy? Everything will for a better paid job in order to keep
change! What kind of life am I going to my wife and baby. How to make our
have? Will I be taken care of, needed, home, budget better?
loved? How will it be – to have a baby in
our family?
Source: GEALM FGD of the parents with little children

In general it is seen that future parents have similar worries. The women think more and worry about a
child and do not think how it will impact their working life. The main questions are about a baby’s
health, childbirth, care of themselves. Attention is paid to the fact how a baby will change
relationships in a family, whether a father will be happy. Nevertheless worries regarding material
welfare are important they are put in the second place. ‘I understood that for a year or two I would
totally depend on my husband – emotionally, financially, physically. Life will be totally different.’
(FGD a family, female, Latvian, Riga) Some men think similarly, they say that women worry more
about health of a child and how they will manage new responsibilities.
But the women in their turn are sure that fathers are more worried about welfare of a family. However
the answers of the men show ignorance and fear, confusion regarding a new situation. The men mainly
are concerned about material things but they think also about health of a baby and changes due to a
new situation.
Attitude of employers to the fact of pregnancy. Within the study with a help of a method of an
advanced interview it was found out that employers think that in order to look for a replacement
employee instead of a pregnant woman they have to be informed at least 3-4 months before a
maternal leave. In ‘The survey of families with little children’ a half of the women who worked
before giving a birth to a child had told their employers about their pregnancy already till the 12th
week of pregnancy, 34.4% of mothers-to-be had told that in between 13th – 24th week of pregnancy.
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However, one tenth of women informed their employers after the 25th week of pregnancy (the 6th
month) and that is already too late from the employers’ point of view.
Majority of the mentioned arguments for choosing the time to inform the employer (after the 12th
week) are of personal character and one of the most mentioned ones is: ‘Superstition, not being
willing to talk about pregnancy before getting really sure about that’ 36.1%). ‘I have areally great
employer but I did not inform him until it was the 3rd month of pregnancy. It is a superstition.’ (FGD
family, female, Latvian, Riga) Rather often the women were embarrassed or did not want to have
extra attention (24.6%), or in the first months of pregnancy did not know about it (5.5%). Mentioned
just sometimes but still important are such reasons as fears to lose a job (13.1%) and wish not to stop
professional development (4.4%). In comparison to previous arguments fears of pregnant women that
their employers would reduce their salaries are not so often mentioned (2.7%).
Discussing this question in the focus groups of parents with little children the respondents most often
mentioned period of the 4th - 6th week of pregnancy as the time when they had informed their
employers. The women admit that after having told about pregnancy they have felt different attitude
towards them from their employers. In the majority of cases employers are understanding (at least
appear to be) and find it as a positive event. ‘My employer had positive attitude, my salary was
raised.’ (FGD family, female, Latvian, Riga)
However, there were also problem situations mentioned by the respondents of the focus groups –
either just dissatisfaction of an employer that a new employee has to be looked for, or even firing or
wish to fire. In such cases a practice of keeping silent ‘till the last moment’ is used just not to be fired.
‘I did not tell because I knew that I would be fired at the same moment. I wanted to work there for
some more time.’ (FGD family, female, Russian, Rezekne)
Not so often but still the respondents mentioned cases when pregnancy had not disturbed working
possibilities. The results of ‘The survey of families with little children’ show that 6.5% of the women
who worked before giving a birth to a child have not used a maternal leave because they worked till
the childbirth, but 4.2% of the women have used this opportunity just partially.
A woman and a man after a birth of a child. After a birth of a child a woman experiences the
biggest changes in her life because the main part in her life right now is taken by the baby. But apart
these new worries a mother also has other duties and thus her workload increases. It happens because
in the most widespread family model both parts take it for granted that a woman is responsible for
domestic chores. Sometimes just right after childbirth different after childbirth period problems can
be faced. The participants of the focus groups state that it is very important to get support and help
from a husband at that time thus making the adaptation process to the new situation easier.
In general, all young parents – the mothers and fathers – have the same idea that with a birth of a
child a woman’s life becomes more limited, she is tied to her home. If there is nobody who helps to
look after a child then mobility of a woman significantly decreases – she cannot ‘get out of’ home.
Daily routine makes also relationships with a husband tenser because a woman waits for physical or
emotional support but a man thinks that he has to work more to earn more money to provide his
family.
The biggest part of a day a woman spends at home alone with a child and sometimes do not care about
her physical wellbeing, mental and intellectual development. Some of the respondents of the study
argue that in the period when children are little they demand all woman’s attention and that is normal
because it is enough for a mother to have satisfaction she gets from her baby. However, majority of the
respondents do not agree and claim that a woman cannot forget to take care of herself. It makes her
feel better not only physically but also psychologically and boosts self-confidence.
For the men a birth of a child gives additional motivation and sense of responsibility to do their job
even better and get promoted. ‘I went 10 steps higher than I thought I would be able to step in 15
years time.’ (FGD family, male, Latvian, Riga) A birth is a good urge to improve material welfare of a
family and look for a better-paid job. But it asks for a bigger workload and consequently a man spends
less time together with his family. ‘If you are paid little, find other job or work more. You have to
provide a family. I arrive at work half an hour earlier and leave for home three hours later. It has to
be done. It is a totally different feeling.’ (FGD family, male, Latvian, Riga)
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For the men a child creates positive emotions and more positive attitude towards the people around,
makes the men wish to come home after work. The men describe their feelings ‘to be a father’ as
‘happiness and joy about a child; it is nice to be aware that you have created something new; it is a
very pleasant feeling but the process to get to it was really slow.’
‘It cannot be told with emotions. [..] There is an urge to work more and better. To make life better not
only for my family.’ (FGD family, male, Russian, Riga)
6.3. Returning to the Labour Market

The time when a mother returns to work or starts working; her workload. At the moment when
the survey of the families with little children was carried out, 17.5% of the inquired women and 92%
of the men were employed. The average age of the youngest child was 10.2 months, the modal age
(mentioned most often) – 4.4 months. A little bit than a half of children (58.5%) were younger than 1
year. It is possible that due to this fact only 22.5% or just one fifth of the interviewed women who had
worked before had returned to the labour market at the time when the survey was carried out. Most
often these were women above 30; women with and more children; those who had got higher level of
education.
The biggest part (69.5% of the employed women) of those mothers who have returned to work or have
started to work after having given a birth to a child have official employment relationships. But 28.6%
do work without having official agreements and 1.9% of the women work both: officially and
unofficially.
62.0% of the women at the moment of the survey did not work but planned to return to the labour
market. Out of these women 80.4% of the women had planned to have official employment
relationships, 8.1% of the women want to work unofficially; 2.7% - o work fully unofficially. But
8.9% of the women had not decided anything regarding their employment status.
49.9% of the women had worked full-time at their permanent work before giving a birth to a child;
20.2% of the women had worked more than 41 week in a week; and just 16.8% of the women had
worked part-time – up to 40 week a week (Table 6.3.1.).
Table 6.3.1. Working hours for mothers before and after the birth of the youngest child (in
percents of the number of employees in each group)
An average number of hours women work at their main workplace
Women who were Less No answer;
working/are working than 20 20-39 40 41-49 50+ Hard to say
Before giving a birth to a
child 2,7 14,1 49,9 13,9 6,3 13,1
(n=411)
After giving a birth to a
child 14,2 38,1 41,6 2,7 - 3,5
(n=105)
Source: GEALM Survey of families with small children.
Both: the women who have already returned to work and also those who just plan to do that in the
majority of cases have or plan to have a full-time job; approximately one fourth of the women think
about having a part-time job. Those women who already work have more part-time and different
contract jobs, and they participate in projects more than wished by those women who are just planning
to return to the labour market (3.5%).
52.3% of the women who have started to work after giving a birth to a child do it less than 40 hours a
week, 41.4% of the women work 40 hours, 2.7% of the women work more than 40 hours (Table
6.3.1.). 16-20 year old mothers and those working in the field of information technologies worked
part-time (less than 20 hours a week) after having given a birth to a child. The women working in
public utilities service and education, in social and health care; those who have low qualified jobs and
those who have high positions, and those who are 31-40 years old more often work 20-39 hours a
week. Part-time jobs (less than 40 hours a week) are more popular in Kurzeme than in other regions.
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A full working week (40 hours a week) after having given a birth to a child is common among 41.6%
of the women on average, mainly 21-30 years old; with higher education; living in Riga and Vidzeme;
working in the field of commerce and education. The mums in Zemgale worked more than 40 hours a
week; they are 26-35 years old; working in the social and health care.
A half of all the respondents actually working at the time when the survey was carried out (50.5%)
returned to the labour market within the first 12 months after a baby had been born (until a child was 1
year old), 44.8% of the women returned to the labour market when a child became 1-1.5 years old.
Those women who have not returned to the labour market but plan to do that mainly think about the
time when a child becomes 1.5 years old (Table 6.3.2.).
Table 6.3.2. Child’s age, starting from which mother resumes or is planning to resume to
work (in percents and number from each group)
Age of a child Mothers who have returned to Mothers who plan to return to
work work
Kol % Number Kol % Number
up to 3 months 8,6 9 - -
4-6 months 12,4 13 0,3 1
7-12 months 29,5 31 4,8 18
13-18 months 44,8 47 19,6 73
19-24 months 4,7 5 35,2 131
Later - - 29,6 110
Difficult to say - - 10,5 39
Total 100,0% 105 100,0% 372
72.0% (77 women) of those women who have already returned to work have managed to return to
their previous work places and for 85.7% (66) of them kept the previous position, but for 14.3% of the
women (11) the previous position was not kept. Out of those women whose did not keep their
positions - 3 were promoted, 6 – got a similar position, 2 got a lower position – a qualified office
employee and a qualified worker in the field of industry.
The biggest part of the mothers who returned to work (68.8% or 53 women) got the previous salary
but 24 women did not have the previous salary. Out of these 24 for eight salaries were raised, for ten –
lowered, but the rest of them gave an answer – ‘difficult to say’. Unfortunately, the number of women
who got lower positions and lower salaries is too insignificant to be able to draw proper general
conclusions. The data analysis reveals just an insight into this situation and spots the problem without
providing a precise evaluation of its importance.
The women who worked before a baby was born but did not work at the moment of the survey are
comparatively optimistic regarding a chance of keeping their work places and positions: the biggest
part thinks that the previous work place (71.4%), the position (67.5%) will be kept and that also a
salary will definitely be at least the same or will be raised (64.7). It is noted that for a rather big part of
women who were on a maternity leave (22.4%) it was difficult to estimate the expected level of a
salary (look at Table 6.3.3.).
Table 6.3.3. Prognosis of job, position and wage preservation for mothers (%)
Definitely Rather Rather Definitel Difficult Total
n = 255 yes yes no y no to say
Work place will be kept 46,7 24,7 6,3 8,6 13,7 100,0
Previous position will be kept 40,4 27,1 6,3 9,8 16,4 100,0
Salary at least as big as previously
or raised 34,1 30,6 4,3 8,6 22,4 100,0
Note: the mothers who worked before giving a birth to a child but were not employed at the moment of the
survey.
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Returning to the labour market after a maternity leave. As it can be seen in the study of the focus
groups, returning back to work after a maternity leave has to do with psychological and professional
problems.
In general both: women and men consider that it is not difficult to regain professional skills after a
maternity leave because basic skills cannot be forgotten and a short period of time is needed to get
those skills back. ‘If a person has knowledge, abilities and skills, then a comeback is not so bad.’
(FGD a family, male, Russian, Riga) To a certain extent it depends on specific features of a
profession and an employee’s qualification – the higher the qualification the less it is possible to lose
it. However, there are professions which (if a person has not worked in them for long) ask for
additional courses or training in order to be continued successfully, for example, accounting. ‘2.5
years have passed since we are in the EU and all laws have changed. I am out of the routine. I do not
know anything anymore. I need courses obligatory.’ (FGD a family, female, Russian, Riga)
The women think that after a maternity leave there is extra motivation and wish to prove oneself
because while sitting at home the daily life has become tedious. ‘After this break I feel I am full of
beans. I would like to work and work.’ (FGD a family, female, Russian, Riga)
The men hold a view that for the women who return to work have difficulties not with adapting
professionally but with practical organisation of the life. The rhythm of the woman’s life changes and
initially it could cause problems. In the groups of Latvians the men particularly stress psychological
difficulties not professional ones. As well they mention the fact that employers do not even want to
take their employees back because they think that little children often fall ill and that it could be an
obstacle for the successful completion of the work. ‘A big percentage of women don’t even return
because they aren’t taken back because children often fall ill.’ (FGD a family, male, Latvian, Riga)
After a maternity leave a question of returning to the previous work place or looking for a new one
becomes topical. A part of the respondents of the study have returned or plan to return to the previous
work place. Others think that it is better to look for a new work place because in the previous one
everything has changed or they find this as an opportunity to change their job at last if they have
thought about that: ‘The director drew up the documents so that I wasn’t fired but I told her not to
count on my coming back. She hopes I will return and she plans to appoint me as administrator but I
have decided not to go back to that company.’ (FGD a family, female, Latvian, Riga)
Reasons for looking for a new job are also impacted by an employer’s attitude towards a fact of the
woman’s pregnancy. If there were problems at work and negative attitude from an employer when a
woman left for her maternity leave then an employee does not plan to return to the previous work
place. Successful comeback of a woman also depends on the other personnel. If there is positive
attitude towards the pregnant woman from other employees then returning does not cause big
problems. ‘I know that in that place, where I plan to go back, I will be able to have a sick-list if my
child gets ill and nobody will protest.’ (FGD a family, female, Russian, Riga)
Reasons why women with little children return to work or start working. Comparing the results of
‘The survey of the families with little children’ on the reasons for returning to work or starting to work
among the women who have already returned to work or plan to start working, in both groups the
mothers most often (86.7 and 78.3%) mentioned ‘a need for bigger income and the fact that a
childbirth allowance is too little (correspondingly 59.3 and 53.0%). Other reasons for those mothers
who already work and those who plan to work differ a bit. For those mothers who have returned to
work the third most important reason is – there is somebody who takes care of a child, the fourth – I
wanted to have something more not only taking care of my child, and also the mother wanted to work
because she didn’t want to lose her qualification.
For those who just plan to return to the labour market the third most important reason is the maternity
leave came to an end (for those who work this was just the seventh important reason). It is essential
that a child has a place in a preschool establishment. Moreover, the mothers want something more not
only take care of a child, they don’t want to lose their qualification and they miss social contacts,
communication.
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Actually, all the mentioned reasons are more or less important in each particular case more often they
were mentioned by the mothers who have returned to work. Those who just plan to return to the labour
market less significant are such reasons as existence of a person who would take care of a child or a
request from the employer. Meaning, women return to work before a child is 2 years old if the
employer asks for that.
The mothers had to tick also one major reason why they have returned to work or plan to do that.
Despite the fact that the childbirth allowance is as big as the previous salary and for those mothers
who have not worked even bigger the main reason to go back to work is to start working for the sake
of working and before the end of a maternity leave this is also a financial factor – need for bigger
income. The mothers also say that a childbirth allowance is too little (in the second place). Other
reasons are not so important for the sample in general, more individually.
Past fears/present fears of losing a job (in the ninth/tenth place) was mentioned as one of the reasons
for returning to work after a birth of a child. This fact is omportant for 16.8% of the mothers who have
returned to work and for 15.3% of the mothers who plan to do that. Fears of losing a job as the main
reason for returning to work was admitted by correspondingly 3.5 and 2.0% (look at the Table 6.3.4. in
the appendix).
In order to see how returning to work or use of a child care leave impact personal attitudes of the
women with little children, the analysis of the reasons explaining why the women return to work a
method of factor analysis was added. Matrices of the correlation of the factors (Table 6.3.5. and Table
6.3.6.) show the classification of the reasons for returning to work in to two separate target groups,
each having five factor divisions. Analysing the answers of those women who had returned to work or
started to work at the moment of the survey, it was concluded that the size of the group chosen for the
sample of the survey was not big enough (105 women) to draw reliable conclusions regarding
significance of these factors according to the divisions of the respondents demographic indices.
When analysing the classifications of the reasons for returning to work among those women who plan
to return to work (372 women), it is important that these opinions are not based in the experience of
the interviewed people but they to a great extent are impacted by their expectations and hopes. The
following classifications were found out as the result of the analysis of these factors:
‘A good job and conditions for child care’ are positively motivating factors, similarly to the group
of the working women also in the group of the women who do not work yet these reasons
characterize almost the ideal model in which a child is provided with good care and a mother does
a pleasant job.
‘Worries about career’ – this is a factor which in the group of the working women combine
arguments which regard work to be a duty, these arguments are – being out of work for a long
time leaves a negative impact on career and professional growth. For the women who found
reasons of this group of factors to be very important, the motivation to spend time at home
together with a baby was much stronger than for other groups and the arguments were – not
reliable nannies and not qualitative services of institutions providing child care. For the group of
not working people the level of anxiety regarding the risk of keeping the previous work place,
qualification and future working skills was higher.
‘Fears of losing a job’ is almost a constant argument in the group of working people and in this
group it has to do with a need to return to work after a child care leave.
‘Social activity’ – combines a lack of social contacts, a wish to do something more apart child care
as well as a necessity for a child to socialize; these are arguments which in the group of the
working people are mentioned by the women who have been out of working environment for
some time. It is a more often mentioned reason in the group of those women who have a part-time
job. In the group of not working people a wish for social contacts and significance of this factor is
bigger among those women who have middle level income (151 – 200 lats per family member).
‘Importance of the child care allowance’ – this factor is mentioned in the group of not working
women and shows a correlation between a child care leave, allowances and social payments.
‘Income’ – a need for higher level of income among those women who do not work yet naturally
formed a separate factor. In the group of not working women, in their turn, it as the main and most
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popular reason for leaving work do not reveal satisfactory correlation with any of other analysed
reasons and is not regarded as a separate factor explaining behaviour of a particular group.
The size of the sample of those women who do not work yet but plan to return or start working was
satisfying to analyse significance of the mentioned factors regarding following groups of the
questions: income, education, age of a child, conditions hindering earlier returning to work, opinions
and attitudes. Rather significant differences were seen only in the questions regarding conditions
hindering employment and attitudes which have to do with the estimation of the material situation.
Conditions hindering taking part in the labour market. Analysing the part of those women whose
involvement in the labour market is hindered by a lack of institutions providing child care services, a
decrease is seen in the factor worries about career but increases significance of the factor income. It is
natural that the significance of income increases if there are important conditions that are directly or
indirectly linked to a lack of money: where women as the encouragement for staying with their
children for a longer time mention too expensive child care services or not qualitative services of child
care institutions.
Evaluation of the statements. Particular correlation can be seen between a statement ‘A father should
take a bigger part in child care’ and a factor worries about career: because the higher level of
acceptance of this statement the bigger influence of significance of career. Thus it can be concluded
that the women who want to continue their career after giving a birth to a child want to have bigger
support from a father of a child.
Similar results can be gained when an opinion of the women regarding the statement ‘Except for
breast feeding a father is as good for taking care of a baby as a mother’. The women who rather agree
to this statement give greater influence to such factors as worries about career and social activity.
Career is an important factor among those women who rather agree that ‘A family suffers if a woman
works full time’. Among those women who totally do not agree to this statement such factors as social
activity and a good job and conditions for child care become more important thus showing that a
pleasant job and social activity not necessarily harm a woman’s family life. However, it has to be
taken into account that the mentioned factor reflects better child care.
Logical is also correlation between a statement ‘To feel valuable a mother of little children should
work’ and such factors as a good job and conditions for child care and social activity. The lower is the
level of agreement to this statement the lower is the significance level of a factor social activity, but
the statement a good job and conditions for child care becomes more important.
Evaluation of the material situation. For such factors as worries about career and income there is
correlation with income of a family. Among the women whose families’ income per one person is less
than 60 lats worries about career is an insignificant factor, but for those women whose families’
income per person is more than 150 lats importance of career grows significantly but income becomes
not so important. The same correlation between worries about career and income is seen also in the
respondents’ subjective evaluation of income: the better the material situation the more important is a
factor worries about career; and the worse is the material situation of a family the more important is
the factor income.
Reasons for returning to work which are united under a factor a good job and conditions of a child
care are more significant in the group of a good material situation but not so important among those
women who consider income of a family as rather poor before a birth of a child, but totally of no
account this factor is for women with a low level of income (up to 80 lats per family member).
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6.4. Actual and Preferable Looking After Little Children

Division of the forms of looking after children. In ‘The survey of the families with little children’
parents were asked to describe the existing or planned order of looking after a child at different ages.
After that a mother and a father separately were asked to provide their opinion regarding the best
(ideal or preferable) form of looking after a child at each particular stage. Comparing the answers as
the actual form of looking after a child is considered to be the experienced and planned for those
children who have not reached relevant age (look at Table 6.4.1.).
Children up to one year
Up to one year, especially up to 9 months, a child is looked after by the mother and actually it is done
more often that it is admitted to be good: depending on the age of a child exactly mother looks after a
child 97-86% but in 94-78% of the families it is a preferable model. The women would like the fathers
to be involved in looking after little children more often (14-21%), in their turn the men acknowledge
fathers as the ones who are looking after children a bit less (9-19%) than it is actually done (10-15%).
Sharing duties by the mother and father is acknowledged to be popular by one and a half or even two
times better than they really practise that. But involving grandparents in bringing up children,
especially till they are 9 months old, is done more than they admit wanting it. On average both:
women and men think that parents themselves are the best way of looking after a child, and parents
should share duties not to involve grandparents or other relatives.
Children who are 1 to 1.5 years old (12-18 months)
When a child becomes 1year old, mother as a looking-after person’s role gradually changes.
According to the data of the survey in 76.1% of the families the mothers looked after 12-18 months
old children and 2/3 of the women and men said it was the most preferable model. 1/3 of the
respondents think that the best way is when parents change role but it is done only by 17.5%.
According to the women, grandparents could be involved in looking after children, but men have
opposing ideas – they would like to involve grandparents more than they would want to.
Children who are 1.5-2 years old (18-24 months)
In 69.2% of families children of this age are practically looked after by their mothers, 31.8% of the
families used grandparents’ help, 18.2% of the families managed to that by sharing duties and
changing roles, 17.2% of the families – children were looked after by the father. 15.1% of children
went to the preschool establishment. In comparison to the real situation concerning looking after
children, the parents acknowledged changing roles between themselves to be the preferable model, the
fathers should be involved more. Also the parents have not used services of nannies and preschool
establishments as much as they would prefer.
Use of services of a paid nanny. Until children are one year old very little number of families use
services of nannies – more often after a baby is 9 months old (4%) but those who use these services
consider this to be the optimal form of looking after a child. However, for children who are 1.5-2 years
old the actual use of nannies on average is more rare (8.7%) than it is acknowledged to be the best way
for looking after children (12.2%). In majority of cases the women who had started working admitted
nannies to be the most preferable way of looking after children.
For children from 1 to 1.5 years parents more often actually use services of a paid nanny than they
acknowledge it to be a good way of looking after their children, especially those living in the region of
Riga and those who have 2 children. The lowest demand for nannies is in the region of Latgale.
Use of children’s preschool establishments. According to the data of ‘The survey of the families
with little children’, for children who are younger than 9 months services of preschool establishments
were not used. According to the statistic data, at the beginning of the school year 2005/2006 only 44
children younger than 1 year went to preschool establishments [Educational establishments 2005/2006
– pp 22].
According to the data of the survey, parents in Zemgale actually sent their 1-2 years old children to
preschool establishments more often than they admitted this way of taking care to be the best. In their
turn parents who have 1-1.5 years old children and live near Riga and in Riga have acknowledged
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preschool establishments to be the most preferable way of taking care of children in more cases than
they actually use these establishments. By the way, parents who live near Riga would like to use
kindergartens more often also for 1-1.5 years old children.
On average, 76.5% of the parents who do not have put their children in preschool establishments
would like to use services of these institutions. Only 12.7% of the parents do not plan to make their
children attend preschool establishments. The biggest part of the parents plan to place their children in
these institutions when they are 2 or 3 years old: 37.3% from 2 years, 32.1% from 3 years. But for
16.7% of the parents it was difficult to mention a particular age for sending their children to preschool
establishments.
Educational establishments for children in the residental surroundings. One of the questions in
‘The survey of the families with little children’ was on the preschool establishments in the residential
surroundings of families. On average for 13.8% of the respondents it was difficult to give an answer,
most often in Riga (21.1%) and Latgale (20.0%). As the problems to answer there were for those
parents with very little children (up to 4 months), it is possible that they have not searched for the
information regarding free places in kindergartens because this question is not topical for them yet.
Taken into account that the modal (the most often used) age of children of the respondents was 4.4
months, it to some extent explains the big number of the answer ‘difficult to say’.
On average just one fifth (20.0%) of the families admit that there is nearby/there is a possibility to
have a place for a child in a preschool establishment (for children up to 2 years); they gave the answer:
‘there are groups for children, there are free places’. In most cases this answer was given by those who
live near Riga (34.4%) and those whose youngest child is 17-24 months old (25-26%). There are not
so many kindergartens in Riga (13.7%) and Kurzeme (19.2%).
Slightly higher percentage (23.7%) of the families has a preschool establishment meant for children
from 2 years in the surroundings. In Zemgale the situation is worse (just 14.1%), it is better in
Vidzeme and in the area around Riga (33.3%).
According to the sample of the survey, play-groups where children can be left for a few hours most
often are found in area around Riga and Latgale (11.1%), on average in Latvia these groups are
available to 4.2% of the families.
The conclusion is drawn that the necessity for the further development of the network of the preschool
educational establishments or promotion of other alternatives (for example, nannies) is topical because
parents of little children wish to use these services but not everywhere they are available. There is a
lack of free places in the preschool establishments or there are no such establishments around the
particular residential area. It is of utmost importance to make younger groups or play-groups in
kindergartens for children who are up to 2 and 2-3 years old.
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6.5. Usage and Evaluation of State Support to Families with Small Children
Taking into consideration aims and tasks of the GEALM study, in the target group of parents with
small children the role of present state support especially for inclusion of women into the labour
market was analysed. Appropriate measures of family policy may favour gender equality: men would
be more involved in children upbringing and care, women – improve possibilities to coordinate
professional employment with the role of mother.
Women activity in using state support. At present employment before birth of child influence social
guarantees and amount of different allowances. Before child birth, employed payers of social tax
receive allowance that constitutes 100% of the previous wage (after tax). According to the data of MW
social report (MW, 2006, page 26), in 2003 in Latvia maternity allowance was granted to 65.7% of
mothers with newborns (if the number of maternity allowance beneficiaries to the number of
newborns). The statistical data show that proportion of beneficiaries of maternity allowance increases:
in 2002 it was allocated to 62.9% of young mothers, in 2001 – 60/1% and in 2000 – 56.7%.
The allowance was granted to 78.7% of inquired mothers received the allowance. The proportion is
slightly higher but still similar to that observed in previous years in Latvia.
As the data of inquiry show, 90% women who have worked wage labour received maternity
allowance. Among younger women, proportion of beneficiaries is lower and it can be explained by the
fact that they have not been employed.
Prenatal and postnatal leaves can be used by employed mothers before birth of child. Prenatal leave
was fully used by 87.1% of women who were employed before birth of child, partially by 4.2% but
6.5% of women did not use the leave because they worked till very birth of child. Postnatal leave was
fully used by 94% and partially by 3% of women. Right after birth of child, 1% of women resumed
working, i.e. 4 of inquired women.
Present legislation and regulations of the CM provide that leave for child care can be used by one of
the employed parents – it can be father of the child, but usually it is the mother. 78% of employed
women used it fully, where as 13.4% - partially, whereas 2.4% of women resumed working right after
postnatal leave.
Child birth allowance is paid disregarding kind of employment. 96.6% of employed women and
95.8% of unemployed women received the allowance.
Child care benefit was granted to 96.7% of women. This benefit is allocated to those women who have
not been employed before birth of child, but its amount differs. In the time period from January 1,
2005 to March 1, 2006 the benefit was not paid if mother had full time or part time job till the child
reached the age of 1 year. The benefit could be obtained by unemployed women only for the period of
child care (till the age of 1 year)
Activity of men in using the benefit. Law on state social benefit provides a possibility for the
majority of families with children to use the benefit by one or another parent, which mans that fathers
could also have it. In order to favour involvement of fathers in child care and to ensure gender equality
in coordination professional and family life especially for those people who have small children,
children were offered special measured of support. In order to favour involvement of fathers in ensure
gender equality, there was paternity leave and allowance introduced so that fathers could use the leave
for child care. The rest of the benefits are more often received by mother, whereas fathers do not have
such possibility.
Paternity allowance is one of family benefits that fathers receive the most often. Beneficiaries of other
allowances are mothers. According to the data of the survey, a part of fathers have used a possibility to
benefit from other family allowances, too. Fathers who have small children used these benefits more.
About 2.3 of fathers, whose child will soon reach the age of 2 years, have not received any allowance,
paternity allowance including (Table 6.5.1).
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Table 6.5.1. Allowances used by fathers (% from fathers who have a child of a particular age)
Allowance Age of the youngest child in months Total
0-4 5-8 9-12 13-16 17-20 21-24
Paternity allowance 41,9 21,8 25,5 35,0 30,1 32,8 31,5
Child birth allowance 8,1 3,4 4,1 5,0 - 7,8 4,8
Child care benefit 7,4 2,5 4,1 3,0 - 3,1 3,7
State allowance for family 5,9 1,7 4,1 3,0 - 3,1 3,2
Unemployment benefit 0,7 0,8 2,0 - 2,4 4,7 1,5
Other 0,7 - - - - - 0,2
Difficult to say 53,7 73,9 69,4 63,0 68,7 64,1 65,0
n= 115 99 75 87 71 53 500
According to the data of State Social Insurance Agency, number of beneficiaries of paternity
allowance gradually increases. In the first month of payments – in January 2004 – the possibility to
use paternity allowance was used by 32 fathers, later about 377 fathers per month. Number of fathers
who receive paternity allowance gradually increases: in 2005 about 458 fathers per month. If in 2004
total number of beneficiaries was 4521, then in December 2005 it was received b y 31% of fathers of
newborns. Their proportion continues to increase during the last months of 2005. This means that
involvement of fathers increases because there are more and more fathers who use their rights.
The results of the survey of families with small children show that all fathers who used paternity leave
did not receive paternity allowance – the allowance was used by 31.5% and the leave – by 41.2% of
employed fathers. Fathers who were employed before birth of child, paternity benefit were received by
37.6% of employed fathers. Allowance was more often received by fathers, incomes per member of
family do not exceed LVL 100 and those who live in Vidzeme. Whereas allowance of childbirth,
childcare and state family allowance was more often received by fathers who have the youngest child
at the age of 4 months.
38.4% of male respondents in the survey “Families with small children” (n-500) used paternity leave.
It was more often used by:
Fathers aged 26 – 30,
Men from Kurzeme,
Fathers who have 2 children,
Father who have higher level of education (46.4% have highest education).
Fathers from families where incomes per member is LVL 151 – 200 per month after tax.
Comparatively large part - 57,2% of fathers did not use paternity leave. These were mainly young men
(till the age of 20) because they often are not employed and those over 40.
Participants focus group of families with small children of the qualitative survey were informed and
evaluated positively the possibility for fathers to use 10 days leave after birth of child.
A part of the participants have used the leave and they think that it is very useful. Both, women and
men who have used this leave admit that this is a good possibility for the father to help mother after
birth of child. It is very important especially in the cases if women have complication after child birth.
“He took me home and helped to get used to the situation. I did not feel good after delivery and he
helped me a lot during those two weeks” (FGD family., woman., lv., Riga). But in some families of
the participants of the research men used this leave to have the opportunity to work in addition. This
corresponds to the role of a man in the family: “Father earns money and participates if child
upbringing.” FGD family., woman., Rus., Riga)
Those who work officially or in a state institution are more advantageous in using the benefit. Those
men who work unofficially or receive wage for working day are less advantageous. “I knew about it
but I did not use it, because I would have no money then. I receive wage per day, that is why I had to
work.” (FGD family., man., lv., Riga) In these cases the leave allocation depends on the employer.
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Other reasons why men do not use the leave:

Child has born in an intensive period of work, there are no free 10 days;
Work is flexible to have some free days at any time.
One of the participants suggested that a man could use the 10 days leave in a longer period of time – 2
months, as it is determined in the Labour Law. This would be more advantageous for those who
cannot take the leave after childbirth because of duties at work. “Those were months when he had to
work a lot. If he could take the leave in the following half year, he would have done it. But work
requires his presence. It should be changed in the legislation, and this would not cause any financial
consequences. It is necessary to endure the period when a man can take the leave.” (woman, Lv,
Riga)
At present there are no statistical data on fathers who use leave for childcare. 22 fathers or 4.4% of the
male respondents of the survey used this leave. They mainly came from Vidzeme and Riga, but there
was no man from Latgale who used it.
Study of parents with small children shows that in the majority of families the question on who will
take the leave for childcare is not even discussed. It is assumed that mothers use it. But in each groups,
the respondents mention cases from lives of their acquaintances that the father used the leave. “A
friend of mine took the leave for child care because of economic circumstances. He had good incomes
and he calculated that he would have a good allowance. His wife resumed working. If a person wants
to take care for a child, both, men and women may use this possibility. This is good.” (FGD family,
man, Rus, Riga)
Participants of the focus group consider that a man could not stay at home for half a year and take care
of the child. They think that the fact that men use leave for child care is an exception and it is possible
only if the women, if compared to the man, has better remunerated work or she has to work.
From information provided by the respondents one can conclude that both versions – decision on who
will use the leave for childcare is mainly influenced by financial considerations:
The parent whose wage (official or unofficial) is higher that the highest amount of the
benefit (LVL 395), return to work and the parent who has lower wage uses the benefit
(taking into account wage difference and amount of social instalments, those more often
are women);
If the wage of each parent does not exceed the maximum limit, but the father has higher
wage, then father could use the leave and the allowances.
Unfortunately it has to be admitted that there are also cases of fraud. If the mother was unemployed or
received minimum wage, then the father works unofficially and receives the allowance at its full
extent, and the mother or a babysitter looks after the child.
In the target group of employed inhabitants we found out their attitude to the fact that fathers, not
mothers use the leave for childcare. It can be seen that the same stereotypes that determine realisation
of family model in the survey of focus groups of parents with small children were more explicit in the
group of employed inhabitants. Both, men and women think that mother should take care of the child
till he reaches the age of 1. Women assume that they do not want to resume working right after birth
of child.
In general participants of the research say that this is a good opportunity and fathers have to have the
possibility to use leave for childcare, but each family chooses the best model. Both, men and women
relate the fact that father uses the leave for childcare with economic considerations and they think that
this is a good solution for the situations when the father has poorly remunerated work or if he is an
unemployed. Then this can be used so that the woman could resume working. “It is normal that the
mother earns money and the father does not. It is better that not to work at all.” (FGD inhab.,
woman., 30-49, Rus., Rezekne)
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But focus group of employed inhabitants mentioned several reasons that do not allow the fathers to use
leave for childcare.
Psychological unpreparedness – fear from responsibility for the child; inability to bear
monotonous everyday life; lack of skills and experience in house works and child care;
Shame that the wife works but the man stays at home – in accordance with the above
mentioned considerations, this creates the image of father – looser (unemployed, unpaid
work);
More work opportunities are available to a man; he can earn more and find a work more
easily. That is why he should better work;
Engrained and not justified prejudice that a woman can take care better than a man – “it
pertains to women”, “none can substitute a mother for a child”. Mother wants and has
deserved to stay longer with the child because she gave him birth.
Participants indicated that a man could use the leave for childcare fictively. There have been some
cases when a mother has not worker or she has not made social instalments and the leave is used by
the father, although this is the mother who stays at home and the fathers continues working.
Awareness of Fathers of the Possibility to use Paternity Leave and Leave for Child Care. 73.2%
of fathers were informed of the possibility to use leave for child care and 19% found it difficult to
answer. 1/5 of fathers were not aware of the possibility to use the leave for child care. Fathers who are
informed of the possibility to use the leave are aged 26 - 30 (80.5%), fathers with highest education
(85.5%), those who work in Vidzeme (86.4%) those who have 2 – 3 children (correspondingly 75.3
and 76%), whose who have children aged 5 – 12 months (78.1%) and men whose income per family
member constitutes LVL 151 – 200 per month after tax.
In focus group discussions with parents with small children the possibility for farther to use the leave
for child care was esteemed as one of gender equality utterance, thus positively evaluated.
Nevertheless, there is a contradictory attitude among representatives of target group. On the one hand,
it is considered that it is typical - if one’s colleague or acquaintance were using it, it would be
comprehended with understanding. But, on the other hand, when talking about oneself it is declared
that a child’s mother is the one who must be together with a child, especially after the child’s birth. "It
is completely unacceptable. She finally has her child; she even psychologically wouldn’t like to go to
work.” (FGD family, man, lv, Riga) It is especially significant in case a mother nurses her child.
It can be seen in the quantitative survey that not all fathers are ready to lake the leave in order to stay
at home and look after the child and there are even less who are ready to use this possibility. When
asked “Do you think you could use the leave for child care?”, 59,5% of fathers answered “surely no”
and “most probably no”. 8,2% are ready to use it, whereas 20.3 % answered “most probably yes”,
whereas 12.1% found it difficult to answer. Higher possibility to use the leave was expressed by
fathers who live in Kurzeme or Riga, whereas fathers from the Riga Basin and Vidzeme are not ready
to get involved in childcare.
In case of necessity fathers are ready to take the leave for childcare. When asked ‘What circumstances
would make you to take the leave for child care?’ 3.2% of fathers answered that nothing could make
them do it. The most negative ones were men aged 20 – 40, fathers with primary education, as well as
men in Kurzeme, and those who have children aged 13 – 16 months. 7.6% of men found it difficult to
answer whether they would use the leave for childcare. There were nobody in the group of fathers who
have higher education said that nothing could make them take the leave.
This is mainly perceived as a solution – 66% of men would get involved if the mother could not spend
time with the child because of work of health problems. The next most important aspects are
emotional considerations – pleasure to spend more time together with the child in the most important
stages of development (29 and 26.8%). Unemployment is a relevant factor – if the father has
difficulties in finding a job or avoiding possibility that the mother could lose her job, 27% of men
would take the leave for childcare. Lack of possibilities of looking after children, expensiveness of
these services serves as motivation for using the leave for child care for men who are older than 40
years and men aged 31-35 and 21 – 25 are not sure about abilities of a babysitter to look after children.
Men with higher education are the most interested in taking the leave for childcare.
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If it is not possible for mother, then father who have 1 – 2 children would use the leave. Emotional
motives are more important for fathers who have 3 children. Lack of services of baby sitting, distrust
in babysitters is mentioned as motivation among fathers who have one child. Lack of services of
babysitting is a relevant reason for those, whose child has reached the age of 13 – 16 months and it is
less important for fathers who have children aged till one year.
As we can see, actual rights of men on the leave for childcare depend on possibilities and decision of
women. But the qualitative research shows that women are not psychologically ready to trust childcare
to father.
Theoretically women assume the possibility that father, too, could use the leave for childcare. But
practically women and men stick to the assumption that child until the age of one should be in
mothers’ charge. “Mom is mom, and no one can substitute her until the age of 1.5”.” (FGD family.,
woman, rus., Rīga)
Although women trust this duty to men, they are not sure whether they can fulfil their duties and men
also become more concerned about this. This is a problem for families where a women thinks that a
man is able to cope with a small child, as well as in families where a women is not confident about
this. ´In my situation I do everything myself and I think that my husband could not do it. I do not trust
him our child. I do everything that is related to the child. It’s better”. (FGD family., woman., Rus.
Rīga) “I can not go to work and leave the child in father’s charge. Although he knows how to change
diapers, prepare food and feed the child. But she is still small and if something happens, he will not
know what to do. A women know what to do.” (FGD family., woman, Rus., Rezekne)
Disregarding the fact that men expressed their concerns about their abilities to cope with childcare
(especially when they are young), those who have had experience contradict the stereotypes and they
are able to take care of the child. “When we had the first child, everything was new and it was more
difficult to do works. Now, when we have the second, you evaluate more the fact that he is small and
noce.” (FGD family., man., lv., Riga)
In general men and women think that both parents have to be involved. However it has been admitted
that mother is more important for a newborn, father cannot stay in the background. In focus groups
there were parents who think that father could care for the child as well as mom would, and they
suppose that fathers would do it better because young mothers often are tired but father has more
power and patience to play with the child. “When I come, he becomes obedient. I don’t know how it is
with girls, but it is important for boys. It is even more important for elder boys because he can not
grow without father”. (FGD family, man, Rus, Riga)
Using of Allowances for Younger and Previous Children. In order to analyse changes in the
situation, answers of all respondents were compared to information provided by families who have
preschool aged children on allowances used for the previous children.
Table 6.5.2.Allowances received by mother and father for the youngest and the previous
child (% in each group)
Mother Father
Allowances Youngest child Previous child* Youngest Previous child *
child
Maternity allowance 78,7 69,2 x x
Paternity allowance x x 31,5 9,2
Child birth allowance 96,7 98,5 3,7 0,8
Child care benefit 96,3 95,4 4,8 1,5
State allowance for family 72,0 73,8 3,2 1,5
Unemployment benefit 14,8 18,5 1,5 -
Other 0,5 0,8 0,2 0,8
Hard to say 0,5 0,8 65,0 88,5
n= 600 137 500 137
Notes: *All respondents who have several children aged till 6 years.
Question of several answers, which means that a person may receive several allowances mentioned in the table,
which is why the sum of answers is higher than 100%.
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43% of respondents of the study “Families with small children” have several children. In 53.1%
(n=137) of cases of all families who have several children (n=258) the second child is aged till 6
including. The majority (62.1%) of these children at the moment of the study were 2 – 4 year old.
Parents who had children aged 1.5 – 2(3) years could also benefit from previous rules on allowance
granting. It means that the amount of the allowances for everyone was equal – for children aged 1.5 –
LVL 30 per month, for children aged 1.5 – 2(3) – LVL 7.50 per months. Benefits were paid in cases,
too, when if the beneficiary worked definite number of hours per week. 42.3% of mothers who had
previous children aged till 1.5 years worked full time or part time work, 38% - officially, 4.3%
unofficially.
One can see that activity of fathers in receiving different benefits, especially that of paternity, in using
them for the previous children and for the youngest children has increased (respectively 9.2 and
31.5%). Paternity allowances are granted since 2004, which is why a part of fathers could not have it
for previous child, which explains the differences. Only one father has received the allowance for the
previous child, and 3,7% (22 fathers) for the youngest child. Usage of maternity allowance for the
youngest child also differs if compared to the previous child.
85.4% of mothers used leave for child care for the previous child, who had the second youngest
children at the age of 6 (n=137). Women aged till 25 did not use the leave for the previous child, as
well as mothers with primary and secondary education, i.e. women who were not employed before
birth of child. Duration of the leave also differs:
25,6% of women have several children aged to 6, and they used the leave not longer than the
child reached the age of one;
35,0% 13-18 months;
14,5% 19-24 months;
13,7% after child reached the age of 2.
11,1% found it difficult to determine duration of the leave. Labour Law that became effective in 2002,
provides that the leave is granted for the period of time that does not exceed 1.5 years until the day
when the child reaches the age of 8 (article 156), however it is possible that a part of the respondents
considered not duration of the leave but time period when they received the benefit. The above-
mentioned division shows that parents are not aware of their rights and possibilities. However these
answers characterize actual time that is spent at home when taking care of a child.
Attitude towards changes in order of payment of child care benefit and possible improvements.
In the focus groups of parents with small children it was concluded that in general state support for
families with children is not sufficient. But one can observe considerable improvements especially in
relation to postnatal and childcare benefits. Increase of childcare benefit is the most explicit support
and creates positive attitude to the state and support for families.
One evaluates positively:
☺ New childcare benefit.
☺ Law that one cannot fire a woman when she is in leave for childcare.
☺ It is allowed to parent of a child aged less than 1 year to work by providing half of the child care
benefit.
One evaluates negatively:
Decrease of child care benefit after the child reaches the age of 1 year, however needs increase in
relation to the fact that children at this age need care outside house and kindergartens are not yet
available.
The fact that employed parents get only a half of the allowance. Criticism is related to the fact that
parents deserve full amount of the benefit because they do two very important things – care for
child and get involved in the labour market. “Why the state thinks that if a person works, he pays
less attention to the child? We all pay taxes. Why a family does not receive this benefit if he is
simultaneously involved in production? It is not fair.” (FGD family., man., rus., Riga)
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Insufficient number of places in state and municipal kindergartens.

Lack of support for school age children: “They could pay higher benefit for school age children.
We do not complaint about mother’s wages, but what happens next?” (FGD family., woman., rus,
Rezekne).
Constitutional court annulled restrictions of employment of parents with children till the age of 1,
which came into existence since January 1, 2005. Since March 3, 2006 new regulations on order of
child care benefits came to existence – one of the employed parents may receive half of the allowance.
In the survey of parents with small children they were asked whether and at what extent they are
satisfied with the order of childcare benefit payment. 17.3 % of mothers and 21.4% of fathers were not
informed on the new order, whereas 7.2 and 9% found it difficult to answer. Thus one fourth of
mothers and 30% of fathers did not expressed their opinion – they did not have any, which can be
explained by the fact that they were asked about it some days after its coming to existence. 8% of
women were completely dissatisfied. The new system more or less satisfied 34.7% of mothers and
29.6% of fathers (Table 6.5.3).
Table 6.5.3. Satisfaction of parents of small children with the present order of allowance for
child care granting that came to force on March 1, 2006 (% for each gender group)
Depending on employment at the
Mothers moment of survey Fathers
(all in Work Work Do not
average) officially unofficially work
Completely satisfied 11,5 12,3 3,3 11,9 8,0
Rather satisfied 23,2 28,8 10,0 23,2 21,6
Neither satisfied, nor dissatisfied 18,0 12,3 26,7 18,2 19,2
Rather dissatisfied 14,8 17,8 20,0 13,9 20,8
Completely dissatisfied 8,0 9,6 6,7 7,9 -
Not aware of the new order 17,3 11,0 30,0 17,6 21,4
Hard to say 7,2 8,2 3,3 7,3 9,0
Note: * the order came into existence since 01.03.2006.
Source: GEALM Survey on families with small children.
Women with higher education and those aged 26 – 30 were more satisfied. 27.3% of mothers aged
above 41 and 22.6% of mothers aged 21-25 did not possess information. 23% of women with
secondary education did not have the information.
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6.6. Optimal Order and Duration of Leave for Child Care

It is provided in the Labour Law that a person has rights on leave for childcare for the time period up
to 1.5 year, which can be used by parents till the age of the child of 8 years. Employers do not pay this
leave but one of the parents receives state social benefit until the child reaches the age of 2. Its amount
depends on the amount of social payments till the child reaches the age of 1, but it is LVL 30 per
months when the child is 1 – 2 years old.
Participants of the focus groups would like to receive support of the state in childcare even after the
age of 1, for example, by increasing the benefit when the child is aged 1.5 – 2, when the child attends
kindergarten so that parents could rejoin the labour market. Several mothers think that it would be
perfect if “the gig allowance” would be paid till the child reaches the age of 3.
In the quantitative survey of families they were asked to evaluate what according to them would be the
most appropriate duration of the leave for child care. In the answers to this question the leave for
childcare was regarded as time period then they are paid childcare benefit. In general the majority of
mothers think that the optimal duration would be 2 or 2 -3 years. This period should be longer for
mothers who are not employed and are not in leave for child care, fro example, unemployed (55%)
and housewife (61.3%), whereas mothers who have resumed working (46.5%) think that the optimal
period is up to 2 years (Table 6.5.4). Long leave, i.e. 3 – 4 years is not preferable.
Table 6.5.4. Optimal duration of leave for child care, evaluated by parents having small children
(col. % for each gender in the corresponding group)
Optimal Mothers depending on employment at the moment of survey Fathers
duration of leave Average Employed Non-working
for child care Average In leave for Other non-
child care working
till 12 months 1,7 1,0 1,8 1,8 1,8 3,2
13-24 months 41,5 46,5 40,6 43,2 30,5 43,2
25-36 months 43,3 35,6 44,8 42,2 54,6 34,6
37-48 months 2,5 5,0 1,8 2,3 0,9 2,0
49 + months 4,0 3,0 4,2 4,3 3,7 4,8
Difficult to say 7,0 8,9 6,7 6,1 8,3 12,2
Total 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0
n= 600 105 495 391 104 500
Source: GEALM Survey on families with small children
When analysing duration of leave for child care, men and women in the qualitative research consider
that it is important for a child till the age of 1 to be with mother. The statement expressed in the
GEALM research “Women should not work until the child reaches the age of one” is accepted by 93%
of men and 92% of women, but in the survey of families – 95% of men and women.
Practical considerations make them think that that the age when it is necessary for the child to attend
kindergarten is the optimal duration. “I would prefer to have the leave of 2 years until he child is sent
to kindergarten. He will adapt there till the age of 2.5, he may fall ill often and I will have to take sick
lists. It is not reasonable to work.” (FGD family., woman., rus., Riga)
Some participants would prefer to use the leave as long as possible but it is not possible. The main
reason why they cease their leave is economic considerations. But severing of connections of mother
and child is considered to be the greatest problem. “Not only for mothers, but for child, too, it is hard
to leave the child.” (FGD family., woman., lv., Riga) It is also hard to trust the child to other person if
there is no possibility for grandparents to take care for them.
Diversification of Forms of Looking after Children. Present legislation and regulations of the CM
provide that only one parent can take the leave for childcare – it can be the father, too. Both parents
can take in on the basis of mutual agreement – at first one parent takes it, then the other, but it is not
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possible to take the leave for both parents. Participants expressed that both parents simultaneously
could take the leave – both could work half time and receive part of the benefit.
☺ This would be a better opportunity for father to spend more time with the child and take part in
household works, but at the same time they would not loose their incomes and realize their need
to be the earner: “He could help the mother and children – carry the pram and hold the child. It
would be good that a father, too, were provided the leave.” (FGD family., woman., lv., Riga)
“Husband has to give free time for the wife. He cares about money.” (FGD family, man., lv.,
Rīga)
☺ Women do not loose their abilities to work – she would not be excluded from the labour market
and they could continue their professional development but at the same time they could satisfy
their need to be together with the child.
☺ It would theoretically decrease the necessity to work illegally.
However they (especially Russian speaking) mention some difficulties when using this possibility:
Mother can not pay enough attentions to the child if she knows that she has to go to work in the
afternoon or on the next day: “You can not explain to a small child that mom has to go to earn
money for diapers and food. Child needs mom.” (FGD family., woman., rus., Riga)
Incredulity that parents, especially men will not use this opportunity in order to work full time
and receive envelope wage, but in addition to women’s part time work they will also be
responsible for house works, child care and will have to look for a babysitter. “I could not take
one year leave. But I could take a couple of months in summer.” (FGD family., man., lv., Riga)
Parents suggest not real but positive idea to offer parents to take a longer leave in the case if both
parents take it. Then, for example, a woman would take one leave, and then a man would be involved
in the childcare, which would solve the problem of kindergartens. This would favour involvement of
parents in the family life.
Basing on the suggestions mentioned in the focus groups and with an aim to find out desires on
possible improvement in measures of family policy that could favour more active participation of
fathers in child care, there was a question included in the questionnaire on the survey of gender
equality and that of families with small children: ´How important it would be for you both to take the
leave for child care if both parents would work half time?” This possibility was important fro 18.3% of
mothers and 14.4% of fathers. In general, 42.6% of women and 36.8% of fathers considered it to be
rather important, but 39.3% of women and 45.6% of men considered it to be unimportant (rather and
completely unimportant).
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7. POSSIBILITIES OF HARMONIZATION OF WORKING

LIFE AND FAMILY LIFE
One of the basic approaches in realization of policy on gender equality principle is related to paying a
particular attention to possibilities of harmonization of family life and work.
7.1. Satisfaction with Possibilities of Harmonization of Working Life and

Family Life among Employed Women and Men
As it was mentioned in the Chapter 5.4 (Desirable division between work and family life) of the
research, in general employed people are satisfied with the present division between work and family
duties. The majority of men and women who would prefer to change something would like to devote
more time for both, home and work, but those are mainly women who want to decrease their load in
both fields. Family is the field for what both genders would prefer devoting more time, which
indicates importance of family values for the inhabitants, as well as existing shortages in forming and
maintaining relationships.
It was observed in focus groups discussions that women who have higher education, who occupy
higher positions and who are able to plan their working hours are more satisfied with possibilities to
coordinate family life and work. Those who have larger families – children and grandchildren, school
age children or who study themselves think that it is rather difficult to coordinate family life and work.
The main problem is that they are short of time to do everything well. “This is my fourth study year
and I feel that I have no more power. No time to study. I am short of time. […] But we are not paid
more. We cannot change anything. But I have to do all this.” (FGD inhab., woman., 30-49, rus.,
Rezekne)
In order to find out what factors have the greatest influence of balance of family life an work for men
and women, respondents were asked to evaluate their satisfaction (in the scale of 10) with the
possibilities to coordinate their family life and work. The results of econometric analysis are illustrated
in the tables 7.1.A. and 7.1B. Table 7.1A model [1] includes only the main demographical features;
model [2] controls the kind of labour agreement, sector of enterprise property, field and number of
employees; model [3] adds profession to the range of controlled factors. Influence of number of
working hours, wage, working regime and personal management policy is summarized in Table 7.1B.
Full influence of demographic factors (i.e. direct influence and mediatory one through choice of
profession and working place) is seen in the Table 7.1A model [1]. The results show that higher
education provides the best balance between family life and work among women (satisfaction is by 0.5
points higher that for female employees with primary or secondary education). Influence of education
on this aspect of life is less explicit for men, but still employees with basic education are more
satisfied than employees with all-round education. Both, men and women are slightly more satisfied
with possibilities to coordinate family life and work (by 0.2 and 0.3 points) if they have a partner
(married or not). Russian employees are less satisfied than Latvian employees having similar
demographic features in this respect (men – by 0.4 points but women - by 0.6 points).
There are no statistically relevant differences observed in the regions. Excluding education,
nationality, region and family status, young people aged till 24 years and elder male employees are
more satisfied with possibilities to coordinate family life and work. What concerns women, then
satisfaction increases simultaneously with the age.
When considering model [2], it has to be indicated that in equal conditions women with labour
agreement on a definite period of time have more difficulties in coordinating family life and work.
Excluding effect of the field and kind of agreement, size of enterprise has no influence on possibilities
of men to coordinate their family life and work, whereas women are more satisfied with this aspect (in
equal conditions) if they are employed in enterprises where there are not more than 9 employees, and
less satisfied in enterprises where there are 20 – 49 employees.
Men, employees in construction and power supply field (in equal conditions) are more satisfied with
possibilities to coordinate family life and work than employees of other fields. Whereas women are
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successful in finding balance between family life and work if they are employed in construction,
power supply, state administration, finance or commercial service sector, the next fields being
education, health care and other services. The least satisfied are female employees in sales, transport
and communication and manufacturing.
Influence of form of agreement, kind of employment and field on possibilities to coordinate family life
and work is more explicit for women. Whereas influence of profession (see model [3]) is more explicit
for men. When comparing 3.4 groups of professions for specialists of social sphere (in equal
conditions, in the frameworks of one field including), in several groups of employment level of
satisfaction among men is lower. Operators of equipment and assemblers, as well as representatives of
simple professions of the sphere of sales and service provision (groups 8.1., 8.2. and 9.1) this level is
by 1.6 to 1.8 points lower, for representatives of self-propelled vehicles and equipment and employees
in construction, production and transport (groups 8.3. and 9.3) - lower by 1.1 – 1.2 points but for
workers of mining industry and construction (group 7.1) – lower by 0.6 that satisfaction level of the
reference group.
Among women, in the frameworks of one field there are no significant differences in satisfaction with
possibilities to coordinate family life and work. The only profession that has a negative impact on
harmonization of working life and family life is manager (0.7 lower in comparison with the reference
group). Formally less satisfied are senior specialists of educational institutions (2.3 group) – 1.3 points
lower, but this effect is compensated by the positive effect of the field of education.
It has to be indicated that adequate concept on the effect of a profession on the balance an family life
and work can not be obtained without considering influence of the field, because representatives of
some professions work in the frameworks of one field only (for example, sales assistants in sales,
operators of equipment and assemblers in production and in agriculture). Taking into consideration the
circumstance and combining coefficients of professions and fields of the model [3], one can observe
that women are less satisfied with this possibility if they are employed as: (a) sales assistants, (b)
employees in production, (c) operators of equipment and assemblers, (d) managers, finance specialists,
(e) operators of self-propelled vehicles, (f) representatives of fields of agriculture, sales and service
provision (g) senior specialists of educational institutions.
Determination coefficients illustrated in Table 7.1A show that all the above mentioned aspects taken
together explain satisfaction of only 14 % of employees with this possibility; more that a half is
explained by profession and characteristics of an enterprise. Table 7.1B also includes number of
working hours, net wage of employees, working regime and personnel management policy of the
enterprise. This increases the part of explained satisfaction variations for men by about 23% and form
women by 27%.
In equal conditions men who work extra hours (36% from all respondents) are less satisfied by about
0.5 points with this balance that those who have a regular working week. No such effect was observed
among women disregarding the fact that each fourth employee has extra hours. Although this
difference is not relevant, it still shows satisfaction level variations with possibility to coordinate
family life and work. Women who work up to 20 h per week are by 1 point more satisfied; women
who work 20 – 34 hours are by 0.6 points more satisfied than full time employees (in equal
conditions). But men who work 20 – 34 h per week are 0.9 less satisfied than those who work 40 h.
Obviously this is the effect of gender role.
Positive effect of the wage on the possibilities to coordinate family life and work are more explicit
among men but it has no great effect: duplication of net incomes (in equal conditions) increases
satisfaction by 0.35 points (0.51×ln(2) = 0.51×0.7 = 0.35). it has to be indicated that the survey
provided data on total incomes of the respondent, not the wage; however the latter is a component of
incomes. It has to taken into account that wage effect in this model is partially manifested though
effect of other controlled factors (working hours, education, field, professions, region).
The necessity to systematically work in holidays reduces satisfaction of men by 0.6 points and that of
women by 1 point (in equal conditions). Satisfaction of women with the possibility to coordinate
family life and work is also reducer if they sometimes have to work in holidays.
Possibilities to have unpaid vacation or holidays raises satisfaction of men with the balance of family
life and work by 0.4 points but that of women – by 1 point (in equal conditions). Representatives of
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both genders approve the fact that meeting are organized during working hours and that the enterprises
organizes undertaking where their family members may also take part: each of these factors increase
satisfaction level by 0.3 – 0.4 points.
7.2. Role and Support of Employers

When analysing role of an employer on harmonization of working life and family life, participants of
the focus groups of employed people with shall children emphasized meaning of personal attitude of
the boss, material possibilities of the working place, form of property, size of enterprise and labour
characteristics. In state institutions, especially in educational institutions employers have rather limited
but clear and predictable possibilities to support employees. Employees in state institutions use breaks
to feed their children. But in private enterprises the support depends on personal attitude of employer
to the employee. Participants of the research have met employers who do not support families with
children and are rather negative in respect of private life. “At work of my husband they do not know
what “family” means.” (FGD family., woman., lv., Riga)
It does not concern enterprises where there is collective agreement that provides guarantees and
advantages fro all employees: “We are allocated a benefit after birth of child in the frameworks of the
collective agreement.” (FGD family., man., lv., Riga)
Ways how employees support their employers include material assistance, organizing of undertaking
and positive attitude:
If necessary, they can have family affairs during the labour time;
There is a bus organized by employers that takes employees to the working place;
Organizing of undertaking where the entire family may take part (balls, sport games, trips);
Health care policies, insurance and provisions;
Gifts on occasions (usually Christmas).
Support of an employer to families with children:
Benefits for parents in definite cases, like September 1 or graduation (provided by labour
union);
Child birth benefit;
Christmas events for children;
Vacation possibilities in summer for women with children aged till 12;
Holidays in case if the child falls ill;
Additional paid vacations;
Support of the working place and a possibility to use rights provided by the Law on breaks to
feed small children.
The most often used and the most positively evaluated support of employer is a possibility to have
family affairs during working hours in case of necessity (for example, the child has to be taken from
the kindergarten, visit of a doctor, etc.). The majority of inhabitants or parents with small children are
provided with these possibilities if characteristics of work do not limit it. “If it does no harm for
work, then it is possible”. (FGD inhab., man., 35-55, rus., Riga)
It is important that a special allowance and advantages of state institutions are perceived as usage of
sick lists: “Private entrepreneurs are not satisfied with the fact if you have too much sick lists. They
may fire you.” (FGD inhab., woman, 50-65, Rus, Riga) In general the above-mentioned kinds of
support are considered to be not only support from the employer but it also is interest and will to
preserve employees. But support of employers and rights provided in the legislation are not enough in
order to coordinate family life and work. Mothers with small children need positive attitude of labour
collective, because otherwise they have to abandon their rights in order to gain their favour.
The fact that the mentioned problem is not contracted and unilateral is affirmed also by negative
attitude towards family life and work coordination activities uttered by some respondents of focus
groups, especially by younger respondents, who are of the opinion that it is not necessary to involve a
family into work undertakings and that one must separate work from one’s private life.
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In order to evaluate possibilities of coordinating family life and work with the help of quantitative
surveys, questions on availability of different possibilities and support of employees were included in
the survey “Women and men in the labour market”. As the results show, there are no relevant
differences in coordination of private life and work between both genders. In the case of need, 71,6%
of men and 69,8% of women can use unpaid vacation, for 64,6 of men and 68,0% of women meetings
are organized during working hours, correspondingly 50,8 and 53,5% of employees receive presents
from working place and in 41,0 and 42,7% of cases enterprises organize undertakings where families
may participate. Number of positive answers for additional paid vacations differs – they are available
to 19,0% of men and 23,5% of women. These differences and small number of positive answers could
be created because of lack of experience and information. Although the Labour Law provides special
rights to expectant mothers, parents with small children till the age of 1.5, as well as parents who have
3 and more children till the age of 16, people are not aware of these rights and only those who have
had such needs or possibilities know about them.
Experience and evaluation of inhabitants, the majority of who are employees, do not contradict the
results of survey on employers. In in-depth interviews it was admitted that in general managers and
their employees find it hard to coordinate family life and work. But attempts to do it and support of
employees is evaluated as positive practise. About 92% of employers agree or almost agree to the fact
that support of employers for families favour formation of positive microclimate within an enterprise,
as well as it increases motivation of employees and attracts them to the working place. Female
employers tend to agree to this statement more then male employers.
Disregarding this opinion that harmonization of working life and family life has a positive impact on
an enterprise, another questions was related to possibilities of employers to realize concrete measures.
The main obstacle is financial resources that form the difference between small and large enterprises.
The main financial sources for support of family life and work coordination are:
Resources of employers and enterprises – employers realize that they invest personal
resources and that is why they want to see real results or support from the state;
Resources of employees – additional expenses of employees may negatively influence budget
of families;
Labour unions – in general it provides the smallest financial support, which has to be
supplemented from the two above-mentioned sources.
There exists an opinion among small and average enterprises that family support if a state function and
the state has to bear responsibility for it. This statement is less popular among employers in large
enterprises. Employers who have no higher education and male managers of enterprises agree to the
opinion that the state has to take this duty. The majority of employers (71%) think that tax system does
not favour enterprises to support families. This is a common view almost among all employers of all
kinds of enterprises. Male employers (73%) expect the state to support families, where women agree
to this opinion less often (57%). Comparatively wider circle of supporters of this point of view is
among employers of the field of construction, which is rather “masculine” field.
The main from of support for harmonization of working life and family life are:
Using of paid vacation in the case of necessity - 78,5% of employers offer this opportunity,
but the proportion is higher in large enterprises (86,6% of enterprises of “500 and more
employees” are ready to offer this opportunity)’
Financial support – this kind of support is mainly advantage of large enterprises (especially in
the form of health insurance and payment for medical treatment). Financial support is the most
often provided in the case of illness of children or relatives or in case or birth of child;
Work meeting are organized during working hours – 73/8% of employees do not disturb
employees in free time;
Gifts for family members of employees on occasions – this functions as a factor that favours
micro climate in an enterprise and strengthens loyalty of employees;
Employees are offered part time work or flexible time table – a kind of support that is
provided by 50% of large enterprises and 40% of small enterprises;
135
Organizing of undertakings where the entire family may participate – a kind of support
provided by 80% of large enterprises. Usually these undertakings are excursions, sport games
and parties.
As the main activity in coordinating family life and work, employers mention organizing of common
undertakings. In the case of large enterprises, vacations are mentioned, which is an advantage of large
enterprise thanks to financial possibilities and possibilities to substitute employees.
Although undertakings organized by employer are meant for employees only, there is a tendency to
separate undertakings “for employees” and undertakings fro “families and employees”. Motivation of
employees to organize these undertakings is rather pragmatic:
Strengthen favourable micro climate in the working place;
Ensure informal communication in the working place;
Form togetherness in the collective;
Favour loyalty of employees;
Raise productivity.
The majority of male and female employers (87%) share the opinion that private life of employees
should be separated from work. This opinion motivates employers support families and increase time
that an employee can spend together with family. This can not be perceived as a negative tendency
because, as it was discovered in the qualitative research, strict separation of work and family life in the
eyes of employers means definite working hours without extra hours, as well as to avid labour
holidays or “take the work home”.
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7.3. Offer and Demand of Flexible Work Forms

In qualitative stages of the research – focus group discussions of families with small children
experience of possible and desired forms of flexible work was studied and summarized.
When asked about existing and desired forms of flexible work, employed people did not mention
particular problems in this field. In general both, men and women admitted that they are satisfied with
their working time. Usually it is possible to get a day off or some free time by agreeing with employer
and colleagues when it is necessary. There is no need for additional regime of flexible work among
employees.
Respondents think that advantages of flexible work are following:
☺ It is possible to plan one’s time;
☺ Employee is motivated to do his job faster;
☺ Employee does not have to be at work when there is no work: “If I have work, I work 10 – 12
hours. If there is no work, I stay at home. ” (FGD inhab., woman., 30-49, rus., Rezekne)
☺ It is advantageous to take care of children when necessary (to visit a doctor, attend different
activities).
The fact that not all working places have such system and flexible working plan is used, is related to
mutual difficulties of employees to coordinate schedules or to characteristics of the field – it can not
be widely practiced in service industry, for example, bank workers, sales assistants, pedagogues, etc.
“For example, sales assistants can not afford it. They have to be at work till the last minute.” (FGD
inhab., woman., 50-65, rus., Riga)
It is easier for parents to coordinate their professional occupation with child care if it is possible to use
specific forms of work, for example, flexible or summarized working hours, part time work, and
distance work. A common work form is work in shifts, as participants of the research consider, may
simplify harmonization of working life and family life, especially if parents have to subordinate their
work to the rhythm of school or kindergarten.
Parents of small children in the focus groups mentioned several forms of flexible work that could
favour mother to rejoin the labour market:
Free of flexible time table is the most important, for example, a possibility to come to work
later and to have a day off in the case of necessity, or free hours during the day – in order to
reach the child if necessary.
Part time work or more or less normal time work is necessary in order not to work long hours
– they need time for house works, to take care of children and feed them.
It is important that the employers does not reproach or threat to fire if they use sick lists
because of illness of a child;
A part of participants of focus groups would prefer using a possibility to work at home;
Mothers whose children attend kindergarten or school, would be more satisfied if they did not
have to work on holidays.
Respondents in the quantitative survey of families with small children were asked about real usage of
flexible work works and interest to use them. In accordance to the actual practice that shows that
mother usually take care for small children, we analysed in details activities and desires of women.
The question on characteristics of work was also set for men, but only a small proportion of them have
used any of flexible work forms.
68,5% of women were employed before birth of a child. In sprint 2006 17.5% of young mothers
resumed working, i.e. about one fourth of women who have been employed. 20.6% of employed
women were not offered any of the flexible work forms (Figure 7.3.1).
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Figure 7.3.1. Job characteristics of female before and after the birth of a child (%)
% Before the birth of a child [n=411] After the birth of a child [n=105]
23 23
19
16
14
13
11
3
3
2 2
1
Summarized W ork in shifts Flexible working Part time work W ork at nights Distance work
working hours hours
Base1: Females who were employed before birth of a youngest child [n=411]
Base2: Females who are currently employed [n=105]
Women who have resumed working after the birth of a child more often use some of the flexible work
forms – mainly flexible working hours and full time work. Women before the birth of a child work
more often work in shifts and that of summarized working hours, whereas they part time work and
flexible working hours are used not so often. Evidently these are flexible work forms that help to
coordinate care for small children with processional employment, which is why they are used more
often than before the birth of a child.
There are also some differences in usage of flexible work forms due to different branches and regions.
Three the most popular branches are – sales, education and industry where young mothers use the
opportunity to work part time, have distance work or use method of summarized working hours.
138
Figure 7.3.2. Interest of parents to use some of the flexible forms of work (% from total number of
males and females)
Yes No Imposs ible Hard to say
Part time work
Males 13 55 19 14
Females 42 38 6 14
Flexible working hours
Males 38 31 21 10
Females 38 39 11 12
Dis tance work
Males 14 43 31 11
31 42 16 11
Females
Summarized working
hours
38 30 19 14
Males
Females 27 48 9 17
Base1: female respondents [n=600]

Bāze2: male respondents [n=500]
Source: GEALM survey on families with small children

Interest of women with small children in using flexible work forms. Not all branches and
specializations provide usage of flexible work forms. It depends on characteristics of a particular
sphere, interest of an employer and desires of employees. Answers to the question “Would you be
interested in using one of four mentioned forms of flexible work?” show that mothers would prefer
working part time (42.3%). The second is flexible working hours – 37.8%, the third – distance work –
31.3% (Figure 7.3.2). However distance work is the form that is hart to be used in particular
profession – 15.7% cannot use it because it is not possible. Comparatively large part of respondents –
11 – 17% found it difficult to define their personal preparedness and desire to use one of these forms,
which can be explained by the proportion of unemployed women.
Desires on usage of flexible work forms are different for women who have resumed / started working
and who were unemployed at the moment of the survey. Those who are experiences in coordinating
work and childcare more often expressed their interest in using any of the forms (Table 7.3.1).
Unemployed found it difficult to speak about usage of these forms.
Women who have resumed working often admitted that a particular form of work couldn’t be realized
at their work. Women often are not interested in using distance work, and what concerns this work
form, the often say that it cannot be implemented at their work.
Interest of using one of the flexible work forms differs for women of different ages. Women aged 20-
40 is interested in working part time, those of 31-35 – summarised working hours. Desire to use
distant work reduces as the age increases: the highest interest is for 16 – 20 year old mothers, and the
lowest – for women aged 41 and more. Women aged 30 are more interested in using flexible working
hours.
Women from all regions expressed desire to work part time. Women from Latgale would prefer
working flexible working hours or distance work. Mothers with small children who live in the Riga
Basin are the most interested in working summarized working hours. Women in Zemgale and
139
Vidzeme answered that they are not interested in using any of the forms. Because of characteristics of
the branch, they can not be used mainly by women living in the Riga basin.
Table 7.3.1. Potential demand of flexible work forms (% of each work form)
Employed mother (n=105) Would you be interested in using one of four
Work form Unemployed mother mentioned forms of flexible work?
(n=495) Yes no Impossible in my Difficult
Father (n=500) profession to say
Flexible time Employed mother 52,5 23,2 20,2 4,0
table Unemployed mother 34,5 43,0 8,7 13,7
Father 38,0 31,4 21,0 9,6
Summarized Employed mother 34,3 34,3 15,2 16,2
working hours Unemployed mother 24,8 50,7 7,9 16,6
Father 37,8 30,0 18,6 13,6
Part time work Employed mother 46,5 32,3 11,1 10,1
Unemployed mother 41,6 39,0 4,6 14,7
Father 12,6 54,6 19,2 13,6
Distance work Employed mother 29,3 37,4 28,3 5,1
Unemployed mother 31,5 43,2 13,1 12,1
Father 14,4 43,2 31,4 11,0
Note: Interest of employed men and women to use different forms of work. Statistically relevant index of
difference among groups of parents is highlighted.
Interest of men with small children in using flexible work forms. Fathers were also asked whether
why would like to use any of the forms of flexible work. They admit that each form is influenced by
characteristics of the branch of employment, which means that their chances to use distance work are
reduced (see Table 7.3.1). However they expressed their interest in using flexible working hours
(38%) and summarized working hours (37.8%). They would prefer having part time work and distance
work less frequantly (12.6 and 14.4%).
Difficulties to realize different flexible work forms (impossible in my profession) are mentioned most
often by fathers employed in agriculture and state administration. Employees of state administration
are less interested in using these forms, especially part time work. Distance work seems attractive for
fathers employed in information technology field. Interest in using flexible working hours was
expressed by fathers working in production and agriculture, and summarized working hours – by those
employed in trade, catering, transport and communication.
Employed inhabitants and part time work. In the survey “Women and men in the labour market”,
employed inhabitants indicate that their working regime is not free or flexible, which is determined by
characteristics of work and contractual relations. Women more often than men do works, the
beginning and finishing of which is determined by an employer - 73,7% (men – 62,3%). Whereas
there are more men who determine when to start and finish work - 12,8% against 5,7% for women.
Workload of men and women or sum of working hours per week also differs. Although about a half of
participants admitted that they work 40 h per week (50,8% for men and 54,2% for women), there are
more male employees who work more than 40 hours (36.2%), where as women more often have part
time work (18.2%).
Unemployed inhabitants and flexible work. The survey “Women and men in the labour market”
shows that flexible work forms are in demand among those people who are not employed outside
home but who would like to work. As the answers show, there is no great difference considering
gender. Among labour searchers of both genders, flexible work hours are the most demanded form
(45,4% for men and 48,7% for women). Distance work is the most popular among women (28,0% if
compared to men - 18,7%), whereas men think that summarized working hours are more attractive
(respectively 23% and 17%).
For unemployed men and women the main reason why they would use flexible work forms is desire to
coordinate family life and work, however women mention this reason more often than men (65% and
140
37%). Men have other important reasons: coordination of work and studies (26% and 15%) and saving
of time and travel expenses (18% and 8%).
Figure 7.3.3. The main reason for non-working people preferring flexible working hours (%)
%
Male [n=164] Female [n=282]
65
Poss ibility to coordinate family life and work 37
15
Possibility to coordinate s tudies and work 26
8
Saving of time and travel expens es 18
6
Possibility to keep up transport schedules better 8
4
Other 9
2
NA 13
Base: respondents interested in using flexible work form s [n=446]
Source: GEALM survey “Women and men in the labour market”

It can be seen that these forms of work would be used in different branches if they were offered. But is
has to be mentioned that 24% of men from the target group and 19% of women would not like to use
any of non-traditional work forms, but respectively 13% from unemployed of both genders found it
difficult to answer.
141
7.4. Offer of Flexible Work Forms in Enterprises

Data of quantitative survey of employers show that at present 57% of enterprises employ part-time
employees. In feminized branches (sales, hotels, service industry, state administration, education,
health care) there are more part-time employees than in masculinised branches.
In the majority of enterprises employees who work part time constitute 15% of all staff. There is a
difference between small and large enterprises. Proportionally there are more large enterprises where
employees can work part time, but in these enterprises they constitute not less than 15% of the staff.
There are less small enterprises with part time employees, but if there are, they constitute more than
15% of the total number of employees. This means that proportionally there are more half time
employees in small enterprises with less than 49 employees.
In the majority of enterprises (67%) more than a half of part time employees are women, which
corresponds to previously described experience of target groups and desire of women to work part
time in order to devote more time to the family.
45% of inquired enterprises offered flexible work to their employees. 16% of employers from
enterprises that at present can not offer any such form admitted that it would be possible to offer
employees flexible working hours. There is smaller possibility to introduce flexible working hours in
masculinised branches – production, construction, transport, communication, finances. Two main
work forms that are used in the enterprises are part time work and summarized hours. They are mainly
used in large enterprises.
In in-depth interviews of employers, when considering flexible working time in details, employers
have positive attitude to introduction of flexible working hours. The following advantages are
enumerated:
☺ Productivity rises because employees work when it is necessary. Thus one can avoid the so
called “sitting free hours”;
☺ Employees are more satisfied because they have more time to spend with family;
☺ Employees can coordinate work with studies and other activities.
Benefits for employees when introducing flexible working hours is comparatively greater that those of
an employer. There are several branches, in the enterprises of which working hours are strictly
regulated. In the cases if an employee has to coordinate work with studies, child care of second job,
employers assume that they could introduce rolling schedule. In general fixed schedule is related to
service provision – employment in sales, banks, state administration or health care, etc.
Employers indicate in the interviews that part time work is the most appropriate form of flexible work,
which also are the most practiced in enterprises.
Employers enumerate the following factors that hamper introduction of flexible work forms:
Work with customers – in the fields where work is related to communication with customers, it
is hard to introduce flexible work forms because a client can come only in working hours of the
institution (for example, health care, sales, consulting, etc): “I can not be away from work,
because a customer may come. This can not be allowed…” (DD man).
Order work – flexible work is possible in the branches where result is needed in a particular
period of time instead of presence of employee. In this case flexible work is associated to
piecework;
Characteristics – employees who have flexible working hours, have to have responsibility and
ability to organize work. If an employer does not ensure work discipline, employees can not do
their job in time;
Team work – flexible working hours are difficult to be incorporated in the field where collective
work and work coordination is needed;
Legislation – some employers are not informed on such possibility or they indicate that the main
obstacle for introduction of it is legislation that does not provide such work form;
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Less work control – flexible working hours (apart from full time work) considerably reduce
work control in the sense of the rhythm of work and time spent for work, which later influences
the wage.
Reduces control of employer, work coordination and communication with clients are the main factors
that do not aloe employers introducing there forms. But it is indicated that in some enterprises
employees can agree of their schedule themselves. This usually takes place in relation to childcare,
studies or other work. Employer usually agrees with an employee on part time work or summarized
working hours. Making of such decision is related to relationships of an employee and employer, as
well as to value of the employee for the employer. “If an employee is good, then we allow him to work
part time, but if a person then wants to work more, we allow him to work extra hours and at the end
the sum is the same”. (DD man).
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8. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF GENDER EQUALITY

8.1. Rational and Emotional Perception of Gender Equality
In order to summarize subjective aspects that are related to the main subject of the GEALM research,
associations, perception and rational explanations of the term “gender equality” were studied in details
with the help of different methods in all target groups. The survey “Women and men in the labour
market”, as well as quantitative survey of employers included open questions of association with the
term “gender equality”. Participants of the in-depth interviews of employees and students were asked
to tell about their concepts, attitude and experience related to gender equality, but participants of the
focus groups - to show their associations and explain their understanding of the term with the help of
visual aids.
Qualitative and quantitative approaches and usage of discourse analysis allow analysing perception of
the term at rational or logical level and emotional or associative level of thoughts, feelings and
personal attitude.
Rational perception
Basic term that is mentioned in the Concept Paper on Gender Equality Implementation (MW, 2003:5)
is defined as a position when role of men and women in the society is admitted to be equal, when they
are provided with equal rights and responsibility, equal access to resources and equal possibility to use
them. Manual on introduction of gender equality principle in enterprises (Mieze, 2003: 10), it is
indicated that gender equality means to ensure equal rights and possibilities for both genders rather
than perceive men and women as equal living beings. Although there are physiological differences
between men and women, it can not serve as the basis for limitation of their rights and possibilities of
self realization.
Explanations of gender equality include the following elements:
Equal role of men and women in development of society;
Equal rights;
Equal responsibility;
Equal access to resources;
Equal possibilities of usage of the resources;
Provision of possibilities of self-realization;
Taking into account physiological differences.
The discourse of the term “gender equality” is mainly formed by mass media and specialists of this
field. Participants of the groups, as well as respondents of the interviews claim hat this term often
emerges in press and TV. Influence and efficiency of information campaigns manifests itself in
segments and interpretations of the participants.
The attitude of inhabitants in general, as well as attitude of employers and parents with small children
on actualization of gender equality problem was found out in quantitative surveys of GEALM
research. In general, a half of respondents agree to the statement “at present great attention is paid to
gender equality problems”. The results of all surveys, especially that of employers mark the tendency
that there are mo people among men who agree or rather agree to this statement, but women more
often claim that they do not or rather don’t agree to the statement that issues of gender equality are
exaggerated (65% of men and 40% of women agree to the statement in the survey of employers). This
tendency indicates that problems of gender equality are mainly related to issues that are important for
women.
144
Other tendency that is show in the results of all surveys is that there are fewer people among young
respondents who think that the issue of equality is exaggerated, but as the respondents’ age increases,
people tend to agree to the statement.
When considering association with this term, it has to be emphasized that in general no important
differences were observed among women and men on the concept of gender equality on the rational
level of perception. The majority of respondents (37,3% of employers and 18,5% of inhabitants)
characterize gender equality using the expression “equal rights”. In the study of focus groups, equal
rights are related to equal possibilities. In the target group of parents with small children we observed
that women perceive more equal possibilities of both genders, but men – the fact that each one has the
right to do what he wants.
“Each gender has rights to be evaluated by what he is doing and not by the fact that he or she is a
man or a woman.” (FGD, family, woman., lv., Liepaja)
But men mention desire of women to prove themselves in different fields – “women tend to show that
they can be presidents”. Russia speaking men emphasize that gender equality is not possible. Their
main argument is the fact that women are physiologically weaker – “Women will never be able to lift
weight or run faster than a man”. In general, men agree that both genders have equal rights, but it
does not mean that it is hart do be implicated in real life.
The term on equal access to resources mentioned in the concept paper is characterized as “equal or
similar wage” in the discourse of employers and inhabitants (respectively 29% and 10%).This
corresponds to “need for carried or work possibilities” that are also often mention and they are usually
perceived as possibilities for self-realization.
Respondents also speak about the role of a woman and a man in the society by emphasising the fact
that gender equality is related to “equality in all fields”, “we all are equal” and “people are not sorted
according to their gender”. Participants of the focus groups speak also about equal self-expression in
all spheres of life, including rights to fulfil equal duties.
It is more frequent among employers than inhabitants that they mention association that are related to
“equal rights and responsibilities” of both genders (6,4% un 1,5%, mentioned more often among men).
Whereas indication of physiological differences is perceived as an opposite to gender equality – “it is
impossible because women differ from men”, “men have physically harder and women easier work”
etc (1,5% pf inhabitants and 2,8% of employers).
Men in focus group discussions mention the fact that physical power is the main difference between
men and women. This determines what a woman can do. Although a woman can do a job that requires
physical power, it will be less effective. Understanding of gender equality as equalization of physical
differences was a common concept – “this means that a woman can work as a tractor driver”.
“[..] equality often leads to absurd, as if women can do everything that men can. But it is not
necessary for them to do it, because there are still things that are not meant form women”. Stud., man)
However it has to be admitted that by emphasising differences between genders, men tend to show
their intellection superiority: “Women just waited until men invented technologies and computers, and
now they come and do the same what men do.” (FGD inhab., man., lv., Liepaja)
A part of participants said that “everything in this field already exists and is I order” instead of
defining the term (3,5% of inhabitants and 1,3% of employers).
As it was observed, those aspects of gender equality are less considered in the public discourse that is
related to possibilities of both genders to use resources. In the discussions, they speak about
differences pertaining to women and men, but at the same time they emphasize that possibilities in the
society for both genders are equal and it is important that the society accepts it: “When both genders
have equal possibilities to reach something that the society would appreciate, then men and women
have equals possibilities and abilities. The main thing is how the society perceives it”. (FGD family.,
woman., rus., Riga)
145
Emotional perception. When providing spontaneous answer to the question of gender equality, the
respondents related it to “equality in a family (3.5%) and “mutual relations”, “respect to one another”,
which shows that emotional perception is based on personal experience.
All target groups expressed the concept that exists in the society that gender equality is related to
women (“emancipation”, “feminists”, “women discrimination”, “privileged, mole possibilities for
women”). This opinion in quantitative survey of groups of inhabitants appears in associations of both,
men and women (respectively 1,9% and 1,2%), however it has to be emphasized that they do not
appear often.
It happens rarely but representatives of some groups expressed negative emotional evaluation, for
example, “phrase mongering”, “irritating”, “irritating publicities” and “I don’t care”, as well as
associations to former periods of time – “soviet traditions”.
Only women expressed associations characterized by emotional bitterness, for example,
“discrimination”, “women have fewer rights”, “women have to lift weight” or “women have more
workload”.
In the focus groups the method of collage was used in order to help the participants to express their
emotional attitude to the issue under consideration. In these collages employed inhabitants and parents
with small children reflect those fields of life where, as to their minds, there is no gender equality. The
leading motive of collages made by men and women are things that a man and a woman can do
together.
It is important that in all groups – both men and women it is emphasized in these collages that firs of
all equality has to exist in a family and gander equality is related to equal rights and responsibilities in
family life. Family is considered to the very place where gender equality principles are implicated – to
take part in upbringing of children, to have rest and divert oneself and to furnish the family house.
Gender equality in a family is related to love and mutual understanding. Women more often than men
emphasize equality in a family – both, men and women have to take part in child care and to do
household works. Men perceive gender equality in a family on general level, and they use pictures of a
family (mother, father and a child). Whereas women are more precise when talking about the ways
hoe equality has to be manifested – pictures with a man who prepares dinner, takes care for a child,
sweeps the floor etc.
Collages made by women are characterized by the fact that they perceive gender equality as ability to
do what a man can do or do it together with him. The main words that characterize these collages are:
“to do (something) together”, “a women can do it as well as a man”, “they both have rights to have
rest, divert themselves”, “thy do (something) together”, “responsibilities should e equal”, “a man can
sit a child”, “equal rights and responsibilities”, “everything can be done by a man or a woman”.
But in the collages of men it is emphasized that equality means freedom to choose to do what he or she
wants to: “everyone can choose what to do, everyone has his or her own perfect models”, as well as
“both genders have rights to do (something); women has rights”.
The above mentioned emotional explanations or explanations that are based on feelings that contain
words like “to be able”, “possibilities”, and “rights”, show inadequacy of theoretically possible and
actual equality – although it is possible, it is not implicated.
The fact that women leave work for the sake of a family is perceived as sacrifice and real inequality
from the part of women: “Usually women leave work. But a man thinks that the main thing is to be as
he is and to be his own master. He is not going to give up everything for family’s sake. But women
sacrifice themselves.” (woman., 20-35, lv., Riga)
In all collages there were things illustrated that are more related to gender inequality. Men say that this
is because of natural differences – equality is not possible because the nature has created a man and a
woman that differs. That is why gender equality is artificially created problem. Words that
characterize collages made by men are: “men and women are different but at the same time they are a
unit; equality is not possible; we should not be equal.” Existence of real equality is possible only in
relationships full with love and in mutual relations.
146
However women speak more about inequality and they illustrate fields of life or discriminating
situations where there is no equality between both genders. Their main explication of the statement
that equality does not exist is related to stereotypes and prejudices that exist in the society and that
determine behaviour of men and women, as well as it is related to declared physical and intellectual
superiority of men.
The ideal gender equality model. When speaking on perfect situation of gender equality in the focus
group discussions, men emphasized existence of natural (physiological) differences, as well as
importance of mutual respect and love, as well as the fact that it is important to realize oneself.
Everyone has to do what he wants and what he knows to do the best: “gender equality is when
everyone does what he wants.”
Elder women are of the same opinion and they think that women who want to be like men are more
successful. Women of the mentioned age group agree that changes take place in the filed of work and
family life, but this does not necessarily speaks about gender equality.
Younger women think that improvement in the filed of gender equality will be seen in the next
generations if children will be educated in a different way – they have to be told since childhood that
both, a mother and a father have equal duties in a family. Women of average age think that the present
situation is satisfactory, “because gender inequality can bee seen in the East.” “I don’t need gender
equality. [..] We have undertaken double load of duties if compared to men. Now we are equal and
you cannot understand who is a man and who is a woman.” (woman., 50-65, rus., Riga)
“We don’t need gender equality everywhere. A woman should not dig the ground and work as a
tractor driver”. (woman., 50-65, lv., Cesis)
147
Figure 8.1.1. Perception of “gender equality”. Summary of collage technique for FGD’s of
parents having small children.
denotations: women
men
... love, happiness, mutual ...rights to choose any

understanding work
When we kiss each other, this is
Women can be first class
gender equality because we
surgeons. Female pilot is able
love each other. Happy people
to cope with stress situations as
– rights to be happy.
well as a man can.
Need for harmony and balance.
Men and women are different Men can prepare meals as
as to their physical good as women can.
characteristics, they are like They both can be models.
two bangs and there is a bridge
between them where they meet
and from a unit.
Men and women are different, Family is equality.
each one has rights to choose – They all have rest, work and care
this is equality but at the same for children.
time they are a unit
To be together all life.
Everyone smiles; his is how it has
to be – to be together in leisure
time. Women should not entertain
children alone when men meet
EQUALITY IS .. their friends.
.. equal possibilities of ..care about family and

spending free time children
Father sits children while
Both, men and women have rights mother works.
to have rest. It is bed if a man
They both have to take care of
sleeps on holidays but a woman
the child.
gets up and prepares breakfast.
Father has rights to participate
Even in fishing a woman can show in child care.
that she knows hot to do it. They both create their mode of
She asks him to help get the fish. life. They both choose furniture
Wife supports her husband, he and create interior.
could not do alone. They can rest Child, father, mother – they all
together. participate in child care.
Women like men are happy and Father can also spend time
drink vodka. with a child..
148
Figure 8.1.2. Perception of “gender equality”. Summary of collage technique of FGD’s for
employed people.
Denotations: women
men
...rights to choose any
work ...care for family and
It is nice to see that men and children
women are shop assistants. There is a child, a mother and
Both, men and women can be a father in a family. They both
architects. take equal part in child care.
Both, men and women can be Not only mother has to care
doctors – this is equality. for child, father also has to
People working at a computer participate..
– young generation has A man sweeps the floor –
gender equality. house works have to be done
Women occupy high positions together.
in politics. Both can prepare meals and
Glass blowing is a difficult care for children.
work but even women do it. Family is when rights and
duties are equal.
Equality in a family – both
are happy, none of the
members are leaders.
... possibility to express

oneself ...equal rights in intimate life
If you are talented, there is no EQUALITY IS ... Equality in bed.
matter whether you are a man Woman is dominating but later they will
or a woman. change position. Women can have the
We all have voice and we sing leading role.
disregarding our gender. They enjoy each other.
... equal possibilities of ... care for appearance

spending free time There are men in good form
Both can rest with friends. and with manicure.
Both can have rest, travel and Men, too can change his looks
play games. Together or – dye hair, have nose
separately they can do piercing, varnish nails and
everything. Women can do put on rings. To be elegant –
any sports. both men and women can do
They both can go fishing and it. .
hunting. Both can play sports. Women
No matter whether he is a can have a tattoo. Both, men
man or women, they just have and women can use
rest.. cosmetics. .
Men and women can have rest Both, men and women care
together, it is not like men for their appearance – visits
spends time with guests and manicure and makes
women stay in the kitchen. depilation.
149
Figure 8.1.3. Perception of “gender equality”. Summary of collage technique of focus groups for
parents with small children and employed people.
Denotation: women
men
THERE IS NO GENDER
EQUALITY BECAUSE...
.. men have more power .. there exist different attitude to

King is a man because power norms of behaviour of the genders,
belongs to men. for example:
He is the main. They think that they
deserve higher positions in order to Women has to care about her
be the leaders. There is a appearance
comparatively small number of Women have to take care of her looks.
women in the government. Men gossip about them but they do note
see that they’re fat. It is very common in
Latvia.
.. women have greater work Body of a woman is her
load (work and home) advantage and capital
A man sits at the table and a woman This is the advantage of women to show
serves him. They both have to rest her beautiful body. There is no equality
but women are still running around. because only women do it. Naked body –
Men can have rest in baht houses, women are used in this respect, men are
but this is not equality. They think not. [..] Why women sell their bodies,
that women can not rest like this. but men do not?
.. women have limited labour Women do not drive well
possibilities Women are reproached for conducting a
How to earn more? Not only car [..] It can not be admitted that men
men are concerned can drive and women can not.
about money. Women, too, have Men change partners easily and
rights not to leave work in often
family’s sake. Police – there are When a man appears with two
many men working there, but women, it is normal. When a
they don’t want to employ woman has two companions, she is
women. criticized by the society.
.. men and women are different

We think different, we have different requirement, our brain works differently, we
will never be alike. [..] It is not natural to impose gender equality and cultivate it in
the society. [..] It is stupid to do arm-resling with a man – he is stronger.
... nor men, neither women want it
Equality has a declarative character. For example, a man sleeps but a woman
serves him or vice versa – a man puts on shoes for women. This is not equality!
Why should he put on those shoes if we are equal? [..] There is long way to go to
reach equality.
150
Differences of Perception of the Term in the Target Groups

EMPLOYED INHABITANTS
If gender equality in the target group of parents with small children is perceived through the prism of a
family, then in the target groups of employed inhabitants an important issue is changes in
understanding and realization of gender equality.
There exists an opinion in the groups of men that simultaneously with development of technologies
that has facilitated many spheres of life, like mode of life and production, changes in traditional
opinions on division of men and women role have also taken place. In present days the amount of
work and its importance has reduced, and often women can do works that previously were done by
men only.
Participants of focus groups with elder people are convicted that changes in the attitude of the society
on gender equality can be implicated only when the generation changes and hopes are anchored on the
youngest generation that tend to take over models of behaviour from previous generations, as
experience shows. Older women think that it can be observed in their families that roles of men and
women become more alike – young people are not so traditional in their concepts concerning
especially household works. They think that in the frameworks of the young generates gender equality
at work and in leisure time is more explicit than for older generations. “In new families there is total
equality. They work and study equally. They divide their family duties equally.” (FGD inhab., woman.,
50-65, rus, Riga)
But not all women agree that present changes have promoted gender equality. Participants of older
generation have experiences that a woman in addition to house works has also decided to make carrier.
They think that it would be better to preserve traditional model where a man is responsible for family
welfare and women devote more time to household works and she needs work just in order to be
materially independent. “Now women try to do everything – they carry shopping bags, brings up
children, works, prepares meals and makes carrier. I think that women have to spend more time on
house works. Of course, they can work but not till they fall and then pull herself together and care for
children.” (FGD inhab., woman., 50-65, rus., Rīga)
STUDENTS
In the target group of students the issue of gender equality is evaluated as important and topical but it
is not urgent in their everyday life. Although youngsters use theoretically corrects terms, they still can
not see everyday situations through the prism of gender equality and they rarely can identify any
situation of gender equality in their experience. Although the majority of students express the
necessity for equal rights and division of responsibilities, one still can feel that the majority of them
prefer traditional model of a family:
“Men should take material care for a family. Of course, it should not be allowed that a woman stays
at home and does nothing. [..] It has to be proportional but a man still should be superior in respect of
earning money.” (stud, woman)
“It is not right if a woman is superior in a family and earns more. It is historically prescribe that it is
better if a man is superior. But a woman is completely dependent and this is not good either. If a man
thinks that he is the leader then he determines what a woman can do. Family must live in harmony,
and each of us has to scarify for it. [..] if a woman earns more then a man will feel more suppressed
and will try to suppress the woman in other fields.” (stud, man)
“[..] my model is as follows – “woman is a housewife”. Of course, she can be employed but she has to
prepare dinner and care for children when I return home. These are basic requirements for women.”
(stud, man)
The determining point lies in the example of parents on what relationship model will be implemented
in the family of a young person. “The one who comes home first and who is free prepares supper and
washes dishes. There are so called men and women duties but this does not exists in my family. This is
what I like about my family.” (Stud, woman)
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One can observe negative attitude towards “extreme phenomena” in the opinions of students. One of
the examples is conception that one is trying to take down any borders for the sake of gender equality,
but there still exist definite distinctions between them. They often speak about feminism that is mainly
related to definite prejudices and restrictions and exaggeration of the situation, as to the minds of
students. “Gender equality is not the same as feminism. That is why I am “for” gender equality.”
(stud., man)
“It is good but on the other hand I relate it to feminism. I don’t like this work or idea. [..] those women
want to exaggerate their situation and their rights.”(Stud, woman)
“I don’t like this collocation [gender equality]. I support it but this word sounds just awful. I have a
feeling that there exists some patriarchy or matriarchy. This sets definite borders and then you start
thinking whether this is allowed to or not in order not to insult anybody.” (stud., man)
EMPLOYERS
The notion “gender equality” was know to employers who participated in qualitative survey.
Spontaneous definitions of respondents varied as to their form but they were similar as to their content
– equal rights for all, wages irrespective gender. It is likely that the majority of respondents do not
have this problem. Only some of the participants have faced this problem. It is clear that the
respondents understand gender equality literally and they do not notice latent manifestation of
violation.
In the in-depth interviews with employers it was discovered that the majority of them are generally
aware of the gender equality issues. A part of respondents relate gender equality with feminism.
Several respondents indicated that in Latvia gender equality is observed and it is related to
development of the state and its democracy.
The information obtained in the in-depth interviews shows that the situation in the labour market
concerning gender equality is rather satisfactory. When analysing the main and potentially
discriminating moments in the labour market, such as selection of employees and definition of the
wage, one can see that employers have equal attitude to employees of both genders. New employees
are involved basing on characteristic that are required for professional activities, but not on the gender.
When speaking about wages of employees and order of their calculation, all respondents denied
categorically that there exist a possibility that belonging to one or another gender could influence the
wage – this firs of all depends on level of professionalism and in many cases from experience (length
of service), as well as from the amount of work and personal involvement. Representatives of the
enterprises, the manager of which is able to fix the wage and bonuses relatively independently, denied
that it is possible to differentiate wage in relation to the gender – the main thing is that an employee is
enough professional and motivated.
Several respondents admitted that in the real situation of employment traditions and social habits have
a great role. It is important that in the context of gender equality employers spoke mainly about the
necessity for women to enter traditionally masculine professions and they more rarely mentioned a
possibility that men should get involved in feminine professions.
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8.2. Perception and Experience of Gender Discrimination

FOCUS GOURPS OF EMPLOYED INHABITANTS AND PARENTS WITH SMALL CHILDREN
In all focus groups, after discussing and explaining the term “gender equality”, the participants shared
their views on gender discrimination. It was mainly perceived as an opposite to gender equality –
unequal division of duties, fewer possibilities for women and higher wage for men. “Men have more
possibilities to get a job. Of somebody had to choose between me and a man of my age, they would
choose him.” (FGD inhab., woman., 50-65, lv., Cesis) “Woman was doing the same work as a man,
but she received less. This is called discrimination.” (FGD inhab., man., 20-40, lv., Liepaja)
When speaking about their real experience, the majority of the participants of the research think that
this problem does not concern them. However during the discussions, women mentioned some cases
of gender discrimination.
Employed women have faced the fact that women with small children are not willingly employed
because employers think that children may fall ill often and then women will use sick lists. They feel
discriminated if an employee as them a question on family planning, which is never asked to men. The
answer that a potential employee is planning to have a family serves as an obstacle for her
employment. “As the employer said, I was fit for the position. Then I was asked whether I am
planning to have a child. I answered affirmatively. That was it and my candidature was withdrawn.
Men were not asked the same question.” (FGD family., woman., lv., Riga)
Women with small children have experiences that their competence is doubted. “Others think that
women are more stupid. We had a café in the enterprise and men thought that the bartender was
stupid because she was a woman.” (FGD family., woman., rus., Riga) Especially if a woman wants to
work in a profession that is so-called masculine work, she still has to prove that she is bale to cope
with all duties of the position.
Group of men singled out admissible and inadmissible discrimination. Admissible discrimination is
cases when women are offered such positions like that of a secretary. They theoretically agreed that
both, men and women can do one and the same work, but they think that it would be better if they
occupied the positions that correspond to the conception of feminine work – ‘for example, secretaries
usually are women”.
In the group of women it was also indicated that if a man and a women with similar skills would apply
for a position, preference would be given to the man, especially in educational institutions. Men would
also be given preference in the case if the woman had higher level of education. This pertains to the
concept that men in a collective of women favours micro climate: “in female collective there are a lot
of gossips.” (FGD inhab., woman., 30-49, rus., Rezekne)
None of men of all focus groups have faced a situation when he felt gender discrimination. Only one
participant of the target group of employed inhabitants admitted that it has been unpleasant for him to
work for leading woman in work that is related to military structures. Russian speaking men admitted
that they relate discrimination with the fact that an employer makes employees to do something that is
beyond the scope of their responsibilities and what they have not agreed upon.
But in the groups of preretirement women, the participants of the research have experienced
discrimination because of the age. “It was difficult for me to find work. When they see how old I am
they refuse to employ men. They do not even ask my education. They said that they would employ men
if I had no more than 40.” (FGD inhab., woman., 50-65, lv., Cesis)
Participants of the research who have experienced discrimination did not look for advocacy in any low
enforcement bodies or organization and they do not know what they should do in this situation.
Moreover, in general all participants of the focus groups shared the view that there is no use to
complain to law enforcement institutions because it is hard to prove discrimination.
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EMPLOYERS
When explaining the meaning of gender discrimination in the focus group of employers, one can see
that there are no relevant differences in perception of the notion. Respondents of the in-depth
interviews mention cases of gender discrimination in relation to engaging of employees (usually
women), wage differences and occupied positions.
None of the interviewed managers admitted that there was gender discrimination in their enterprise.
Stories on “other enterprises” and “I have heard” are prevailing. “I am sure there exist such
enterprises, but I can not mention precise examples. One can educate society on gender equality, but I
can not mention any example on gender discrimination.” (DD woman) “This may exist in large
enterprises. Nothing like this can be observed in our enterprise.” (DD man)
In the quantitative survey of employers, 40% of all employers admit that “a man in the society is
valued higher than a woman”. 35% of male employers and 48% of female employers agree to this
statement, which indicates that there is a difference among opinions on evaluation of the opposite
gender, but it does not contradict statistical indices on wage differences for men and women.
When considering this aspect in in-depth interviews in more details, one can observe that common
emotional attitude to this statement is negative, it is considered to be atavisms, i.e. that has reserved
from ancient times, and than in it is should not exist in modern society. “It has preserved since Roman
times.” (DD woman). However, when speaking about the actual situation in Latvia, a part of
respondents, mainly men, still admit that this stereotype of perception still exists in the society and it
influences different spheres of life. “Yes, I think that we still have to educate our society. Patriarchy
has already disappeared but there still are some characteristics of this node of thinking preserved.”
(DD man).
Principles existing in selection of employees that cause gender discrimination. In general it has to
be concluded that discriminatory principles that are not too widespread but still exist in the society are
more advantageous for men. It is favoured by stereotypes on suitability of men and women to definite
professions (for example, women are not fit for physically hard works), as well as by gender
segregation to definite fields of education and low level of education of men in general.
Good practice when selecting new employees in order to avoid gender discrimination is definition of
precise requirements for the respective vacancy. They usually take into account education, experience
and skills, as well as qualification. “We do not separate them. We take into consideration professional
experience and qualification. And no matter whether the candidate is a man or a woman.” (DD
woman)
This selection is objective enough and at the same time it indirectly is gender discriminatory. The
main obstacle here is lack of professional education in feminine or masculine fields. In this case the
problem is rooted in educational and school system that influences lack of natural or technical science
knowledge among women. Employers indicate that there are little women who master technical
professions, and men do not master feminine professions. “Women do not prefer technical
professions.” (DD man) “The more women will study in technical branches, the better the proportion
will be. A woman does not like to acquire profession of assembler. They prefer social sciences.” (DD
man)
Employers indicate that women do not like so called “masculine professions” (welder, builder, etc).
First of all, as it was mentioned above, it is related to the fact that in educational institutions that
prepare employees, the proportion of male students is higher. But in this case there exists another
aspect, too – concepts on gender stereotypes on professions as being feminized and masculinised.
“Profession of an engineer historically is meant for men. 80% of all engineers are men.” (DD man)
Women may find it difficult to get involved in “masculine’ braces because of concerns of employees
on possible additional expenses on creation of infrastructure: “If there will be one female and 30 male
welders in an enterprise, I doubt that she would like to work in this situation. Employer may find it
disadvantageous to reform infrastructure, if she is the only. It will be hard for her to find work, if she
needs separate cloakroom and shower.” (DD man)
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But in the majority of cases of involvement of women in to the branches where mainly men are
working are considered to be positive by employers. “I would be glad to employ women. I know they
are good professionals. So, you are welcome here!” (DD man)
A direct discriminatory factor is unwillingness of an employer to engage women in the productive age,
especially about the age of 30. Although the statement “it is not advantageous to engage women in
reproductive age”, is supported only by 145 of male employers and 22% of female employers, this
statement in general is not accepted by employers who work in masculine fields. Employers who have
higher education tend to agree to the statement more rare than those who have lower education level.
“Concerning carrier, it is easier for men, because they are not going to have a baby and they will not
take the leave. If they have appropriate education, it is easier for them. Women about 40 are better
employees because they have already settled their family life.” (DD woman) “I could agree if it is
related to pregnancy and illness of a child. I agree that it creates some problems but one can not
foresee them.” (DD man).
At the same time, one can observe definite difference between small and large enterprises, as well as
state and private enterprises. Large enterprises that have better methods of selection of employees face
less risks and potential expenses related to employee’s leave for child care. Where small, private
enterprises are the most subjected to the risks related to leave of an employee, although it is periodical.
This was manifested by the tendency observed in quantitative surveys that employees from small and
average enterprises tend to agree to the statement ““it is not advantageous to engage women in
reproductive age”. “If it is a commercial enterprise, it can not be allowed that everyone has a leave
for child care. Then you start thinking that women should not work if they want to care for children.”
(DD man)
Comparatively great number of employers (35.5%), especially male employers (52%) support division
of gender roles – “a man – earner”, “a woman – child carer”. It is supported in particular in small
enterprises. This means that employers often support leaves for child care and they are rather negative
about coordinating of child care and work. “Now, when I have a child, too, I am rather sceptical about
women who want to leave the child at home and go to work. Maybe economical situation makes her to
do it, so I will always allow her to do it.” (DD man)
It has to be admitted that level of agreement that a man is earner and women takes care of the house
has a tendency to increase as the age of employers increases. Those employers who are older than 45
support this statement.
Some employers admitted that in selection of new employees who have to work with customers,
appearance is an important factor, as well as skills of communication and manners. Appearance is
important, for example, in hotel sphere: “Have you ever seen fat waitresses? Maybe in pizzeria only”.
(DD woman) Good appearance plays a considerable role but it can not be considered to be the factor
that differentiates genders till the moment when an employee does not correspond to concepts of an
employer on how a person has to look like, how to dress and behave. “If this were a woman with too
much modern make up – this is too much. A man or a woman is beautiful if neatly dressed.” (DD man)
However it is important that none of the managers in the in-depth interviews admitted that engagement
of new employees is related to gender criteria of an employee. Almost all employers emphasised that
they mainly take into consideration professional criteria when selecting employees. If we assume these
answers as true, then an employee is not interested in the gender, age, social background, nationality
or physical parameters of an employee. When asked whether physical attraction plays any role in the
situation of engagement, the majority of respondents denied it. One of the respondents, thought,
declared: “I wanted to publish an announcement in “Diena” that I want to employ nice and stupid
nurses, but I was not allowed. They may later turn in to good nurses, because nothing of that happens
to clever girls.” Interviewer: “What about nice and clever?” – “There are not any, don’t you
knew?”(DD man) This open cynicism is a reference to the fact observed in qualitative survey that
body and physical attraction for women is a relevant precondition to form successful social carrier.
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Sexual Harassment in Working Places
FOCUS GROUPS OF EMPLOYED INHABITANTS AND PARETNS WITH SMALL CHILDREN

Focus group discussions showed that in the perception of inhabitants harassment in general is
considered to be a wide spread problem. Although it is not considered to be a problem, it is admitted
that women often have to hear remarks on them being women. “Men afford to joke in a way they
would never joke with their male partners,” (FGD inhab., woman., 20-35, lv., Riga)
It is important that in the groups of men and women it is considered that women are the main
instigator of cases of sexual interference. “If a woman wears low-necked dress at work, it disturbs men
in work. It is provocative. It sidetracks attention. In the railway department many men are employed
and there also are some women who come to work in short skirts – it disturbs male employees.” (FGD
inhab., woman., 30-49, rus., Rezekne) In this case the role of a woman contradicts the traditional one
because it is characterized as active subject. Behaviour of women very much depends on activities of
men and if she will not be provocative in her behaviour, men will not react. For example, in order to
avoid unpleasant situations in the working places, it is important for women “to show their attitude
immediately and do not allow any ambiguity.”
“Women do all they can in order to provoke men – they flirt and play. At the end they have to accept
rules that they have set for themselves. One has to pay for everything.” (FGD family., woman., rus.,
Riga)
“Women often provoke with the help of clothing. They like when men notice it. They like to control
men. They can smile to the boss and at the very moment she in engaged as project manager.” (FGD
family., man., lv., Riga)
It is assumed that presence of women in collective of men change relations of colleagues. Although
women do not realize it, they are the ones who cause conflicts.
Men condemned the situations when drunken man is trying to intrude upon his female colleague – ‘if
you are drunk, then you are not ok.” At the same time short term sexual relations with a colleague are
admissible. ‘I will not offer to every woman who works here. I have to know the person. If she is nice,
pretty and we have a mutual agreement, then this is ok. If I want it and she does not, then this is sexual
harassment. It is not allowed. It is not normal if I would demand it from her.” (FGD inhab., man., 35-
55, Riga)
Men do not tolerate a situation when women is a direct aggressor and a man – victim, because it is hart
to decline the demand of a woman. “Sometimes women ask it. They are even more aggressive. If a
woman wants THAT, she becomes even more aggressive than a man. Denial is perceived as personal
insult.” (FGD inhab., man., 35-55, Riga)
During the research we found out about an experience that a woman lost her work because she refused
to provide sexual service to her boss. “I was fired for this reason. The boss said that he has to choose
between me and a colleague to preserve in the position. I chose to leave.” (FGD inhab., woman., 30-
49, rus., Razekne)
Female participants think that there is no use to look for defence in law enforcement institutions for
sexual harassment. Men think similarly and they claim that sexual harassment is a situation that can be
subjectively interpreted, and thus – difficult to prove. “A woman may think that a glance of a man may
be abusive.” (FGD inhab., man., rus., Rīga)
EMPLOYERS
Employers were asked in in-depth interviews on the awareness in relation to the term of interference
of a person, as well as on their experience on cases, including cases of sexual harassment. It has to be
admitted that the notion of personal interference is not known in this group and it does not cause any
associations. More information was provided for the question on sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment is defined as (Mieze 2003:5) undesired verbal or non-verbal or physical activities
that have sexual character and its aim is to offend a person, or, if such is the result of these activities, if
negative and humiliating atmosphere is created. Sexual harassment is considered to be discrimination
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that is related to gender. Employers find it difficult to define “sexual harassment”, especially
perception of what it is may differ from gender to gender. Employers often say that no sexual
harassment exists at their enterprise.
Cases of sexual harassment are related to different perception of and expectations from the situation
between men and women. As at the level of legislation none of the respondents have faced sexual
harassment, they emphasize interpretation of the term in relation to the context and micro climate. The
main problem in identification of harassment is determination of the limits of “maintenance of friendly
climate” and “harassment”.
Employees when describing sexual harassment practically did not use the words respect, offence,
violence, aggression. They spoke more about confusing situations or difficulty to identify sexual
harassment. Sexual harassment, to the minds of respondents, most probably is possible in collective of
men and in collective with hierarchy. It was hard for employers to recollect any of such cases, and
they said that the problem lies in interpretation.
The statement “Sometimes in our enterprise employees create situations that are embarrassing for the
representatives of the opposite gender” was denied by 90% of employers. Existence of this situation
was admitted in 9.2% of enterprises (50 – 499 employees – 7% and 500 and more employees –
103.%). The main fields where employers admitted that there exist such situations are agriculture,
production, construction, transport, communications and finances. What concerns the gender of the
respondent, men more often admitted that there exist such situations: there are fewer differences
between age groups; however in the group of 55 and older these cases were mentioned rather often.
But this does not mean that older managers mean more frequent cases, but it shows long working
experience and openness when answering the question.
Some respondents of the in-depth interviews of employers recalled some such cases ant they did not
hide their negative attitude towards them. Others admitted that it could happen in an enterprise but
they did not want to mention any cases. There were also negative answers – no such cases have been
observed in their enterprises. The latter opinion is mainly declared by women. Let us emphasize that
none of the employers mentioned that “the opposite gender” in this case could be a man.
Sexual harassment at some extend is taboo topic. This makes us think that the majority of the cases
among employers are kept silent from the manager of an enterprise or law enforcement institutions.
Opinion that “no one can be offended if he does not want to” is dangerous. Thus victims of sexual
harassment are positioned as causers and this makes them keep the cases in secret. IN the eyes of
employers cases of sexual harassment are related to less educated and young, inexperienced
employees.
In several answers gender discrimination in relation to sexual harassment appeared. There is a
tendency to justify men disregarding the fact that they were causers.
Although in general respondents rarely mention any case of sexual harassment, employees in the
hotels often have to face offence from the part of clients, which, as it was indicated above, remains in
the competence of the employee. In other field (health care, lading positions) these cases take place in
stressful situations (for example, when making serious decisions) and the respondents admit that there
insults are not personal but caused by the situation.
STUDENTS
In the target group of students, the majority of the respondents admitted that they have not faced cases
of personal interference when considering the questions related to personal interference and sexual
harassment at working place. Those who have experiences such situations do not want to talk about
them. There was a case, though, when a female student had to listen to verbal statement of his interest
to her. She told about this case to her parents only but she refused to address law enforcement
institutions by saying that she can be fired.
Concept of personal interference is often related to everyday informal relations within a collective.
Students think that “a woman is a woman and a man is a man”, which means that belonging to one or
another gender, plays a relevant role in relationships of a collective. Of the interest is mutual, it is
normal to form friendly relations, although it does not do any good for work. Whereas in the case if
the interest is expressed only from one of the persons, no further excesses should take place. It
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depends on upbringing of a person, which is why it would be hard to set rules by legislation, whereas
USA has exaggerated attitude to this question. Students usually trust their psychological features, and
several tactics exist here.
“I have heard that colleagues show their attention and then the other person says whether he wants to
receive this attention. It may seem funny to somebody but the other may feel desperate.” (Stud.
Woman)
“Here we have to talk about limits. What is fellow-feeling and what is harassment.. It is clear that one
has to form relationships in the working place.” (Stud. Man)
“I have experiences that in labour issues with a man, he puts you in a position of a women, not that of
a professional. People don’t know hot to separate these things. I try not to pay attention to this
because it is impossible to live with all those negations”. (Stud, woman)
Both, studying boys and girls admit that women use their femininity in communication, where as men
indicate that they often expect some attention: “Majority of women like, when you show your
interest.” (Stud, man) However the concept that cases of sexual harassment can be justified because
“victims” are the ones, who are guilty, is not characteristic for students. ‘I think that women like to
challenge, but this does not mean that women are guilty of being raped.” (Stud, woman)
When characterising possible risk factors, students indicate that in the sectors with high proportion of
men women would have more problems especially in the collectives “where men do not have high
level of education” (stud, man). In any case, students would prefer working in the collectives without
prevalence of any gender. Gender equality improves results by disciplining employees and promoting
competitiveness.
INHABITANTS OF ACTIVE AGE (15-65)
When considering the results of the survey “Women and men in the labour market”, one can see that
there is no direct gender discrimination inn the working places in Latvia or it happens rarely, which
was manifested in the answers of the respondents on questions on gender equality in the labour
market. More than 86% of representatives of both genders deny that they receive lower wage or
bonuses for one and the same amount of work if compared to the opposite gender. But 8,9% of women
and 3,8% of men admit that they have experienced it. There remains the question on the way how to
precisely evaluate the job done by the colleague and who informed we are on the wage of colleagues.
It is not a coincidence that 9-10% of men and 4,2-5,4% of women could not answer this question.
Employees have also experienced insults from opposite gender colleagues: 2,3% of men and 8,1% of
women, but 0,5% of men and 3,1% woman experienced sexual harassment of higher position
employee. They often have faced insulting attitude from the part of the clients - 2,8% of men and 9,7%
of women.
Thus we can conclude that more that one third of employees experience some discrimination of
harassment at the working place, whereas the number of cases among women is three times higher.
Men more often than women admitted that they more often have causal affairs with colleagues - 2,3
and 1%, but concerning romantic relationships at work, women are dominating - 3,1 and 4,9%. This
could be explained by differences in perception of men and women – it is likely that men asses their
relations with colleagues as casual affairs, whereas women say they are romantic relations.
When comparing level of satisfaction with different aspects of work, we have to conclude that cases of
personal interference or deviations from collegiate relations are not a relevant circumstance at work or
these cases where of no importance. When evaluating satisfaction with work in general, about one
fifth of employed women and men (22,2 and 18,7%) have expressed higher and lower level of
satisfaction. Evaluation of separate work aspects indicate the reason for frequent dissatisfaction: this is
possibility to coordinate family life and work mentioned by equal proportion of representatives of both
genders: 27,9 and 27,5%. There are only a few of employees who are not satisfied with relations with
management (3,1% of women and 1,4% of men), or with relations with colleagues – 1,4% of woman
and only 0.5% of men. The latter differences may be related to cases of sexual harassment mentioned
above that women experience.
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9. IMPLEMENTATION OF GENDER EQUALITY POLICY

AND INFORMATION FLOW
The mechanism of implementation of gender equality policy is developed according to the principle of
an integrated approach (mainstreaming). The task of the integrated approach is to represent principles
of gender equality at all levels of state administration. Practically it turns to be an obligatory gender
equality standard or platform, which is included in every document prepared by state institutions; so, it
means that every political document evaluates the influence of its policy on aspects of gender equality.
There is an official on the level of a state secretary deputy assigned in every ministry, which is done in
order to control and respond for observation of the gender equality principle in the ministry.
The general scheme of implementation of gender equality policy is illustrated in the Figure 9.1. It
describes the procedure of how the regulations of the gender equality department of the Ministry of
Welfare are being arranged, as well as how these regulations are directed to the main deciding
institution – the Cabinet of ministers.
According to the development of a modern state the role of the social dialogue in decision making and
policy implementation is getting more essential. There are two working groups dealing with gender
equality implementation, which together with nongovernmental organizations and representatives of
ministers coordinate and succeed gender equality principles. Members that participate in gender
equality working groups are listed in Figure 9.2.
The structure of decision-making consists of fife levels. The first level covers the essential data and
researches, which are used by the gender equality department in policy document preparation and
support of suggestions about gender equality aspects. The second level is in accordance with the
knowledge concept formulated by S. Henzel (2000:219-226) in theoretic basic statements.
The third level illustrates the process of knowledge creation and storage, including its process analysis
that affects the quality of policy documents, both from the point of view of formulated knowledge
(documents) and not formulated knowledge (specialists’ experience). On the level of formulated
knowledge there is an information exchange between governmental institutions and nongovernmental
organizations. Moreover, nongovernmental organizations are evaluating suggestions prepared by the
gender equality department of the Ministry of Welfare. There is formulated as well as non-formulated
knowledge about gender equality used for their evaluation.
The forth level of the structure of decision making is knowledge transformation that shows an
additional evaluation of formulated knowledge of the gender equality department of the Ministry of
Welfare on the meeting of secretaries of the State and, if necessary, on the council meeting of the
National triangular collaboration. In addition, in case of a necessity, the separate coordination work
will be conducted with the Latvian Local Authority Service. The State Chancellery is the central state
institution in coordination of meetings mentioned above and organization of information flow between
partners involved in meetings.
The fifth level of the structure of decision making is deciding institution – the Cabinet of Ministers
that takes the final decision about the gender equality aspects on the state level.
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Figure 9.1. The Institutional Schema of Gender Equality Question Considering and
Decision Making.
5. Decision Making
Institution
The Cabinet of
Ministers (CM)
The Meeting of the 4. The Transformation of

Comitee of the CM Knowledge
The Meeting of State The State Chancellery

Secretaries
3. Information and
Knowledge
Gender Equality The Minister of Welfare Evaluates the

Council proposals of other
state institutions
concerning gender
Cross-institution cooredination equality
group in the issues of gender The Department of European
equality and Legal Affairs
Informative
Report
Saeima Human Rights
comitee Gender Equality The Gender Equality Unit The program to carry
out gender equality for
subcomitee
the next year
2. Direct Knowledge
Concept Paper on The Programme for the

Gender Equality Implementation of Gender
Implementation Equality 2005-2006
1. Data and Research
Statistics Researches
BLACK arrows show the main data flow that is base of preparing policy and action regulation documents. BLUE arrows
show the procedure of consideration and progress of the prepared documents to the main decision institution (the
Cabinet of Ministers. ORANGE arrows show the cooperation between the cross-ministries and NGO’s.
160
Figure 9.2. MW Gender Equality Unit’s Organised Consultative Structures and Participants.
The council consists of the council’s chairman (Minister of Welfare) and 12 members
The chairman invites the members, one representative from:
INSTITUTIONS ORGANIZATIONS
1. The Ministry of Economics, 7. The Union of the Municipalities of Latvia,
2. The Ministry of Legislation, 8. The Confederation of the Employers of Latvia,
3. The Ministry of Education and 9. The Union of the Free Trade Unions of Latvia,
science, 10. The Union of Gender Equality of Latvia,
4. The Ministry of Finances, 11. The Agency of the Development of Latgale
5. The Ministry of Welfare, Region,
6. Ombudsman’s office 12. The LU Gender Study Center.
The Minister of Welfare
The Council of
Gender Equality The Department of European
and Legal Affairs
Inter-ministerial Working group

of gender equality questions The Gender Equality
Unit
Inter-ministerial Working group is managed by the director of MW the

Department of European and Legal Affairs
INSTITUTIONS ORGANIZATIONS
1. The Ministry of Welfare; 18. The Confederation of the
2. The Ministry of Agriculture; Employers of Latvia,
3. The Ministry of Special Tasks in the Issues of the 19. The Union of the Free
Integration of Society; Trade Unions of Latvia,
4. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs; 20. The Union of Gender
5. The Ministry of the Issues of Children and Family; Equality of Latvia.
6. The Ministry of Internal Affairs;
7. The Ministry of Finances;
8. The Ministry of Legislation;
9. The Ministry of Defense; Saeima
10. The Ministry of Environment; Commission on
11. The Ministry of Culture; Human Rights and
12. The Ministry of Education and Science;
13. The Ministry of Economics;
Social Issues
14. The Ministry of Regional Development and Subcomission of
Municipal Issues; Gender Equality
15. The Ministry of Healthcare;
16. The Bureau of European Integration ;
17. The Ministry of Transportation;
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9.1. Main policy documents that regulate gender equality policy in Latvia
This chapter provides a summary for documents prepared in Latvia, which directly affect gender
equality policy in the state. Other documents of gender equality connected to Latvia that are prepared
in international institutions, like, “UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination”,
are not taken into account, because Latvian institutional mechanism has restricted possibilities to
influence it.
Gender equality department of the Ministry of Welfare is the only governmental institution structure
that prepares policy documents about gender equality. Other governmental institutions deal with the
topic of gender equality in single gender equality projects, or only certain gender equality aspects, like,
for instance, The Latvian National Human Right Office that deals with discrimination, or Ministry for
Children and Family Affairs of the Republic of Latvia that succeeds the harmonization of a family and
working life, developing the chain of pre-school children day-care-centres.
The main gender equality policy documents are “The Concept paper on gender equality
implementation” and “The programme of gender equality implementation for [X]”, as well as the
report document – “Informative report about the Programme of gender equality implementation for
[X]”. Evaluating policy documents, experts haven’t discovered essential drawbacks or uncertainty
connected with the process of qualitative document preparation, where there are specialists and
nongovernmental organizations of different branches involved.
Today many experts suggest that it is necessary to renew the concept. Researches, on which the
conception refers, mainly summarized the foreign country experience. The experience of foreign
countries that was used in the conception was adjusted to Latvian situation – therefore, compensating
lack of information about situation of gender equality in Latvia. It is necessary to add that in 2001,
when the conception was developed, Latvia didn’t have access to researches about situation of gender
equality in Latvia. But since 2001 there have been many researches about gender equality problems in
Latvia made, that is why experts that were questioned underline the necessity of including the data of
newest researches into the gender equality conception.
On the basic of the gender equality conception and achievements the previous year, there has been the
“Programme for gender equality implementation”. This programme is considered to be an action
document that anticipates concrete actions with involvement of state financing for implementation of
gender equality policy. Experts think that the “Programme for gender equality implementation” is one
of the most influential documents of governmental institutions for development of gender equality
policy, because it anticipates a concrete action. Similar to the gender equality conception, the gender
equality programme is evaluated with approval. As one of the main advantages of the programme are
mentioned its really reachable goals.
GEALM suggests paying extra attention to NAP (National Development Plan) priorities in the new
gender equality programme, mostly concentrating on the programme of efficient human resource
usage – encouraging women participation in perspective national economy branches, basing on a
common higher education level among women. As the result it is possible that the state support in
gender equality implementation will increase, as well as will increase the understanding of other
policy builders about concrete benefits of gender equality policy. By succeeding efficient human
resource programme in the frame of gender equality programme and NAP policy, the poverty risk
among educated women will decrease and the priority of NAP will be implemented: striving for
national economy based on knowledge.
According to statements of experts there are often stereotypes or speculative interpretation of notions
in gender equality policy, especially between politicians. One of the most popular stereotypes that
delays decision taking that would succeed development of women employment, is an opinion that by
the increase of women employment there is going to be a decrease in the birth-rate. Such stereotypes
can delay the implementation of the gender equality policy within the framework of NAP plan and
other important policy documents. In order to decrease the affect of such stereotypes on political
decisions, it is advised to look for positive examples and use researches that bring objective
information about unconformity of such opinions to the reality.
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9.2. CSB data description

According to information system of auditing theory described in methodology chapter, there were data
observed that build the basis for labour market analysis, evaluation of observation of gender equality
principles and preparation of policy documents in fields mentioned above. The research group
considered CSB (Central Statistics Bureau) as the main data provider. Basically the main data
necessary for conduction of a research on the labour market and gender equality ratio are found in
collections of the CSB. In terms of gender equality the CSB data are mostly used by the Ministry of
Welfare and Ministry for Children and Family Affairs of the Republic of Latvia. Other sources for
statistics are used less. Eurostat is the most frequently used foreign statistics data.
The main drawback in the CSB data is considered to be in work payment accounting. CSB data shows
only legal work payment in the state, not real (legal and not legal work payment together). According
to experts the amount of the illegal work payment in national economy is from 20% to 40% (Latvian
Academy of Science, 2005) form the total work payment. It means that a part of population that
receive an “envelope salary” have narrow possibilities to get social guaranties. Besides the data about
“envelope salaries” doesn’t cover gender aspect, which can’t provide researchers with data about
“envelope salaries” according to gender.
It would be advisable for CSB to make the data on shadow economy accessible for the public, as well
as to inform data users about calculation methodology, its advantages and drawbacks. It would be
preferable to get the data according to gender division.
Publishing data about shadow economy and its vision according to gender division will decrease the
lack of information about the mentioned topic, and it will be possible to know the proportion of
socially unsecured women and men, and the total number of those working among illegally employed.
Essential problems were found in the sphere of education examining the data of CSB. CSB prepares
about 30 programmes about education. Only a little part of them is organized according to gender. The
most important data collection of the CSB about education is “Educational institutions in Latvia”. The
lack of data about school and pre-school learners don’t allow researchers ton fully evaluate the level of
segregation in profession choice and compare it with the total number of boys and girls in educational
positions divided in CSB. The lack of the data above makes it difficult for governmental institutions to
evaluate the efficiency of gender equality activities.
It is advised for the CSB in cooperation with Gender equality department of the Ministry of Welfare
and social organizations to develop a mechanism that would check the CSB data according to gender,
and to prepare incomplete data collections according to requirements of gender equality policy. The
CSB data about migration and housekeeping budget (if the keeper of the household is a man and a
woman, or just a woman etc.) would be necessary to organize as well, because they are not available
in terms of gender division.
The education data according to gender division will help researchers and policy builders develop an
effective policy in segregation decrease, profession choice; besides the access of the data mentioned
above will increase possibilities to evaluate the efficiency of events taken in the sphere of gender
equality.
9.3. Implementation of gender equality policy in the state administration

Since 1999 the Ministry of Welfare has been responsible for development and realisation of the gender
equality policy according to the regulation of the Ministry of Welfare of the Cabinet of Ministers and
other corresponding Latvian and international documents. In order to realise gender equality policy, in
2003 the Ministry of Welfare opened Gender equality department. Its task is to implement the
integrated approach in gender equality succession defined in the “Concept of gender equality
implementation” (“mainstreaming”), as well as to develop a programme for gender equality
succession in cooperation with other representatives of governmental institutions and social
organizations.
In general the interviewed experts evaluate the work of the Gender equality department as
professional. The researchers haven’t come across essential problems in Gender equality department
and its work. In some cases as a drawback is mentioned the lack of workers, but ministry
163
representatives have admitted that now in the budget of the Ministry of Welfare there are financial
matters foreseen for the search of new placements. The positive evaluation of the Gender equality
department of the Ministry of Welfare depends also on regular involvement of partners into
discussions about gender equality aspects, as well as providing information about innovations.
As a drawback there is mentioned unwillingness of partners, especially concrete ministry
representatives, to realise the gender equality policy. One of the great successes in information and
policy implementation is in cases, when there are more governmental institutions involved in a
definite policy realisation. In the case of realisation of gender equality policy, like it is shown in
picture 9.2., there are all state ministries and approximately six social organizations involved. The
existing problem doesn’t only indicate drawbacks in communication among ministries, but also
attitude of partner ministries towards other policy activities done by other ministries.
It can be considered that those policy documents the activity of which goes beyond one ministry field,
as, for example, “Programme of gender equality implementation fro [X]”, are hardly manageable. The
support of other ministries to these documents and anticipated events described in them, in some cases
is formal and less practical. Low collaboration work between ministries can partly be explained with
high change of ministry staff and overload of workers in governmental institutions; however such
reasons can’t be the basis for systematic ignorance of gender equality policy, which can be observed in
some governmental institutions.
Despite the fact that the Gender equality department has organised two working groups, which are
supposed to coordinate work in-between ministries for implementation of gender equality programme
(Inter-institutional working group for gender equality aspects and Gender equality council), their
efficiency is quite low. Despite of a high level of attendance of working groups from the main part of
ministry representatives, the practical succession in implementation of gender equality principles
hasn’t been achieved.
Perhaps problems in inter-ministry communication and in policy implementation point at serious
drawbacks in policy succession mechanism, which at the moment goes beyond the responsibility level
of ministries and affects legislators’ responsibility sphere.
In the present situation, not reviewing functions and role of legislators and executive power in
suggestion of new policy initiative, the most convenient solution for policy implementation, increase
of communication and vertical motivation level would be more active involvement of the State
Chancellery into inter-ministry work and, in some special cases, involvement of ministers into inter-
ministry problem-solving. As one of possible solutions could be to put the State Chancellery in charge
to organize and control working groups to the State Chancellery. It is necessary to add that the Sate
Chancellery has already had experience in working group organization, for instance, Organization of
council meetings of national three-sided collaboration, Organization of state secretary meetings.
Active involvement of the State Chancellery into inter-ministry work doesn’t guarantee fast situation
improvement, but it would pay a great role in a “critical” situation of communication and policy
implementation – by problem solving being an intermediary and involving ministers, so that
institutions are more motivated to solve occurred problems.
9.4. State Secretary Meeting

State secretary meeting decides about projects developed by governmental institutions and about the
necessity to add them (legislation and document projects) annotations. In annotations ministers point
with which organizations the document projects are agreed, what feedback and what the rejection
reasons have been (in case opinions have been rejected). The State secretary meeting also deals with
document projects and informative reports, upon which there has been no agreement in coordination
process, with the aim to achieve this agreement before document direction to the Cabinet of Ministers
(Gertnere, 2002) or Committee of Ministers. In case of gender equality, the State secretary meeting is
organised in order to discuss some uncertainty that might have appeared during the document
discussion (Gender equality council or Inter-institutional working group in questions of gender
equality), or to give a formal agreement for gender equality documents: informative reports, concepts
or programme. Representatives of the Gender equality department participate in State secretary
meetings in order to evaluate document projects prepared by other ministries.
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9.5. Decision Making in Government

In order to pass concrete documents for consideration at the meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers, they
have to be first reviewed in the Committee of the Cabinet of Ministers. At the Committee meeting
there is a decision taken about the next direction of documents – confirm, not confirm, postpone or
reject.
During the committee meeting each document is partially reviewed and all questions connected to
acceptance of documents discussed, uncertainty prevented, therefore, documents accepted in the
committee meeting are accepted at meetings of the Cabinet of Ministers without additional
discussions. During committee meetings specialists from different fields have the possibility to discuss
all questions connected with project or report acceptance. During the committee meeting there are
programmes and concept projects that are prepared by ministers more frequent discussed (State
Council – annual report 2002).
Committee meetings of the Cabinet of Ministers in the field of gender equality take place, if there has
been no agreement achieved during the State secretary meeting. The last and the main legislative
institution is the Cabinet of Ministers. The Cabinet of Ministers develops a government activity plan
for ministries that provide average deadline planning of direct administrative authority, according to
policy documents in a concrete sphere accepted by the Cabinet of Ministers.
Every ministry receives a task of an action plan development for realization of a political programme
of the Cabinet of Ministers – ministry strategy. Action strategy of an authority serves as a basis for
annual budget application of a direct administration authority, according to the regulation of the
Cabinet of Ministers. The Gender equality department of the Ministry of Welfare has developed a
Programme for implementation of gender equality for 2005-2006 – as a task of the Cabinet of
Ministers.
The Cabinet of Ministers reviews the informative report of the Gender equality department of the
Ministry of Welfare and accepts or rejects the Programme for implementation of gender equality.
Acceptance and rejection of decisions by the Cabinet of Ministers is determined by “the political will”.
“Political will” is defined as quick decision making or postponing or ignorance. In gender equality
field the lack of political will is often connected with formalism, lack of knowledge about the situation
and stereotypes. Therefore, the implementation of gender equality policy in the society is limited,
because of probability of non-popular activities, however, in long-term aspects they promise positive
results.
Experts have sceptical views on education of the political “elite” in questions of gender equality.
Legislators don’t feel society pressure in order to succeed more active implementation of gender
equality. At the moment researchers and the main part of experts underline the necessity of
continuation of information campaign, the necessity of actualization gender equality by the society,
and less regulations from higher state or international institutions.
It is necessary to continue society education, using not direct methods, for instance, publishing articles
about positive examples about gender equality in the most popular printed media, therefore enabling
higher precedents that would come from the society and possibly would be connected with positive as
well as negative experience in every-day life and labour market. As the result the common level of
society education about equality would improve.
It is possible that a part of stereotypes could be broken in case of a more active participation of the
State Chancellery in implementation of gender equality policy and information of ministers.
Taking into account that the government is liberally oriented, there is a small believe that the
government would be interested in accepting regulations for succession of gender equality
implementation, especially in the social sphere. An exception could be, if the main policy documents
of gender equality – programme and conception – would concentrate on NAP (National development
plan) priorities and would be able to present economic benefits of implementation of gender equality
policy, for instance, effective usage of human resources – succeed involvement of women into fields
of national economy, basing on the generally higher level of education of women. Such conditions
might increase understanding about gender equality policy and benefits of its implementation.
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One of the most popular stereotypes among politicians and obstacles for implementation of gender
equality policy is an opinion that together with an increase of women employment there would be a
decrease in the birth-rate. Such stereotypes may delay the implementation of gender equality policy in
the framework of NAP (National development plan) and other important policy documents. In order to
decrease stereotypes it is advisable to look for positive examples and researches that would bring
objective information about nonconformity of such views to the reality.
9.6. Research Policy

The main range of researches in gender equality can be found on the website of the Ministry of
Welfare under option “Researches” and on www.politika.lv under option “Human rights”; a part of
researches can be found on the new State Council database of publications and researches. Basically
researches are used in policy development of a certain branch and evaluation of efficiency of the
present policy. Today researches about development of gender equality policy are mainly used by the
Ministry of Welfare, Ministry for Children and Family Affairs of the Republic of Latvia, partly by the
Latvian National Human Rights Office and nongovernmental organizations.
With support of ESF there are several large research projects conducted in a short period of time.
Together with the GEALM (Gender equality aspects in the labour market) at the national programme
“Labour market studies” there are conducted a number of large studies on different themes all of them
including the gender division aspects. There are various programmes: EQUAL research programmes,
programmes “Capacity strengthening in development of employment and gender equality policy, and
introduction into institutions involved”, programmes “Support for labour market research”, and grant
schemes “Researches about possibilities of socially pushed back groups on the labour market”.
Simultaneous conduction of great volume projects causes big load for questioned experts (in public
and private sectors), as well as for employees of governmental institutions, who summarize and
analyse gathered data. The experts are sure that the big amount of researches and present capacity will
provide governmental institution workers with problems in qualitative research data analysis and
documentation. Therefore, the maximum gain from conducted researches is not possible.
Taking into account that till 2006 it is anticipated to finish introduction of statements of new policy
planning (Policy planning statement), corresponding to which the research task would be evaluation of
efficiency of the present policy, it is advised to pay attention to monitoring type researches that would
give information about situation change in time.
9.7. Research Database of the State Chancellery

Since April 5, 2006 the State Chancellery has developed a single database of researches and
publications, where there have been summarized all researches ordered and conducted by
governmental institutions. It is though to underline that it doesn’t take the essential role in
development of gender equality policy, despite the great informative potential of the database. If the
research and publication database of the State Chancellery could avert some uncertainty, then perhaps
the information of the database could help in activation of an effective implementation of an integrated
approach of gender equality by planning new researches and avoid possible research theme coverage
that was named by most of the gender equality experts.
The quality of the present State Chancellery data base doesn’t fit the standards that would be necessary
for experts to precede an objective evaluation of the common research and discussed topics, as well as
to compare the present data about gender equality with results gained from other researches.
The basic problems of the State Chancellery database:
1) The data base is more informative and it is less used in practical work. For instance, the database
doesn’t give the possibility to choose researches titled “gender equality” or “discrimination”. 2) There
is no access to the mayor part of the researches because there is no electronic connection to them. 3)
There is no access to short descriptions about researches and their main guidelines, which are very
important by evaluation guidelines of planned researches.
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Main recommendations for database improvement:

Indicate succession of researches in the database, i.e. whether a research is dated, or there is
another repeated research planned for a certain topic.
Indicate in the database a link to policy documents on the basis of which a research is planned.
Most of experts underlined that often there is an uncertainty about the research task and its
common role in a certain policy development.
Include into “Options” of the database an additional option to sort researches according to
“gender equality” and “discrimination”.
Prepare a short description about the research in general, about main themes –guidelines that it
covers, and indicate the recommendable usage duration of the research (till the time, when
research data have not been considered as dated yet).
So that the database is easily usable for experts, it is recommended to code the main
guidelines or key words that would help record concrete themes quickly that are present in the
research database of the State Chancellery, and to evaluate possible combination with planned
researches.
Implementation of the corrections above would succeed the State Chancellery publication and research
database becoming an electronic tool in efficient and optimal research policy development. In this case
the risk of research theme coverage would decrease and organizers of gender equality policy would
have the possibility to compare already existing data about various aspects of gender equality with
further conducted studies.
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Economic Activity and Employment
During the last years employment rate for man and women has increased, and in Latvia this process
has taken places faster if compared to average rate in the EU. Employment rate of women is just
slightly lower than that of men. As the average employment rate in Latvia if compared to the average
employment rate in EU15 is influenced by low employment rate among men and the fact that
employment rate of women is comparatively higher than average employment rate of EU 15, then we
can not perceive the fact that employment rate differences between men and women has increased
simultaneously with the increase of employment rate by 1% as tendency of women discrimination.
People with higher level of education have higher employment rate among both, men and women.
Lower employment level is observed for men and women with primary education, including
unfinished and secondary education. During the last years the difference of employment rate in these
education groups has not reduces or even increased, which can be explained by the fact that women
with low education level are met mainly among older generations. Economic activity is also higher for
men and women with higher education, but it is low for women who do not have secondary education;
in this group of education we can observe the greatest difference of economic activities of men and
women and during the last years this difference has not reduced. Thus general examination of
employment situation indicates the positive influence of education on employment and it has to be
emphasized that it is especially important for women.
Like that of employment, difference of economic activity is also determined by differences among
inhabitants aged till 34 and after 55, besides this difference has increased in the age group 15 – 24 and
65 – 74 during the last years. In the youngest age groups, difference of economic activity rate can be
explained by the fact that men enter the labour market sooner than women do, whereas women use this
time period for education acquisition or child care. But reduction of employment rate among women
aged after 55 is influenced by smaller age of retirement, as well as by tendency to leave work in order
to sit grandchildren, by health condition or lack of adequate education for the labour market.
Latvian labour market situation is characterized by the fact that number of working hours of men and
women per week differs. About a half of employed inhabitants, both, men and women, admit that they
work 40h per week, but there are more male employees who work more than 40 h, whereas women
work part time more that twice as much (18%).
Latvia is one of fife EU member states where the proportion of female searchers for labour is lower
than that of men. In the survey it was found out that the majority (76,3% of men and 63,7% of women)
of economically active unemployed inhabitants would like to join the labour market, which can be
particularity observed among young inhabitants. But only 40,1% of men of this group and 24,1% of
women are on the search. This shows that the most popular reasons of unemployment among women
(child care, household works, disablement and retirement age) do not allow them joining the labour
market. Almost one third of unemployed do not want to have paid employment at all and the majority
of these people are retirees and people of preretirement age.
In subjective evaluations of possibility of men and women of finding a job, there almost are no
differences – number of positively minded (44%) and negatively minded (47%) representatives of
both genders is about the same. Men and women aged till 25 have more possibilities of find work, but
it reduces by 5% with each year.
A little less that a half of those who would like to be employed, prefer regular work, but 18,1% of men
and 13,1% of women are ready to do seasonal work – those are mainly youngsters who study in
winter. Unemployed also show rather great demand of flexible working hours, which would be chosen
by about a half of unemployed (45,4% of men and 48,7% of women), as well as they would also prefer
work part time: 26,7% of men and 44,5% of women would like to work less than full time working
day. Women would prefer distance work, whereas there are more people among men who would
prefer summarized working hours. This shows that employers who are short of employees have a
possibility to involve potential employees by offering them more suitable forms of work.
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There was a hypothesis set for the research that time that women spend on house works and child care
influence their possibilities to gain income with the help of paid employment. It is partially explained
by interpretation of why unemployed would prefer using flexible work forms (inducing part time
work). It happens twice as often among women rather than men that their main reason is desire to
coordinate work and family life (65% and 37%). Unemployed men rather than women find other
reasons to be more important: coordination of work and education (26% and 15%) and saving on
transport expenses and time (18% and 8%).
Subjective perception of unemployment risk among employed women is more explicit than among
men: it can be seen in their concerns about the possibility to loose work, and especially – not to find
another one in the case of need. The research shows that employment of women is mainly influenced
by limited possibilities to coordinate family life and work, which means that it is hard to find a job that
would also allow fulfilling duties in a family. Men are surer about their possibilities to participate in
the labour market because they are more oriented on well-paid work, earning one’s living, which
favours their preparedness to work hard, be flexible when choosing form of employment and agreeing
on contractual relations.
The research reveals that unemployment risk is even more influenced by the age and these are mainly
representatives of older generations who are the most concerned bout the possibility to loose job and
difficulties of finding another one. Older women think that a job that would meet her social needs – to
be in the society, to be useful, to keep fit and not to have everyday routine – is the most important
aspect. This helps to explain conclusions of the econometric analysis of the WIF survey data on
employers that satisfaction of women till the age of 60 does not change duet o the age and older
women are more satisfied that other women.
Contractual relations of employed women manifest themselves mainly as regular work with labour
agreement. It is more often for men rather than women that they work on the basis of oral agreement,
as well as their work is more often characterised as work for a definite period of time or piecework.
Both, men and women, who have work on the basis of oral agreement, receive less than their
colleagues who have labour agreement. Evaluating subjectively, employers who have no written
agreement are less satisfied with their work, and besides this is more explicit for women, however
work without labour agreement is not that widespread among them.
Wage Differences
Wages of men are higher in all groups of employment. This difference is particularly high among
hired workers, but female entrepreneurs and self-employed persons have more possibilities to earn
incomes that were similar to wage of men. Wage difference is partially explained by the fact that men
often accept more workload, where women more often than men are employed less than 40h per week.
It is related to unequal division of house works that makes women spend more time for household
works and / or child care. But even in the frameworks of equal workload one can observe that wage of
men is higher. The research shows that women more often think that they are inadequately paid and in
these situations whey are less satisfied with work.
Speaking of wage differences in the prism of the genders, the data of the CSB show two tendencies.
First of all, in the time period 1996 – 2004 common prevalence of the wage of men has gradually
reduced, and in 2004 the difference constituted 16%. Secondly, in the time period from 2004 – 2005,
this difference increased by more than 2% and in 2005 official wage of women constituted 82% of the
wage of men. It has to be indicated that the difference was calculated using the data of the CSB. As
other researches show that men are more often illegally employed, than it can be assumed that the
difference is even higher if compared to that showed in the CSB data. If results of survey of hired
employees is used in order to calculate the wage difference (for example, CSB survey of labour force
of WIF research), then in general net wage of women constitutes 72 – 80% of the wage of men. Wage
difference for both genders is indicated as an interval because it depends on the source of data used in
the calculations. Greater wage differences were calculated when using WIF data, and smaller – when
suing CSB survey of labour force data. Different data sources show different average net wages of
men and women and dynamics of their difference in a longer period of time, which is why it was
impossible to observe a clear long-term tendency.
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If total difference between wage of men and that of women is called full difference, than its part that
can be reduced by excluding influence of factors considered in the research is called explained
difference. The rest is called unexplained difference or sometimes – unmeasured difference. In general
wage differences of about a half of men and women can be explained by the differences between
“average” full time male employee and “average” women. The part of explained wage difference has
not changed much during the last years. The factors that explained wage difference are: age,
education, nationality (or skills of the Latvian language), status of the family, kind of labour
agreement, profession/ position, number of working hours per week, lengths of service, location of an
enterprise, sector of its property, field of activities and number of employees.
Unexplained wage difference that constitutes a half of the difference between wage of men and wage
of women is often regarded as the result of gender discrimination, however it has to be noted that this
can also be the effect of factors that were not measured in the research. It is to be indicated that
relevance of unmeasured factors is not emphasized in the researches because of the fact that it is hard
to express them in numeric form in order to include them in econometric models and study their
impact. Unmeasured factors are: different duration of period of labour search for men and women,
different number of innovation suggestions, additional incomes that are not included in the description
of work, etc.
When concerning measured factors, unequal division of the representatives of both genders as to the
groups of professions, fields of national economy and public and private sector has the greatest
influence on wage differences between genders. Effects of the rest of characteristics are less and they
are mutually compensated. The main channels how segregation influences inequality of wages serve in
favour of men: first of all, sector of the property – men more often than women work in private sector,
where in general wages are higher, and secondly, field of economic activities of an enterprise – men
more often are employed in the fields where the average wage is higher. Those fields are: construction,
forestry, power supply, transport and communications. Although women in general work in the fields
and professions where wages are relatively small, these indices are even worse fro men working in the
same fields.
Using data from different sources and analysing then econometrically, the hypothesis defined in the
research was proven – belonging to one or another gender is a factor that determines the wage and
influence of these factors differs in different spheres of employment.
In the middle of XX century, fields like education, health care and social care became particularly
feminized, and these are fields where wages are the lowest. But wages in masculinised fields are
higher. This is explained by the fact that in masculinised fields, like construction or forestry, is more
profitable than education or heath cares that receive state budget funding. The fact hat sector of
property plays a particular role in wage differences makes us conclude that it is necessary to raise
wages in public sector, for example, for employees in health care or education sector in order to
reduce the wage difference.
The hypothesis that wage differences of men and women working in an enterprise are related to
concepts of employer (stereotypes) on the roles of genders was partially proven in qualitative and
quantitative surveys of employers. Almost a half of employees consider that in general men receive
more than women for one and the same work, but women agree to work for lower wage. Explanation
of the situation obtained from the research proves that different factors influence discrimination in the
process of wage determination.
Fist of all, wage transparency is reduced by post categories that exist in an enterprise, where the wages
are fixed in advance, however this wage also has minimum and maximum limit. Wage in a particular
category may and this is the duty of employer to determine the minimum and maximum wages of
respective categories.
Moreover, in private enterprises, like in civil service, wage lists are not made public, thus an employee
is not aware of the wage of a colleague. In this case, too, determination of wage limits is up to the
employers and it is possible to define different wages by taking into consideration requirement of an
employee and interests of an enterprise.
It has to be emphasized once more employers made a suggestion for female employees to participate
in determination of the amount of wage. This shows not only about importance of human capital,
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subjective factors (high self-esteem, self-consciousness, dare and requirements or on contrary –

insecurity of fear to loose job) in determining the wage, which in accordance with the concept of
gender theory requires change of behaviour model accepted in the society and inculcated to be
typically ‘feminine’.
A suggestion for reduction of the part of wage difference that is subjected to influence of subjective
factors provides development of labour unions and favouring collective agreements, taking into
consideration the fact that a separate employee can not compare him or herself with other employees.
Here it is to be noted that, in accordance with conclusions of scientists (Esping-Andersen 1990: 22),
dependence of employees from the employer is reduced by optimal benefit system and vice versa –
low and short-term benefits cause dependence of employees on the employee and it lessens
involvement in labour unions.
Analysis of concepts of employers revealed a brand new phenomenon on influence of gender role on
the principles of wage determination. When the research was initiated (autumn 2005), in-depth
interviews of managers of enterprises proved the assumption that it is more difficult for potential
mothers to find work because in the eyes of employers they are considered to be insecure employees.
In the situation of lack of labour force it turned out that employers perceive parents with small
children as more stable employees and low mobility of women with small children as an advantage.
Labour Market Segregation as to the Gender
In Latvia, horizontal labour market segregation is the most explicit. Proportion of men working in
agriculture, forestry, fishery and production is about twice or even three times as higher as the
corresponding index for women, whereas proportion of women is higher in public sector and service
industry (education, health care, sales, hotels and service industries).
But it is known from the previous researches (see. Blackburn, Jarman 2006), horizontal segregation or
existence of “masculine” and “feminine” professions in the labour market does not mean gender
inequality, but it even reduces discriminating vertical segregation. The situation in Latvia is about the
same, because wage differences between men and women can be observed in private sector and
masculinised field (transport, communications, construction and agriculture). Whereas labour of
women is better remunerated in education, health care and social care fields, where the proportion of
employed women is higher, which provide them better carrier possibilities. In the fields where the
proportion of employed women and men plays no significant role, like in state administration – those
are mainly men who occupy higher positions and wage difference is higher.
Unequal division of men and women in the labour market is also manifested by the fact that
disregarding high level of education among women and bigger number of educated women, those are
men who occupy higher positions in the society and enterprises of Latvia.
It has to be admitted that labour market segregation as to the gender in some respect is influence by
biologically determined differences between men and women. Apart from functions of a woman to
carry a child and nurse him that physically attaches her to the family, as well as her need for rest and
pauses at work, the choice of working place and employees is often determined by concepts that exist
in the society and by the main differences between genders in the labour market. Masculine traits are
related to physical power, preparedness to take a risk and stress endurance, and feminine traits – with
intuition, preciseness, attention, responsibility and ability to take care of others. Although employers
claim that professional characteristics, not gender is the main thing, still employers and employees
think that it is better if the person is employed in the field that corresponds to the gender.
Stereotypes that exist in the society on adequacy of definite professions to men or women influence
even objective selection of employees that is based on rational and pragmatic considerations, i.e.
potential employees are evaluated taking into account their education, qualification, work experience.
In this case selection of employees is not directly discriminating but differentiation as to the gender
often takes place because lack of professional education among women or men lessens possibilities of
the opposite gender to enter masculinised fields.
In general attitude of employers show that feminized fields are more open than masculinised fields and
in case of a man would like to work in any of feminized fields (education, health care, sales), it would
be easier for him to do than for a women to start working in “masculine” fields. It has to be indicated
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that it concerns not only physical work but also high-qualification works, like managers, that are more
appropriate for men.
Working Conditions and Satisfaction of Men and Women
Analysis of needs and motivation of inhabitants carried out in the research prove that the main
differences exist between attitudes and priorities of different people that determines choice of
employment, division of time fro different spheres of life and satisfaction with the situation. Apart
from the main factors – need for accommodations, need for security and need for self-realization, they
are also manifested through different aspects of working motivation; women have an explicit need for
altruism (responsible work that provides possibility to help others and be useful for the society).
Although it corresponds to conclusions of gender theory on acquired “feminine’ and “masculine”
behaviour models (Берн 2001: 38-54), in the context of labour market it has to be taken into
consideration that labour force is constituted by more or less mature individuals with their
characteristic features, upbringing and valises, which at large extent defines creation and existence of
feminized and masculinised professions.
In the research of subjective aspects of labour market segregation, satisfaction with work was
considered to be an important factor when speaking about gender equality among employed people. It
includes wage, working conditions and content, possibilities of self-realization and carrier and other
aspects of work. If an employed woman disregarding the wage difference is as satisfied with the work
as a man in equal conditions, it makes us think that there are other aspects of work that compensate
wage difference for women. Econometric analysis of WIF data on employees and employed
inhabitants prove that the gender does not has a significant impact on satisfaction with work but there
are some separate factors, the importance of which in satisfaction level differs for men and women.
In the context of labour market segregation problem, it is important that work in public sector
influences negatively satisfaction of men but it has no relevant effect on satisfaction of women. In
equal conditions satisfaction of men does not depend on the field of employment, although employees
of production are less satisfied that others. Whereas women are more satisfied if they work in state
administration or field of individual or commercial services and less satisfied if they are employed in
power supply industry, finance or production industries.
Thus the study shows that liquidation of horizontal labour market segregation, for example, activities
that are aimed to reduce the proportion of women who work in public and service field by increasing
the number of women working in industry may negatively influence satisfaction with work, which is
at large extent related to fewer requirement of women concerning working conditions.
But for realisation of gender equality principle in the labour market, activities that would reduce
vertical labour market segregation are necessary. Desire of women to be employers is slightly lower
that that of men, but it is high enough in the present situation (36,5%, from women and 43,7% for
men). Moreover the research reveals relation of the status of employment to satisfaction with work:
employer who is followed by senior specialists of specialists is the most satisfied. Female employers
and managers of different levels are rather satisfied with the wage and carrier possibilities. But in this
group support for family and work and family life coordination possibilities are important – although
women are not so often subjected to necessity to work in holidays, those women who occupy leading
positions do it more often than colleagues of the opposite gender.
Education and Motivation for Study Programme Choice

There was a stereotype observed in the research that men often attributed intellectual superiority apart
from physical superiority. The concept found out in the survey of students on the fact that men are
more talented, they know everything without studying and they can do with practical knowledge,
influences general attitude of men to studies in secondary school and in higher education institutions.
Existence of this stereotype causes not only gender discrimination but also absence of use of
possibilities, and it reduces quality of education.
Survey of students shows that there are some differences between ways of knowledge acquisition of
women and men, but they are not taken into consideration. Big number of youngsters (especially boys)
that stop their studies after acquisition of secondary education, of course, is influenced by great
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demand of labour force, but when having evaluated the present education system, it would be
necessary to consider the assumption in next researches that a part of youngsters leave primary school
or secondary because they can not adapt to feminized education system.
In primary school a particular attention is paid to boys and their attitude to education. In the last forms
of primary schools it is necessary to introduce pupils to possibilities in professional or secondary
education institutions. It is necessary to pay more attention to the fact that during studies they loose
their interest in studies and it favours their involvement into the labour market at an earlier age. In
further studies more attention has to be paid to the factors that determine motivation of youngsters not
to continue studies and have only primary or secondary education, as well as to the question how
market economy conditions with constantly high demand of employees influence strategic aims of the
state, inducing formation of knowledge based society.
If the present tendency will continue, one can foresee decrease of society segregation that will be
influenced by education. Youngsters, who at present acquire higher education, are characterized by
initiative, ambition and readiness to fight for their place in the labour market – these are characteristics
that many of contemporaries with low level of education do not possess. Male student are more
experienced in the labour market and they have high aims. Women tent to reach definite position in
the labour market – they are aware that higher education is pledge of success.
These differences in motivation of men and women result from real situation in life that women have
greater direct effect of education on the wage in comparison with the same gender representatives of
lower education level. Young and strong men have equal possibilities of finding a job as those who do
not have education, which is why the only advantage of studying in a higher education establishment
is the social status, prestige and possibilities in future. Here we can se an opposite effect – high
demand of labour force lessens the importance of higher education.
Concepts that determine study programme choice are rooted in the models acquired in the family and
school that are realized depending on interests, skills and resources of an individual. The research
shows that there is no difference between motivation of choice of profession and study programme
form men and women. At the same time one can see that level of awareness of pupils on profession
and their place in the labour market – necessary skills, work possibilities, etc is low, and this choice of
study programme is chosen in accordance to the stereotypes on demand, wage and gender conformity
of the profession.
Gender stereotypes play a very important role and youngsters and their parents and teachers, then also
pedagogues and employers use them. Opinion about professions that are suitable for men and women
influence interests, choice of study programme and possibilities in the labour market.
In general students are sure about their place in the labour market and they think that good specialists
will always be needed. One can see that pupils tend to change their interest during studies taking into
consideration financial considerations – number of budget places, tuition fee, duration of studies,
student hostel, etc. Thus we can conclude that apart from development of pupils’ interest at schools,
the final choice of study programme is determined by possibilities to study for free, availability of
credits and possibilities of their payment, as well as attractive offer of work.
Harmonization of working life and family life
The hypothesis on the fact that women spend more time on fulfilling unpaid work (child care, house
works, etc) that influences wage difference and labour market segregation is partially proven by CSB
data on time usage of the inhabitants of Latvia and description of work division of the survey “Women
and men in the labour market”. In accordance with the results of the survey on time usage, men spend
by about 7 hours more at work than women do but women spend by 12 hours more in household
works per week.
It can be seen in the results of the GEALM survey “Women and men in the labour market” that in
general men and women are satisfied with division of time spent and work and dedicated to house
works or they would prefer spending more time on both of these fields. However among women there
are more of those (6%) who would like to reduce time for both activities. 40% of men and women
would spend the same amount of time that they spend now, but at least a half of these representatives
of the genders would like to devote more time to family affairs. This makes us conclude that family is
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very important, and communication in a family has a very important role, which sometimes
unfortunately requires more time.
Men usually are the main responsible people for repair works but women usually to the rest of house
works (child care, washing linen, preparing meals, house works). This is a wide spread model
especially among young respondents and division of duties is more or less equal among respondents
aged 35 – 44 years, whereas women of the age group above 44 (especially 55 – 65) usually undertake
more house works.
There is a concept in the basis of work division between men and women that a man is the main earner
of the family and thus his main duty is to have paid employment outside house. The task of a woman
is to care for children and home, which is the best to be done during a leave for childcare. This model
is characterised by the fact that men return home and have a rest there, this is working place of women
during the leave for childcare. However, we can see in the research that this division of work is
preserved even after a woman resumes working after the leave for childcare.
Women are in charge of the majority of house works and men do not participate in then because they
work a lot or there is no father in a family. It is important that women often do not want men to get
involved in house works. It is explained by mistrust in ability of a man to do everything well, as well
as by desire to control works at home and desire to change usual order.
Although later it was observed that there exist different principles of work division and that house
works are done by the person who is at home at that moment without dividing duties of men and
women. This division usually exist in families where both members are employed – especially if
women resume working when the child reaches the age of 1 or 1.5. It is characteristic that in the case
of this model a part of services are “bought”, i.e. they use services of babysitters and other paid
services.
In order to reach more equal division of duties in a family, positive experience and suggestions of the
participants of the research may help:
For women - to involve fathers in child care from the first days (it is advised to share one’s
knowledge, reflection, concerns and feelings before birth of child) and then not to undertake
fulfilment of all house works hoping that this will change when they resume working;
Men are glad to participate in house works if it is possible to use technologies when doing these
works. This could serve as an inducement fro women to appraise other innovations, not only
washing machine.
It was discovered in the research that formation of the conception that women with small children are
not profitable employees is related to emotional insecurity of the mothers and concerns about what is
going on at home and to psychological problems related to fear to leave the child in the kindergarten
or with a babysitter. Situations observed in the study when an employee asks for part time working
day saying that the child may fall ill strengthen existence of this stereotype. However, when
comparing indices of women employment and those of non-attendance of work, the results of the
study provides the basis for the statement that in practice women with small children are absent more
frequently than others.
At the same time there is a widespread concept among employers that a woman, who has a family
and children, is a more stable employee who has more responsible and serious attitude to work. In the
basis of this concept lies a negative stereotype on young women with small children as potentially
insecure employees who may take long leaves for child care and the urgent issue on immigration of
labour force that make employees evaluate higher low mobility of parents with small children, as well
as the experience that shows that after the leave for child care women appreciate more possibilities of
socialization and personal development provided by work.
There is no significant difference observed in actual possibilities for employees of both genders to
coordinate work and family life, but, as it was seen in the interviews with employees and discussions
of employed inhabitants, balance of family life and work is an urgent problem for women in
particular, especially if they have large families (children or grandchildren of school or preschool
age), or if women are studying.
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In general equal division of house works was observed in the families where both partners have
higher education and econometric analysis of the survey data show that higher education is the factor
that has the greatest influence on satisfaction of women with possibilities of family life and work
coordination.
No justification for the tendency observed in the qualitative survey that women who occupy higher
positions at work and thus are able to plan their schedule are more satisfied with possibilities of
coordinating family life and work. Position of a manager has negative impact on harmonization of
working life and family life disregarding the fact that women in this group are the most satisfied with
the position in general. This proves once more the fact that although there is no formal gender
discrimination, women themselves avoid occupying high position in order to coordinate their private
life and work.
In general it has to be concluded that aspect of work that are related to coordination of personal and
family life are relevant for representatives of both genders. The fact that one has to work during
holidays decreases level of satisfaction of men and women. Extra hours lessen satisfaction of men but
despite of this fact each fourth female employee has to work extra hours, they subjectively are not
perceived as the factor that hampers coordination of private life and work. Where working at nights
decrease level of satisfaction of women rather than men.
Satisfaction of employed women and men with balance of work and family life is considerably
increased by a possibility to use unpaid vacation or holidays, organizing of meetings during working
hours and organizational undertaking of an enterprise where employees and their families can
participate.
Employers admitted that managers and employers find it difficult to coordinate family life and work
in every day life. However support of employers in coordination family life and work of employees is
admitted as the only positive practice – 92% employers completely agree that support of an employer
for families favours formation of positive micro climate in an enterprise, as well as it raises
motivation of employees and attach them to the working place.
When comparing opinions of employers and employed inhabitants related to main forms of support
and possibilities to coordinate family life and work, no relevant contradictions were observed. The
most frequent and available form of support is unpaid vacation or holidays in the case of necessity
(mentioned by 80% of employers and 70% of employed inhabitants). ¾ of employers offer or are
ready to offer financial support for families on occasions (wedding, child birth, starting school, as
well as payment for health insurance). The majority of enterprises in Latvia try to organize meetings
during working hours (ensured by 74% of employers and available to 66% of employed inhabitants).
There are also traditional gifts on occasions (correspondingly 67% and 52%). Organization of
undertakings (excursions, sports games, balls), where families of employees may participate is the
most widespread among large enterprises. This opportunity is provide by 385% of employers and
available to 42% of employed inhabitants.
In the enterprises where an employer helps employees to coordinate work and personal life, as well as
in the enterprises there working place can be characterized as “family friendly”, satisfaction of
employees of both genders with work increases. Both, men and women are more satisfied with their
work if they are able to change the schedule when it is necessary. This means that introduction of
more forms of work in the enterprises of Latvia would provide real possibilities to coordinate family
life and work and increase motivation of employees, especially interest of women to take more active
part in the labour law.
Demand for flexible work forms among unemployed inhabitants is rather high. Part time work is
considered to be the most appropriate for a half of all women and for ¼ of men who at present are
unemployed. Work forms like flexible working hours, summarized working hours and distance work
seem to be attractive for a large part of potential employees. Moreover interest about sick work forms
exists among both, men and women, which allows to prognosticate that at present “non-traditional”
forms of employment could turn out successful in different fields and professions.
The research manifests that public opinion in Latvia still is characterized by traditional view on the
role of men and women in the society, in accordance with which the main task of women is care for
family, whereas responsibility area of men lies outside house. About half of inhabitants of Latvia
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support more active involvement of men in childcare and they do not doubt abilities of women to
fulfil responsible duties at work. It can be suggested that these opinions will meet with approval in
future because they are more common for youngsters.
When assessing stereotypes on level of participation in family life, we have to conclude that men and
women share their views in relation to division of duties in childcare but women support the fact that
they could be more active outside home. This reminds of the above mentioned conclusion that it is
important to ensure better possibilities at working place to coordinate family life and work.
Parents with Small Children in the Labour Market
Answers to the question of division of house works obtained in the survey “Women and men in the
labour market” carried out in the frameworks of the research show that if there is a child aged till 2 in
a family, child care is the duty of women. About ¼ of men and women admitted that grandparents sit
children whet mothers are at work, and only on 11% of cases fathers are the responsible persons.
When the child reaches the age of 3 – 6 years, the majority of them (37%) attend kindergartens or
mothers sit for them (31%), but fathers care for them in 8% of cases.
“Survey of families with small children” showed that at the moment of the survey (March – April
2006) more than a half of fathers do not use measures of support that are provided by the legislation
(ten day paternity leave and benefit) or they are not informed on these possibilities. Leave for
childcare was used by 4% of fathers with children aged till the age of 2. 20% of fathers are not aware
of the possibilities to use these benefits, as the data of the research show. More educated fathers
(especially those with highest education) are more ready to participate in childcare and upbringing and
to take leaves for childcare.
Possibility to take leave for childcare for both, men and women is evaluated positively, however, as
the quantitative research shows, members of a family rarely discuss who will take the leave, but it is
assumed that a woman will be the one. When asked about the possibility to take leave for child care,
about a half of fathers answered that they would not use it, but 1/3 were more or less ready for this
stem, but 12% have never considered it and found it difficult to answer.
Only 3.2% of fathers answered that they would never use this leave. This is considered to be a radical
step – 2/3 of fathers would participate if mother could not care for the child because of health
condition. This corresponds to the opinion of fathers of small children that men have to earn money
but women – take care for family and home. However emotional aspects are important to fathers –
they would take the leave and be glad to stay with the child in the most important stages of
development.
As we can see, usage of rights of fathers to take a leave for childcare depends on possibilities and
decision of women. However the qualitative research shows that the majority of women are not ready
to trust their children and rights to have a leave to fathers. In quantitative researches, both, men and
women agreed to the statement that after birth of child women should not work until the child reaches
at least the age of one. This is justified by needs and rights of children to have the best care possible
that mothers can province, as well as by deserved rights of women not to work and stay longer
together with the child.
Although there exists a common concept that mother is the most important person for a baby, both,
men and women think that both parents should taka care of him.
When evaluating available and necessary state support, parents with small children perceive childcare
benefit as an instrument that ties to favour increase of birth rate, but no employment rate. This is
manifested in the national policy implemented from January 1, 2004 to March 1, 2006 that provided
payment of differentiated allowance that was likened to the wage before birth of child and it was paid
to one of the parents till the child reached the age of one year. The amount of allowances and order of
payment is still under consideration in order to improve it, however at the moment of research parents
positively evaluate increase of the amount of the benefit till the child reaches the age of one, and the
new order of payment allow the parents working officially and receive the allowance. But the rule that
provided to pay only a half of the benefit for employed parents was evaluated as unfair.
Rapid fall of the amount of the benefit after the child reaches the age of one cause the greatest
dissatisfaction among parents disregarding limited possibilities of parents to earn money at this period
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of time. Not all women who have children till the age of 1.5 or 2 years are able to resume working at
this period of time, because children still need their care and attention. Only some part of women who
want it are working because kindergartens are unavailable for children of this age, and there is only a
small number of families who can afford to engage a babysitter.
Suggestion of parents with small children is to develop forms of babysitting, including possibility to
increase number of places in kindergartens. Moreover parents think that it is important to support
materially these parents, as well as to cover expenses that appear for school age children.
Opinions of the parents prove conclusions made in previous researches in Latvia that birth rate can be
favoured by offering more possibilities to sit and educate children rather than providing short term
child birth benefits. But it depends on employment of women, their confidence that they will be able
to preserve working place and carrier possibilities.
Women with small children notice state support in the law that do not allow employers to fire mothers
while they are in the leave for child care. The majority of employed mothers with small children have
the previous working place or they receive equal position and equal wage. Mothers who were
employed before child birth and to not work at present are optimistic about further job possibilities:
the majority think that both, working place (71.4%) and the position (67.5%) as well as wage at the
same level (64.7%) will be preserved.
However the research shows that in separate ceases women loose their job after the end of leave for
child care (for example, fired due to liquidation of the position) or they are lowered in the position.
Thus we can indicate an important tendency that about 1/3 of participants of the survey are not sure
about working possibilities after the leave for child care, and 10% of unemployed mothers claim that
they are sure that neither position, nor wage will be preserved. But this loss of working place if often
related to unwillingness of women to join the labour market before the child cannot attend
kindergarten or they want to change the job. In this respect it is advisable to offer young mothers
professional training courses in order to raise their competitiveness and favour possible mobility by
providing information on possibilities of this group of people in the labour market.
Rather relevant factor that hamper women with small children to join the labour market is
unemployment. When relating it to lack of work experience (about 30% of respondents were
unemployed before birth of child) it is important to indicate the necessity to support inclusion of
women with small children in the labour market. The mentioned unemployment risk group during the
leave for child care should be offered professional courses in the form that would fit to them (for
example, in the evening, on holidays or distance education).
When studying factors that favour or hamper inclusion of parents with small children in the labour
market, the results of quantitative survey of parents show that the main reason than makes them
resume working is the end of leave for child care and necessity to gain more incomes. After the child
reaches the age of one, the amount of the benefit reduces and this makes them resume working.
An important factor that favours of hampers inclusion of parents in to the labour market is means of
children sitting. Childcare and sitting is mainly determined by the age of the child. Small children (till
the age of 6 months) are in charge of mother, which is the best way of babysitting. Parents receive
rather big benefit until the child reaches the age of one year. But it is necessary to improve support
when the child is 1 – 2 years old. The results of the survey show that a part of employed and
unemployed women would prefer staying together with the child longer in the period that is the most
important in the development of the child. In accordance with Article 156 of the Labour Law, each
employee has rights to take unpaid leave fro child care for the time period up to 1.5 years, which can
be used by the parents till the child reaches the age of one year. The research shows that although
reduction of the benefit serves as inducement to join labour market, mothers are able to work outside
house only if there are means of babysitting available. Those are grandparents who are in charge of the
child and allow the parents to join labour market. The most common practice in the families of Latvia
is to use the possibility of retirement in order to take care of grandchildren, which increases
unemployment risk for women of retirement or preretirement age, because, as we can see in the
research, it is hard to resume working after a long leave
Less common method of childcare is shirting of mother and father. As the child grows, parents are
more motivated to care for the child on their own. Services of babysitters of children aged 1 – 1.5 is
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used far too often in compared to desire of parents although this is considered to be one of the best
forms of babysitting. However parents take advantage of preschool educational institutions when the
child reaches the age of 1.5 – 2.
In order to coordinate possibilities of childcare in his second year of life when the amount of state
benefit for childcare reduces, they need different approaches. The best is to find a possibility how to
coordinate professional employment and childcare using one of the flexible work forms so that parents
could take care of the child themselves. In order to improve possibilities of sitting 1 – 1.5 year old
children, it is necessary to support financially engagement of a babysitter, where as for 1.5 – 2 year old
child it is necessary to develop availability of preschool educational institutions and game and
development centres.
76.5% of parents, who have not registered their child in a preschool educational institution, would like
to use the services of these institutions. Only 12.7% do not plan to use it. The majority are planning to
take their child to a preschool educational institution after they reach the age of 2(37.3%) – 3 (32.1%),
and 16.7% find it difficult to name the age at which thy sill start using services of PEIs.
Need for more PEIs and more diverse ways of babysitting, for example, development of babysitter
services of game and development centres) is urgent because parents of small children want to use
these service, but they are not available everywhere. It is particularly urgent to form groups of younger
children till the age of 2 and for children aged 2 – 3 years.
The research confirms that parents’’ return to labour market can be favoured by availability of flexible
work forms. In comparison to employment of women before childbirth, women after birth of child
take advantage of part time work and use these forms five times more often.
In accordance to accepted and desired division of work in a family, when the main responsibility of
women is child care, but that of a man – earning, one can conclude that there will also be some
differences in usage of flexible work forms. Mothers would prefer using of part tome work the most
(42%). The second most popular is flexible working hours used by both, mothers and fathers (38%),
but women would also prefer distance work (31%). Although in general it is admitted that both parents
should participate in childcare, those are mainly fathers who emphasize that they have no possibilities
to use any of flexible work forms because of characteristics of their work.
In order to improve demographical situation by reducing obstacles in relation to inclusion of parents
with small children in the labour market and favouring gender equality, it is necessary:
To increase awareness of possibilities of father to participate in child upbringing, as the law
provides, through means of informing the society;
To popularize good examples thus forming public opinion. The research confirms that a part of
fathers are ready to get involved in child care, but lack of knowledge and experience does not
allows it;
To introduce family education programme that has been prepared some years ago or to pay more
attention to acquisition of knowledge, with the help of different subjects (for example, health care
education and social sciences) on forming and maintaining of relation, as well as to gender
equality issues concerning child care and upbringing;
To favour undertakings that allow coordinating family life and employment, develop PEIs, put the
babysitter service in legitimate order thus offering the parents a possibility to use flexible work
forms, the most popular from which being part time work;
To improve family support measures, for example, to prolong the maternity leave from 10 days to
3 months that a father could use during 18 moths after the child birth and to increase the amount of
child care benefit that would be paid to parents disregarding their employment till the child
reaches the age of 1.5;
To favour availability of training courses for parents with small children – offer them to
participate necessary professional courses during the leave for child care in the form and time that
would fit to them (for example, in the evenings, on holidays, distant education);
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By collaborating with employers to offer the parents after the leave for child care flexible work
forms that were the most appropriate for them. Particularly popular forms are flexible working
hour, part time work. Distance work could be used as supplement for other work forms, however
this des not meet the need of women after the leave for child care in order to have a possibility to
socialize and “have rest from house works”.
Subjective Aspects of Gender Equality
The discourse of the term “gender equality’ in the society is created by mass media and specialists of
this field – participants of the research have noticed this term in the press and TC, as well as in some
official documents, but they do not use it in their everyday discourse, for example, when
communicating with friends or family members. Thus we can assume that perception of gender
equality obtained in the research reflects the effect of informative campaigns.
Notion of gender equality in the context of labour market is mainly perceived as equal rights and
possibilities to work and receive fair wage. At present this notion in minds of inhabitants are related to
equal role of men and women and it is not associated to possibilities of usage of equal resources.
Gender differences, taking into account physiological differences are not perceived as a part of
realization of gender equality, bur rather as an argument against possible existence of gender equality.
Abilities of men to fulfil physically hard work that women should avoid are considered to be the main
explanation of gender inequality in the labour market that is impossible to be changed while these
physiological differences exist.
Emotional perception of gender equality shows that this is not work but family where gender equality
starts to manifest itself – harmony and unity between a man and a woman, support and self realization.
Love is the highest manifestation of gender equality. However, as we can see from experience of the
participant of the survey, gender equality often is not realized in practice.
Subjective restrictions or the basis for realization of gender equality principle in the labour market in
future are rooted in the family when the child observes and learns duties of the parents and division of
house works. The survey confirms that stereotypes and traditions play great role in realization of
gender equality principle in the labour market.
The research confirmed the assumption that among inhabitants and employees this principle is mainly
related to solution of problems that are important for women. Employers and specialists think that
there are no significant breaches of gender equality principles in Latvia – some separate episodes may
happen but this should not make it a problem. But female employers and representatives of
management think that attention paid to gender equality is not exaggerated.
In general principles of gender equality are better accepted and realized by men and women with
higher education but gender stereotypes are stronger outside Riga, as well as among inhabitants with
lower level of education.
Employers and experts participating in the survey speak more about limited possibilities of women to
enter masculine professions, when considering gender equality and reduction of wage difference.
Whereas feminine profession are more open but low proportion of employment of men in these fields
can be explained by lack of qualification necessary for the profession, which stereotypically is
admitted to be unacceptable for men. In the frameworks of the present assumptions of gender role,
state budget wage system creates typically “feminine” fields of occupation (education, health care,
social care). In these fields mainly women work because the wage is too small for men to accept it.
This makes us to conclude that low wages in employees in public sector cause labour market
segregation as to the gender or stereotypes or concept on a man or a woman and their skills and
abilities.
In order to form and maintain positive perception of the term “gender equality” among employers and
employed inhabitants, it is necessary to carry out studies on reaction and attitude of people before and
after a campaign. This would allow avoiding situation when, although the information would reach the
target audience in an explicit form, these campaigns continue to reproduce traditional concepts and
stereotypes.
We suggest indicating in these informative campaigns what men and women, as well as employers and
employees obtain from gender equality principle realization in the working place. It would be good to
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remind employers that men and women, as well as young and older people have their preferences and
it is possible to increase productivity of the collective by merging skills and interests of employees.
Sharing of positive experience of families, employed inhabitants and employees if particularly
welcomed as a way of gender equality popularization.
The research discovered significant gender discrimination in the Latvian labour market: men and
women when making comparisons with colleagues of their gender, not the opposite one, realize
injustice in relation to wage. We can speak here of differences in the position of men and women in
the labour market, where paid employment of women is characterized by stability, social guarantees,
less workload and lower level of wage. It has to be indicated that these differences coincide with
concepts that exist in the society and roles of a man and a woman in the family life.
Insults and disdainful attitude against women from the part of colleagues and clients happens often in
Latvia, however this is not mass phenomenon (less thatn10% of women and 3% of men have faced it).
Gender discrimination is perceived in general terms, and its hidden forms often are not noticed. This
perception is characteristic to persons who are actively or passively involved. Actively involved
persons are the ones who are subjected or fulfil some discriminating activities. Passively involved
mainly observe the situation without being involved. The research shows that both, inhabitants and
employers are not able to recognize and define gender discrimination and are not ready to fight it
disregarding its gravity.
A similar situation can be observed in relation to sexual harassment at work. It has to be indicated that
in the discourse of the inhabitants of Latvia and employers there are no clear and understandable
notions that would denote cases of personal interference of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment at
some extent is a forbidden topic and people do not want to talk about it. This makes us conclude that
the majority of such cases at work are kept in secret. The practice to keep such cases in secret is
caused by the opinion of men and women that one cannot be intruded upon if he or she does not want
it. Thus the victims of these situations who mainly are women are perceived as causers and this is their
fault that they did not know how to solve the conflict.
The research showed that sexual harassment, as to the minds of the inhabitants, is considered to be a
wide spread problem and disregarding real cases of personal interference, there exists an opinion that
there is no use to address law enforcement institutions or prove the facts. Respondents’ experience
shows that sexual harassment can be interpreted subjectively and this means that it is impossible to
prove the situation or the fact.
Suggestions that emerge from the research:
To support people who protest and look for defence in law enforcement institutions in the case
of interference;
Society needs information on how to act in the situations of interference and to be informed
about ways of positive solutions of such complaints;
Introduction of a subject on family relations in schools would serve as a preventive measure
that would reduce the number of such situations.
Policy of Gender Equality Implementation and Audit of Information Flow
When introducing and realizing gender equality policy there were problems observed in collaboration
of ministries. These political documents that are related to the field of one ministry, for example,
Programme for gender equality realisation, are the most difficult to be implemented because support
of other ministries to these documents and provided activates is often formal and they do not get
involved.
Taking into consideration the functions provided in the Statues of the Chancellery – implementation of
common policy and organization of activities among ministries, it is suggested fro the Chancellery to
overview their reserved attitude to direct involvement in activities and to participate more actively in
inter-ministerial activities and solution of policy realization problems, especially in the filed of gender
equality. Although more active involvement of the MW in inter ministerial activities do not guarantee
fast improvement of the situation, its role in crisis situation when realising the policy would be
priceless if it undertook the role of an intermediary and attracted ministers in solving the problems,
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thus increasing the importance of the problem and motivating the employees of responsible
institutions to solve the problems.
What concerns obtaining new data, it is advisable to pay more attention to monitoring researches that
would provide information of changes of the situation in a definite period of time. It is also advisable
to use indicators in the form of units of measure, numbers, facts and opinion, which, on the one hand,
show the present situation of gender equality, and, on the other, measures changes of the situation in
time. It is useful to choose as indicators the statistical data that can be regularity or episodically
obtained and indices prepared by state services. This approach would ensure obtaining of indices on
the present year and on the previous ones that can be used in determining changes of situation in time
without introduction of additional indices or having additional expenses. Moreover, all CSB data are
obtained and calculated using international EUROSTAT method that allows carrying out international
comparisons.
Position of men and women in the labour market is shown by: (a) proportion of employed
inhabitants as to their gender; (b) proportion of men and women in several groups of
professions; (c) average gross wage per hour in the groups of professions in relation to forms of
economic activities for women (in percents) if compared to wage of men.
Educational possibilities and activity is characterized by the amount of pupils of each gender
(in percents) in each educational institutions of different levels if compared to the numbed of
men and women of the corresponding age among inhabitants, as well as division of each age
group of men and women as to their level of education.
Participation in family duties is shown by the amount of time spent in child care and house
work per week from the time budget of men and women from different demographical groups.
Attitude of society to gender equality and accepted norms of behaviour in addition to indices
on different field of activities is shown, first of all by the proportion of women in the lists of
candidates and elected persons and in elections of the Saeima and municipalities. This provides
regular concept on support of politicians and society to nomination of women. Whereas death
rate of men and women related to different external causes of death per 100 000 inhabitants of
each age group indicate the difference of influence of behaviour models of men and women on
lifespan and life quality, which at large extent influences labour force.
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10. ASSESSMENT OF THE POLICY ALTERNATIVES FOR

IMPLEMENTING THE GENDER EQUALITY PRINCIPLE IN
THE LABOUR MARKET
Basing oneself on the data acquired during realization of the study „Aspects of Gender Equality in the
Labour Market” (henceforth the study GEALM) and the collected information on the researches
carried out; there are alternatives of policy determined, the aim of which is to ensure the principle of
gender equality in labour market. As the results of the study show, both, Latvian legislation and the
correspondent legislation of the European Commission and directives of the European Union on the
level of legislation (de jure) guarantee provision of the principle of gender equality in all spheres of
life. National legal policy is elaborated and is realized by basing on the principles of ensuring equal
attitude and prohibitions of discrimination that are adopted by the state and prescribed in the
directives. However analysis of objective indices (numeric) of situation in Latvia shows that there are
some problems when ensuring the principle of total gender equality, a wide range of problems in the
labour market included.
In the framework of the study GEALM a particular attention was paid to the solutions of the situation
that concerns education, as well as possibilities of harmonization of working life and family life. After
consultation with the labour group of the study GEALM, the department of introduction of the project
“Studies of Welfare Ministry” brought forward three main alternatives for deeper analysis:
1. Diversification of ways of babysitting in order to ensure harmonization of working life and
family life for parents of the target group having small children;
2. Increasing of the amount of children’s allowance for parents with children aged form one to
two years in order to reduce discrimination of women with small children and favour their
more active participation in labour market;
3. Rising of salaries for pedagogues by equalling it to the average wage of specialists of natural
sciences and hard sciences in order to raise the common level of education among male and
favour acquisition of the subjects of natural sciences and hard sciences among youth.
10.1. First Alternative: Diversification of Ways of Children Sitting
a. General Characteristic of the Alternative
The aim of this alternative is to favour participation of females in the labour market and other out-of-
home activities after the leave for child care diversifying forms of children’s sitting (aged form one to
four (including) years) by involving the private sector in this process. In order to get closer to the
situation of gender equality in the labour market, harmonization of working life and family life has to
be considered as the problem to be solved. In accordance with the principles of a democratic society,
those are parents who have to decide whether they need their child to be sat and whet kind of support
is necessary. The task of the state would be to ensure that there would be no obstacles for realization
of the decision. In order to diversify the sit, the main resources should be assigned to:
1. Municipal preschool educational institutions (further used as MPEI);
2. Service of babysitters;
3. Private PEI (further used as PPEI);
4. Motivation of employers to organize nursing of children of their employees;
5. Centres of children development (further in the text CCD);
6. Groups of children sitting.
Necessity of diverse forms of children sitting has been accentuated several times in Latvia when
studying welfare of families, demographic situation in the state and employment of women as well as
their participation in the labour market after the leave for child care (see: Eglīte (ed.), 1999: 14; Eglīte,
2004: 19; Pavlina, 2004: 26-27, 29-34). Only simultaneous offer of the above mentioned services
would meet the best the interests of parents and children by providing a possibility to evaluate, select
and in the cease of need change the form of children sitting. All these forms can be attained using
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funding as the main political instrument by overtaking the function of full or partial remuneration of
sitters (pedagogues). Introduction of the alternative is considered as a sustainable solution that in
general will be effective and will continue to function even in the case it there would some problems
arise in one of the funding institutions. The critical condition for its introduction is the political will –
it is important that if the political position and defined priorities change, this should not change the
planned amount of funding of some of the involved parties would not give up realization of the
alternative.
Characteristic of the Situation
The target group of the alternative is parents with preschool age children and children aged form one
to four years, involvement in the labour market of which is hampered by lack or insufficient amount
(expensiveness) of services for children sitting. 34% of the women participating in the study of
“Families with Small Children” who have children aged up to two ears admitted that this is an
important obstacle. This means that about one third of the general group, i.e. women with children
aged up to two years is a direct target group of this policy. 35% of the families consider that for them
this problem has already been solved (those are mainly families, the children of which are sat by the
grand-parents). An indirect group is parents that have not expressed wish to participate in the labour
market and this constitutes 30% of all parents with small children. A coordinated system of children
sitting in the country would serve as an encouragement for these parents to resume their studies or
work or at least start looking for job, acquire professional education and improving professional skills.
According to the data of the Central Statistical Board (further in the text – CSB), at the beginning of
2006, the number of children of the above mentioned age was 80 735 (Table of the CSB “4-9. Age
Structure of Male and Female at the Beginning of the Year”). Improvement of living standards of
these children and their parents is an important precondition of development of society.
After a long-term recession of birth indices in the 90-s in Latvia has now became stable, and the
average birth rate is 21 000 children per year. It is characteristic for Latvia that often both parents
rejoin the labour market before a child reaches the school age. At present, there is an overcharge of
preschool educational institutions as well as lack of places – at the beginning of the academic year
2005/2006 the total number of children in the queue for MPEI reached 15 080 children. In accordance
with the data of the Ministry of Education and Science (further used as MES), the demand is not met
in the group of children aged till the age of two (Influence of Realization of the Project of Preschool
Education Institutions of the Increasing of the Number of Places, 2006). Parent register their children
in the queue for the kindergarten right after their birth in order to get a place in the MPEI and return to
the labour market in time.
Although additional places in the MPEI are needed, this is not the only and the main way how to
realize sitting of small children. The main aim is diversification of ways of baby-sitting. When the
possibilities of baby-sitting will be diversified, possibilities of realization of the best model of family
life and job coordination for parents (families) will be improved. It has to be noted that the above
mentioned data on the number of the places that lack in the MPEI characterize the actual demand in
the circumstances, in which parents of these children have acted until now and they are well
acquainted with the situation. Not all above-mentioned forms of baby-sitting are known to the Latvian
society. This is why, when a new offer appears, demand may also rise.
The differences that exist in possibilities for family life and job coordination for families living in
cities and countryside and among the regions are not big. However, taking into consideration the
diversity of solutions for baby sitting offered by the first alternative under consideration, in each
administrative territory, when determining the most demanded and potentially successful approach,
one has to evaluate the existent demand and interests of parents. For instance, the accessible baby
sitter services in Riga and Riga basin do not meet the demands of less than 2% of families with
children aged 1.5 to 2 years who would like to take advantage of them. Whereas preference of parents
to use the services of a kindergarten in these regions is 7 – 8% higher than the present offer.
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b. Political and Economical Potentiality of the Alternative

For a successful realization of the alternative there are several important preconditions. First of all,
political responsibility of introduction of the alternative would be delegated to the correspondent
institution (a ministry). Secondly, all the ministries would take an active part in introduction of
alternatives and other interested parties would also be involved – private service providers,
representatives of non-governmental sector, etc, thus maximally favouring the initiatives of local level.
And finally, one should prognosticate an approximate amount of a stable and correspondent funding.
The offered body of undertakings is fully adapted to the national formulations of gender equality.
These formulations are stated in political documents, like National Development Plan of Latvia and
the Conception of Gender Equality. Diversification of sitting forms corresponds to the needs of the
Family Conception “to determine the range of services that emerge form the needs that are necessary
for families and children.” (Ministry of Welfare, 2002: 1). For successful development and realization
of action plans, for example for development of childcare forms, it is necessary to provide a stable and
sufficient funding. One of the reasons why the conceptions and programmes are not able to reach the
set target is lack of funding for all tasks that are included in the action plan. (See: Cabinet of Ministers,
November 30, 2004).
When binding a successful rejoining of parents the labour market after the leave for childcare with a
simultaneous development of several forms of child sitting, political resistance is possible. In general,
this would attest unwillingness to penetrate and evaluate the problems and benefits of parents of
preschool age children that would be provided with the help of offering choice to parents.
c. Financial (Cash Flow) Analysis of the Alternative

When introducing the alternative, additional funding is needed for the following activities:
(1) Introduction of register of babysitters;
(2) Expenses that would be covered with the help of national obligatory social insurance
instalments for incomes of babysitters of the register;
(3) Paying for preschool educational institution (PEI) from the national budget.
(1) Register of Babysitters
In order to evaluate possible expenses when implicating the register of babysitters, there will be used
the following indicators: (1) the total number of children aged from one to four years; (2) number of
those that already attend preschool educational institutions (PEI); (3) the number of children of this
age that do not attend a PEI.
Table 10.1.1 shows the number of children that have born in the time period form 1999 to 2004, and
they are divided into (the column attend a PEI) (the column – in total do not attend a PEI).
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Table 10.1.1. The number of children that have born in the time period form 1999 to 2004 by
actual and possible attending of a PEI
Attend a PEI Are in queue for Do not attend a In total do not Total
a PIE PIE and are not attend a PIE
(100%)
in queue for a
PIE
Number % Number % Number % Number % Number
Children aged 2 – 6 74 968 75 8 590 8.6 16 800 22. 25 390 25.3 100 358
(born from 1999 – 2003) 4
Children aged 5 – 6 39644 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 644
(born from 1999 – 2000)
Children aged 2 – 4 35 324 58.2 8 590 14.1 16 800 27.7 25 390 42 60 714
(born from 2001 – 2003)
One year old children X X X X X X 20 334 100 20 334
(born in 2004)
Base n1 = number or new-borns from 1999 – 2004.
Base n2 = children that are in queue for a PIE, aged from 2 – 6.
Note: The total number of children that were in queue for a PEI in 2005 aged from 0 – 6 year was 15 080.
Not all families that raise children aged from 1 – 4 years would use services of babysitters, and this is
why the largeness of the potential group of service users was esteemed by using the data of the study
GEALM survey “Families with Small Children”. They show that babysitter services are used by 9% or
parents with children aged 1 – 2 years and children aged 2 – 4 years, and one can estimate that the
total demand for babysitter services would decrease as soon as the child gets older. The number of
children, for whom parents have chosen services of a babysitter, is summarized in the Table 10.1.2.
Table 10.1.2. The number of babysitter services users
One year old children (born Children aged 2 0 4 years Total
in 2004) (born from 2001 – 2003)
Number % Number % Number
Potential number of users of 1830 9 5494 9 7324
services of babysitters
Number of children in the 20 334 100 60 714 100 81048
correspondent age group
Base n1 = Number of newborns from 2001 – 2004.
Assuming that in average one babysitter sits one child, then the total potential number of service users
(7324) can be considered as the number of babysitters (service providers) that would book into the
register of babysitters and would use the social instalments funded by the state. It is planned that
simultaneously with registration, babysitters would also acquire additional statuses that are provided
by the legislation – (1) he or she will be considered as a performer of economic activities to make
instalments of personal income tax and (2) national obligatory social insurance instalments from the
minimum amount of payment object (2006 – LVL 110 per month, beginning with 2007 – LVL 150 per
month) will be performed by the state. This means that the financial analysis is carried out basing on
the following data:
• POTENTIAL target group of register of babysitters is 45 724 (25 390+20 334) children
(children that do not attend a PIE) aged from 1 – 4 years, or 56.4% form the total number of
children in the correspondent age group.
• The esteemed number of parents who use babysitter services for sitting their children is 7 324
(it is assumed that the number of babysitters is the same), or 9% from the total number of
children in the correspondent age group.
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Calculations of expenses and benefits were carried out assuming that all 7324 babysitters would
declare LVL 150 as their monthly incomes, and the state would pay the national obligatory social
insurance instalments form the minimum amount of the object of self-employed people. Table 2.1.3 is
the summary of planned expenses and incomes (from the personal income tax), if the state would
cover the obligatory insurance instalments for a self-employed sitter.
Table 10.1.3. The planned expenses and incomes (from the personal income tax (PIT))
LVL per month LVL per year
Expenses form the national budget, if the state would pay national 329 030.70 3 948 368.40
obligatory social insurance instalments for self- employed
babysitters (NOSII) from LVL 150 ((150 x 0,2995 x 7324)
Incomes of the national budget from the personal income tax, that 48 098.08 577 176.97
is collected form the incomes of self-employed babysitters at the
amount of LVL 150 (((150 - 150 x 0,2995 – 50) x 0,25) x 7324)
Incomes of the municipal budget form personal income tax that is 144 294.24 1 731 530.88
collected from incomes of self-employed babysitters at the amount
of LVL 150 (((150 - 150 x 0,2995 – 50) x 0,75) x 7324)
Direct financial advantages for a self-employed babysitter if the 31.15 373.80
state makes NOSII from the incomes at the amount of LVL 150
Base n1 = planned number of babysitters (7 324).
The rest of expenses, for example, for preparation and handing out of standard agreement forms can be
included into budgets of the correspondent institutions. Whereas funding that is necessary for creation
and maintaining of the register of babysitters depends on whether the register will be publicly
accessible (interactive home page on the internet), or it will be a closed, for example, in the
frameworks of the SRS or similar databases. It is hard to predict a precise sum for creation of the
register because it depends on the characteristics of the database and the total integrity in the structures
of other databases. Provisional expenses for creation of a database of a rather difficult level (publicly
available) are about LVL 15 000. When reducing the requirements for the level of difficulty of the
database, expenses of creation and maintenance would reduce.
A successful functioning of the register of babysitters could be endangered by the requirements stated
in the legislation to perform calculations of incomes and expenses and to submit the annual declaration
f personal incomes into the SRS. As the data of the study show that mastering of administration of
incomes and expenses is one of the difficulties that the performers of economic activities and
individual work face when they start their small businesses. Overcoming these difficulties depends on
cooperation on institutions in the correspondent administrative territory where the potential performer
of individual work lives. This circumstance may reduce the number of potential babysitters that would
register.
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(2) Payment of Wages for Pedagogues in PIE from the National Budget
A possible instrument to develop preschool educational institutions is collaboration of the state not
only in funding pedagogues of MPEI but also those of PEI. Calculations of expenses and benefits are
based on the number of pedagogues of PEI that is necessary in order to look after the children aged
from 2 – 4 years that are registered in the queue for a PEI.
Basing of the data of the Central Statistical Board on 2005, the total number of pedagogues of PEI was
8 211, whereas the number of children that attend a PEI was 74 968. This means that one pedagogue
looks after 9 children (74 968: 8 211=9.13). As it was clarified in the previous chapter of financial
analysis, the active target group – children aged from 2 – 4 years that are in queue for a PEI reaches
the number of 8 950. Knowing the size of the actual target group, the number of wanting pedagogues
in PEI is 941(8 590: 9.13 = 940.8), or 11.5% from the present number of pedagogues in PEI. These
means that in general 9 152 pedagogues of PEI are needed (8 211 + 941) in order to fully meet the
present demands.
Financial analysis is divided into two parts. In the first part there is the present wage of pedagogues
described (for 8 211 pedagogues), whereas in the second part – wages of the desired number of
pedagogues (9 152).
Wage of the Existing Number of Pedagogues of PIE
The results of the Profession Study carried out by the CSB in Latvia, October 2005 show that the
average wage for teachers in elementary education institutions and preschool educational institutions
is LVL 251.72. The total expenses of the labour force per one pedagogue of a PEI are LVL 312.65. If
the state would take the responsibility of paying the wage for pedagogues of PEI, monthly expenses
would be LVL 2 567 169.15 (LVL 312.65 x 8 211 pedagogues), whereas annual expenses would
constitute LVL 30 806 029.80 (LVL 2567169.15 x 12 months). It is important to note that expenses
for the wages of pedagogues of PEI were acquired in the result of using average indices. There are no
precise data on the fact how much it would cost for municipalities of Latvia to maintain the work of
PEI. Expenses and incomes form the wages of present pedagogues are summarized in the Table
10.1.4.
Table 10.1.4. Expenses and incomes from the wages of present pedagogues
LVL per month LVL per year
Expenses from the national budget if the state would pay the 2 567 169. 15 30 806 029.80
wages to the pedagogues of PIE (8 211x312,65)
Incomes of the national budget from the personal income tax that 101 138.99 1 213 667.91
would be collected from the wages of pedagogues (44,77[PIT of
312,65LVL] x 8 211 x 0,25 [State budget part from PIT])
Incomes of the municipal budget from the personal income tax 303 416.98 3 641 003.73
that would be collected form the wages of the pedagogues of PEI
(44,77[PIT of 312,65LVL] x 8 211 x 0,75 [Municipal budget
part from PIT])
Base n1 = Number of pedagogues of PIE, according to the data of the CSB, 2005 (8 211)
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Wage of Desirable Number of Pedagogues of PIE

Expenses on the desirable number of pedagogues in PEI for the national budget per month would
constitute LVL 2 861 372.80 (9 152 pedagogues x LVL 312.65), whereas this would constitute LVL
34 336 473,60 per year. Expenses and incomes from the wages of the desirable number of pedagogues
are summarized in the Table 10.1.5.
Table 10.1.5. Expenses and incomes form the wages of the desirable number of pedagogues
LVL per LVL per year
month
Expenses from the national budget if the state would pay 2 861 372. 80 34 336 473. 60
the wages to the pedagogues of PIE (9 152 x312,65)
Incomes of the national budget from the personal income 112 729.76 1 352 757.12
tax that would be collected from the wages of pedagogues
(44,77[PIT of 312,65LVL] x 9 152 x 0,25 [State budget
part from PIT])
Incomes of the municipal budget from the personal 307 301.28 3 687 615.36
income tax that would be collected form the wages of the
pedagogues of PEI (44,77[PIT of 312,65LVL] x 9 152 x
0,75 [Municipal budget part from PIT])
Base n1 = desirable number of pedagogues of PIE (9 152)
If the state would take over the responsibility form municipalities to fund the wages of pedagogues of
PEI, municipalities would have additional LVL 30 806 029.80. It could be used for construction of
new kindergartens and providing babysitters for the children that cannot attend kindergarten because
of lack of places. By gradually meeting the demands the municipalities could use the free resources in
the field of PEI and in the case of need, for increasing wages of pedagogues.
In order to reach the targets set and control the use of funds, it is advisable for each municipality to
elaborate a plan of disposition of funds in collaboration of Ministry of Regional Development and
Municipal Affairs (MRDMA), Ministry of Education and Sciences and Ministry of Children and
Family Affairs (if needed, other ministries can also be involved), the aim of which would be to ensure
a PEI for the children that want to use the services of a PEI, as well as to ensure a gradual increase of
wages for school and PEI pedagogues.
d. Socio-Economical Analysis of the Alternative

Consideration of Interests of Parents and Inducement of Economic Activities
For parents with a child that has reached the age of 1 - 1.5 years access to PEI is a particularly urgent
issue because in fact there are no other ways of looking after children outside home. On the one hand,
when a child reaches the age of one year, decrease of the childcare allowance serves as a stimulus for
participation in the labour market and is evaluated positively. But on the other hand, if there is no
appropriate offer of child sitting, this becomes a burden for coordination of family life and job, as well
as participation of parents in the labour market.
The results of the polls of parents having small children that was carried out in the framework of the
study GEALM show that only a little bit more that 50% of women take part or are planning to
participate in the labour market after the leave for child care when the child has reached the age of 2
years. About 12% form all women having children aged till the age of two, return or are planning to
return into the labour market after the child has reached the age of one year. 20% of mothers have
decided to do it later, when the child would reach the age of 1 – 1.5 years. The majority or 23% of the
respondents would return to the labour market after the child reaches the age of two, but almost one
third (27%) of young mothers find it difficult to plan whether they will or will not resume the work. In
comparison with the planned employment and experience of employment before the birth of a child,
one can see that at that period they are more willing to return to the labour market than after giving
birth to a child.
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When a child reaches the age of one year, the role of a mother as the only carer gradually reduces. The
data of the GEALM survey “Families with Small Children” show that in 76.1% of families children
aged 1 – 1.5 are looked after mainly by their mothers. When the age of the child increases, other
members of the family take part in the upbringing of the child. The most often these are grand parents.
Parents know that one of the most favourable ways of babysitting if the child is aged form 1 – 1.5
years is a babysitter rather that a preschool educational institution, but for children aged 1.5 – 2 years a
preschool educational institution is the most appropriate one. The data show that a babysitter was used
to render services for children aged 1 – 1.5 years more often than the parents have admitted as a
desirable. Concerning the group of children aged 1.5 – 2 years; actual using of services of a babysitter
is lower than the desirable. A babysitter was considered to be the most appropriate means of looking
after a child by the women that have rejoined the labour market.
The data show that because of poorly developed means of sitting children at least one of the parents
have no possibilities to take part in different organization and activities – both, formal and non-formal,
for example, in the training courses organized by the National Employment Agency. Parents indicate
some unequal circumstances that are created in case if there is no place for a child in a PEI because
alternative ways of looking after a child are more expensive.
Disadvantages of the Existing Offer of Sitting Small Children
One of the most important traits in babysitting in Latvia is the high level on institutionalization, which
means that the state and municipalities have overtaken this issue under their control by merging it into
the educational system mainly in a form of PEI. In order to reach the aim of the alternative, it is
important “to release” babysitting from it. It is necessary not only to take off the juridical obstacles for
other possibilities of baby-sitting but also to provide funding and other kinds of support thus opening
new opportunities for baby sitting and simultaneously ensuring the preschool preparation of five and
six year old children.
The Law on Education adopted by the Saeima of the Republic of Latvia (further in the text Saeima)
define a preschool education as a level of education where “diverse formation of a child’s personality,
strengthening of health, preparation of a child for acquisition of elementary education takes place”
(Saiema, 1999, Article 1, Paragraph 18), and the expenses of the institution are covered form the
national or municipal budget (Saeima, 1999, Article 12, paragraph 1). Financial support from the state
or municipality is provided for institutions that prepare the five and six year old children for obligatory
elementary education. At present there is no support for other, i.e. alternative possibilities of
developing preschool age children (aged from 1 – 4 years), for example, form centres of games and
developments, groups of baby sitting, however in all these above mentioned structures education,
which is “a process of acquiring systematized knowledge and skills and development of attitude and
its result” is insured (Saeima, 1999, Article 1, paragraph 4). The above-mentioned lack of places in
MPEI does not allow the inhabitants to realize their rights on education that is guaranteed by the Law
on Education (see: Saeima, 1999, Article 3). The regulating legislation of preschool education is not
entirely taken into consideration thus creating inequality between parents who have access to more
advantageous services of MPEI.
Realization of rights on education as one of the regular functions is delegated to municipalities (Law
on “Municipalities”; Saeima, 1994: Article 15, paragraphs 4 and 23). Municipalities that try to fulfil
these duties at the extent of their budget have to solve several problems that are related to realization
of their own functions and possible development. The problems mainly are:
1. Lack of preschool pedagogues – causes for this are, first of all, low rate of wages, and,
secondly, the requirement for this group of pedagogues to have higher pedagogical education.
It was discovered during the interviews with the experts that work in municipalities and field
of education that because of these in several PEI of the Riga city there is lack of half of
pedagogues that makes it impossible to complete appropriately the groups. One cannot deny
that the requirement of the higher education of these pedagogues has had a considerable
impact on supply of these specialists in the preschool educational institutions. Recently it
could be observed that pedagogues that are prepared to work in PEI leave for elementary
schools.
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In Riga pedagogues of MPEI are attached with the help of an agreement with the potential and
existent employees by undertaking to cover education expenses if a student would work in the
MPEI after finishing the studies for a considerable period of time. In 2006 92 young people
signed an agreement. The problem of remuneration could be solved if the state would take the
responsibility of paying wages to pedagogues, i.e. ensuring 80% of wages and providing the
rest of the funds to the municipality. The rest of funds meant for education would be used to
improve infrastructure.
2. Queue – often it is not clear for the inhabitants what their chances of gaining a place in a PEI
are. Although the municipality of the Riga city has introduced and published a particular
electronic register, parents often are not satisfied with the information that would explain their
particular position in the queue.
3. Limited possibilities when solving the demand of the clients – MPEI institutional character
does not always correspond to the needs that the flexible and dynamic employment of parents
of the children requires. This can be observed in lack of groups for children that are aged until
three years, as well as in lack of day and night groups. During the last years the demand for
PEI working 24 hours has grown. In 1996, there were 225 groups functioning 24 hours in
Latvia, in 2002 – 260 groups (Spriņģe, I, 204: 15).
PEIs solve this issue successfully with the help of “Introduction of Action Plan of National Family
Policy 2004 – 2013” that provides creation of children games and development centre under the
guidance of the Ministry of Children and Family Affairs (Cabinet of Ministers, 2004b, 2-3). Till
autumn of 2006 there were 28 centres created in collaboration with municipalities (Ministry of
Children and Family Affairs, interview of experts). This could be evaluated as a good example of form
of looking after children that is cheaper but still effective. Municipal projects that gain additional
funding from the Ministry of Children and Family Affairs constitute about eight children centres each
year (with average number of children – 12). There the clients – mainly young mothers that work –
may leave their children for several hours. In several municipalities (like Saulkrasti, Dobele) offer it
for free.
As the specialists pf the MCFA indicate, this programme has fully justified itself. This success is
mainly related to political involvement of several ministries, activity of municipalities as well as to
responsiveness of inhabitants. In order to avoid already experiences mistakes, the Ministry of Children
and Family Affairs now conclude agreements with the municipality that provides functioning of the
centre for the time period of at least two years and ensuring methodological maintenance. If the state
would pay for the pedagogues of the children development centres, this would diminish expenses of
municipalities, which would allow investing the rest of the money in development of centres and in
guaranteeing sitting free of charge.
In the circumstances when a PEI or a game centre is not available, MPEI or babysitters are
indispensable and this is no more a question of choice. But expenses of parents who use these services
are remunerated at best poorly. High costs and limited possibilities of determining an adequate fee as
well as a poor support from the municipality of state is the third cause for the fact that managers of
MPEI face problems when maintaining the establishment. Managers, specialists of ministries and
municipalities consider the private PEI as a “hobby” rather than a cost effective form of
entrepreneurship. Although for example, Riga municipality paid LVL 929.35 (employees’ costs
included) for each child that attended a PEI in 2005, however the actual costs are higher. When facing
the high but not always legitimate requirements for educational institutions, a part of entrepreneurs
choose to offer half-time day groups and refuse feeding service.
Parents, already working and still waiting for a place in a PEI, often employ the third person – a
babysitter, and pay him or her from the family budget. Wages may vary, but the average sum per
month is about LVL 200. There is a high demand of these services but there are not enough
professional and trained specialists. Often pedagogues from MPEI are enticed to this sphere of
unofficial employment by offering more competitive wage. Concerning lucidity of babysitters’
services, here also a common programme is needed in order to meet the demands. In 2002 the register
of babysitters that was planned n the Family Conception and delegated tasks of municipalities was not
realized.
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Reaching the Target Set by the Alternative

In August 3, 1006 in the order of the Prime Minister to the Ministry of Economics (ME) there was
elaboration of propositions offered in order to develop PEIs. Conclusions of the ME labour group were
reflected in the informative report “On Measures for Building of New Preschool Educational
Institutions” (further in the text – informative report). The main conclusions are:
1. In accordance with the data of the CSB on 2005/2006 academic year, in educational
institutions (PEI, groups of general education in schools and centres of interest education), the
correspondent educations was acquired only by 48% OR 74 968 preschool age children;
2. After realization of reconstruction projects of PEI and building of new PEIs, the number of
children that are in queue has diminished only by 39,17%;
3. For development of new PEI it is necessary to elaborate a multifunctional sample project of
PEI that could be realized in various models;
4. Take into account the limits of the municipal budget, it is necessary to develop cooperation of
the state and the private sector (further used as CSPS), ensure a possibility to attend a PEI that
is fully or partially delegated to the private sector (Informative report, 2006: 1-6).
Taking into consideration the main cause of the problem – inability of municipalities to ensure sitting
and education of children because of lack of money, the labour group that has elaborates the
informative report offer the following main solutions:
The Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia (further used as MES)
should amend the regulations of the Cabinet No. 375 thus allowing to increase the number
of children in one group from 12 to 18 for children aged till the age of three years;
They should use state guaranteed credits for construction of new PEI. This solution
prescribes that “a building company would get the credit that is guaranteed by the state
and the state would later be the owner of the buildings. Payment of commitments –
national funding for payment of the credit would be included annually in the law on the
national budget. But there is a guarantee risk and the national budget should not have any
burden because of this guarantee” (ME, 2006: 8-9).
The Cabinet of Ministers acknowledged these solutions in September 11, 2006 disregarding the fact
that the credits that are guaranteed by the state are not evaluated in the report, and there are only some
references on creation of some sport complexes (ME, 2006: 89).
As in the report prepared by the ME the advantages and benefit for parents from other forms of baby
sitting are poorly considered, then the GEALM labour group has also evaluated other forms of
babysitting that are available, this means, private PEI, motivation of employers in organization of
babysitting for their employees, game and development centres, babysitters service and groups of
babysitting.
MPEI will not be able to develop when orientating on the “traditional” function of babysitting, if the
state will not realize the decision of the informative report to favour development of kindergartens
with the help of guaranteed credits instead of paying more attention to one particular form of CSPS.
Thus the enterprises that work in this sector without increasing of support (collaboration of the state or
municipality in paying wages for pedagogues), without approximating the costs of sitting to the costs
of MPEI may go bankruptcy or work on the basis of enthusiasm of socially responsible persons who
are interested in finding solution. This may stimulate choosing the offer of one particular service (for
example, 24 hour groups).
A partial solution of the problem of babysitting is involvement of enterprises that do not work in the
field of children’s preschool education thus ensuring the interests of the interests of employees who
are parents. Although the expert of the Riga municipality gave up this plan after they found out that
the enterprises are not interested in creating these non-profitable services, later there appeared more
and more enterprises that wanted to try this model after realizing that there is lack of labour force in
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order to attract employees and rise their motivation to work (VP Market is a good example of this
practice)
Game centres gained a comparatively strong support in 1999 among parents of first form pupils.
Parents would prefer sending their children there from the age of three (Eglīte, P., (ed.), 1999: 70).
This choice show that some of the parents have part time job and outside activities (for example,
attending training courses) or they are able to coordinate full tome jobs of both parents with
babysitting, as well as this manifests that parents try to solve the problem of babysitting in the cases
when they are not able to do this.
Plans of MCFA have been implicated successfully, and an indispensable prerequisite for it has been
the control of the ministry in selecting projects. Centres created in municipalities differ as to the
largeness of groups and time of sitting (form 3-4 hours to 10-12 hours), as well as costs and
seasonality – in separate perishes the centre is closed in winter, in other perishes – in summer. This
flexibility corresponds to the demands of the inhabitants of a particular municipality (sometimes is
neighbouring territories, too). Favouring growth of game and development centres by covering
gradually the largest part of the municipality is justifiable in perishes where thus the parents of small
children would have two alternatives: game and development centre or a municipal PEI.
It is anticipated that entrepreneurs could be involved in developing game and development centres. At
present demand of these services is limited because of limited budget of the parents.
Popularity of babysitters’ services among parents shows that development of this kind of service
would decrease the queue for PEI by about 9 – 10%. Taking into consideration the fact that the
majority of parents are satisfied with services of a babysitter and one of the determining reason why a
child is taken to PEI (instead of using the services of a babysitter) is the limit of family budget, then
one can see that financial support in the form of allowances may reduce funding into the infrastructure
of PEI and increase the number of pedagogues.
Thus postponing of realization of the register of babysitters (Cabinet of Ministers, 2004b 30.11.: 3) is
not admissible because this does not demand large investments. As the MCFA considers, services of
babysitters are individual, and thus the ministry justifies creation of “social services”, i.e. development
of game and development centres. If we acknowledge the importance of the MCFA in popularizing
family values, the ministry should not abandon freedom of choice of individuals by supporting various
ways of sitting small children.
The concrete activities for introduction of the register of babysitters would be: creation of the register
of babysitters; issuing numbers of identification for the registered persons in the State Revenue
Service (SRS) and creations of standard agreement forms for babysitters, payment of national
obligatory social security instalments form the national budget for self-employed babysitters for the
minimum amount of incomes per one month (incomes from sitting children).
In order to register in the register of babysitters, this should be a code for paying taxes issued by the
SRS (Certificate of a performer of an individual work). Creation of electronic form of register of
babysitters that would be the responsibility of the SRS (collection of data) and MCFA (maintaining of
data/ reception of data) – register of babysitters could be in the form of an interactive internet home
page or as a closed data base where parents with children aged from 1-4 years would be able to find a
babysitter, write recommendations and evaluate the work of a babysitter after using the service.
Register of babysitters would contain the information on the name and surname of the babysitter,
phone number, place of residence and form of care: a babysitter goes to the client’s place; the child is
taken to the place of the babysitter’s; a babysitter looks after several children at his or her place. A
babysitter who was registered in the register would have right to choose whether his or her personal
data are publicly available. The information from the standard agreement form is transferred from the
SRS to the MCFA and then it is included in the electronic database and is available for the local
municipalities and parents with children.
The aim of the register of babysitters is to favour rejoining to the labour market of the parents that
have children of the preschool age (1-4 years) as well as coordination of their family life with job and
to create favourable circumstances for parents who have to use rather expensive forms of babysitting
because of lack of places in MPEI. In addition to this, there would also be a benefit for babysitters
who until now had worker unofficially by including them into the legal labour market.
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One of the main problems of implication of the register of babysitters is lack of motivation to register
oneself. In order to favour this, it is advisable to pay the obligatory national social insurance
instalments for the babysitters who have registered from the national budget at the amount of
payments form the minimum object of payments (the incomes that are gained from babysitting).
One of the risk factors that could hamper effective functioning of the register is possible false
babysitters in the register who would misapply payments of social insurance refunded by the state and
actually would not render this service. There are several solutions offered.
First of all, each person who receives the code of a taxpayer and plan to provide babysitting services
(to be a babysitter) would be additionally provided the identification number of a babysitter (ID). After
receiving the ID, a physical person would be able to use this ID when registering in the register of
babysitters in order to receive the national obligatory social instalments guaranteed by the state. These
codes will help to collect the statistical information on the number of employed and potential
babysitters in Latvia.
Secondly, a physical person who has received a code of a taxpayer, an ID of a babysitter and have
registered in the register would receive the standard agreement form in the SRS. Babysitter
agreements are concluded between the service provider (a babysitter) and the receiver of the service (a
parent) who has a child of the age of 1 – 4 years. On the basis of the concluded agreement that are
attached to the quarterly account of a self-employed person there will be social security instalments
made. The information that the agreement would contain will allow checking whether the age of the
child corresponds to the target group and proving the incomes that are gained form babysitting with
the help of accounts.
Concerning the services of babysitters, one has to take into account the fact that these relations are less
institutionalized and based on cooperation of two or three individuals (for example, parents, babysitter,
consultant) and are more advantageous for all the interested parties by mutually coordinating the
subjective interests.
Knowing that lack of babysitters and preschool pedagogues are mainly influenced by the necessity of
the highest education for these employees, then it is clear that in order to find a positive solution, it is
necessary to introduce adequate requirements of education, for example, by reducing the top of the
necessary education for this group of employees taking into consideration the experience of working.
These changes will not change the quality of babysitting.
Offer of highest education institutions of the pedagogical education is enough qualified in order to lat
a person join the private sector of the labour market. One of the possible additional solutions to
evaluate the lack of pedagogues of PEI is concluding of agreement between a municipality and a
student, the former of which would undertake funding the education if the student is determined to
work in a MPEI after finishing studies (example of the municipality of Riga city).
When favouring involvement of the private sector in sitting children as shows the example of foreign
countries, one has to support provision of individual babysitting services. The most effective form is a
group of five to six children and one pedagogue. This babysitting, first of all, would not be subjected
to high requirements of institutionalized form of education (PEI), and secondly, there would be game
and development centres more available that favour socialization of children in addition to their
sitting.
e. Possible Risks of Reaching the Alternative and Measures for Their Prevention
The biggest risk of the alternative introduction is lack of political will, the reasons for which may be
various, for example, understanding of roles of involved parties, additional expenses etc, at the result
of which the issue of diversification of babysitting forms would be left on itself. Thus the present
situation would be preserved, characterized by long queues for a PEI and a large number of parents
(mainly women) that were unemployed or employed in a way that does not correspond to their wishes.
A considerable risk also is the wage of pedagogues of a PEI. If the wage will not be increased, there is
a possibility that the pedagogues will change their work job for a position in a primary school or will
start providing private child sitting services. Thus the number of employees in this group will diminish
and this would also hamper fulfilment of the function delegated to a municipality – provision of
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education for all inhabitants. The present alternative offers measures for risk prevention: MES would
overtake finding of wages for preschool pedagogues, which would correspond to the scheme of
education of children aged 5 – 6 years, and offering of higher wage would attract more pedagogues to
the municipalities.
A considerable risk is uneven development of the available forms of babysitting or ignoring of some
of the forms. In the case if the government will continue to support reconstruction of PEI and plans for
constructing new PEI only, there will be no progress in solving the problems of babysitting because of
three main problems. First of all, the plan can only be realized performing long-term activities.
Secondly, it is the most probable that the speed of the process of reconstruction of PEI will differ in
different administrative territories depending on the capacities of the municipalities. Thirdly, it is
possible that simultaneously with diversification of forms of babysitting and proves of its
development, social agents may be pushed back, for example, non-governmental organizations,
private business initiatives and parents of children. The result is an inequality among parents of small
children when ensuring babysitting for their children because of various reasons. Moreover, parents
with small children will not be provided with the form pf babysitting that is the most appropriate for
their family. Measures of prevention: take into account the propositions of the alternative and to
realize introduction of complex forms of babysitting.
The risk is lack of social partners – MCFA when introducing game and development centres face the
problem of lack of social organization that would be ready and/or are able to undertake preparation of
a project for the available funding. This is related to the fact that the organizations that are situated in
the regions where the main issues are socialization of children and development of their skills, have
already participated in preparation and creation of these centres. Measures of prevention: social
organizations are to be informed in the positive experience and the MCFA has to show the good
examples of this practice.
10.2. Second Alternative: Increase of the Child Care Allowance for Parents that
have Children aged One to Two Years

The second alternative that prescribes increase of the child care allowance for persons who have
children aged form one to two years, the difference constituting LVL 50 instead of the previous LVL
30 per month, and this serves as supplementation to the first alternative. The offered solution is related
to the parents having children aged 1-2 years. The necessity of the alternative is determined by
demand for improvement of the benefit system that, on the one hand, favour increase of birth rate, and,
on the other, would not promote gender discrimination or limitations or obstacles for involving the
parents (mainly women) into the labour market. The amount og the increased allowance was
determined on the basis of the obligatory minimum allowance aged form 1-2 years for its care. At
present the parents who have not been employed before the birth of a child or who have not made the
national obligatory social instalments, receive LVL 50.
The aim of the alternative is providing support for the social group – parents with children who are in
the most critical socially unfavourable situation. For example, if incomes of a family where both
parents are employed diminish, calculating per one person, after birth of a child. However, the total
incomes of the family remain the same until the child reaches the age of one year, which is possible
owing to the possibilities to receive an allowance at the amount of 70% of the average social
instalment wage of the parent who has taken the leave for child care.
As the poll “Families with Small Children” show, there is a small number of parents (mainly women)
who care for a child aged from 1-2 years and able or are ready to join the labour market. Just a little bit
more than 50% form the women after the leave for child care already participate or are planning to
join the labour market after the child reaches the age of 2 years, but those women who have no
determined plans concerning future employment constitute the same proportion as women who have
not worked before the birth of a child.
The results of the study show that among both, employed and unemployed mothers the most
frequently mentioned reason for staying together with the child as long as possible without working is
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the fact that a mother is irreplaceable for a child at his or her early age 64.3%), a possibility to be
together with a child at the age that is the most determining stage of development (59.2%) and joy to
spend time together with a child (53.7%). In general it is related to the opinion that when a child is
born, the mother should not work till at least the age of one year; and 95% of mothers and fathers of
children support this view.
Thus we can admit that the present reduction of the allowance after the child has reached the age of
one year serves as a stimulus to end the leave for childcare and join the labour market. The poll
revealed that the reason why mothers have resumed or are planning to resume their work is the fact
that there is a necessity to have higher income (correspondingly 86.7% and 78.3%) and the fact that
the amount of childcare allowance is too small (correspondingly 59.3% and 53.0%). Although there is
a risk that the parents will choose not to work as long as they will need childcare at home, the risk is
diminished by the fact that the amount of the allowance does not correspond to the expenses of the
family.
However there is a fact that should be mentioned – the third most important factor that favours
employment for women who resume their work, is the fact that “a child is to be sat” (34.5%). At the
same time the women who would like to join the labour market, there is a considerable obstacle that
makes a person to stay at home as long as possible without working, which is too expensive costs of
babysitting (18%) and lack of services of babysitting (16.2%), which indicates that women with small
children is untapped potential in labour market. Thus one can see in the qualitative and quantitative
study of families with small children that the actual possibilities to improve material situation within a
family are limited, because as it was mentioned in the first alternative of this study, there practically
are no support from the state in ensuring ways of babysitting outside home. One has to conclude that
possibilities for parents after the leave for child care (mainly to women because of various factors) to
join the labour market are limited.
The size of the target group can be evaluated basing on the data of the previous years (2003 – 2005
there were about 21 thousand children per year). The actual number of beneficiaries of childcare
allowances is smaller – in December 2005 it was 16.8 thousand beneficiaries with children aged from
1-2 years. This is because families that have not made social insurance instalments have no rights to
receive the allowance and thus the problem of childcare remains unsolved.
Impact of the solution envisaged in the alternative will differ in different regions, because there are
differences in gender equality that determine division of the target group in the regions of Latvia.
Moreover, taking into consideration the socio-economical differences, the impact of the proposed
amount and role of the allowance on the budget of families would also differ.
Although introduction of this alternative requires additional funding (~4 million LVL per year), there
is no necessity to create new institutions or systems. The childcare allocation would automatically be
recalculated by the National Social Insurance Agency for all demanders of the benefit, and there are
no additional funds needed to administrate the allowance. Increase of childcare allowance is a
comparatively short-term solution, and further the amount of the minimum allowance should be
revised twice a year. One has to take into consideration the fact that each increase of an allowances or
prolonging of the leave has to be considered as irreversible and in future it can only be increased.
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b. Political and Economical Possibility of the Alternative

Increase of the child care allowance corresponds to the article 2 of “the Law on Social Allowances”
that prescribes that “national social allowance is support of the state in the form of payments that are
allocated to particular groups of inhabitants that are not able to gain incomes and they can not benefit
from a special compensation from the system of national social insurance” (Saeima of the Republic of
Latvia, 2003). At present there is reason to think that parents with children aged 1 – 2 years are in the
situation when they have additional expenses. The data of the CSB show that birth of each child in
Latvia increase the risk of a family to undergo poverty, whereas the biggest risk is for the families
with one parent and a child or children, as well as for large families. Whereas lack of institutions for
child care and weak system of babysitters makes us think that at least one of the parents who looks
after the child until the age of two years con not gain income if his or her form of employment is not
sufficiently flexible or related to looking after small children.
No objections are expected form any of the respective groups of power, if we take into consideration
the positive attitude of the state and support for solving demographic problems and unconformity of
the present amount of allowance with the child care and babysitting costs, nor the principles of social
justice. The decision of increasing the amount of the child care allowance was particularly supported
by the municipalities that do not have the capacity or resources for realization of the task provided in
the Article 15 paragraph 4 of the Law on Municipalities to ensure the preschool age children a place in
educational institutions.
At present the main obstacle for women after the leave for childcare to join the labour market is the
opinion of employers and fear that mothers with small children are not advantageous employees. The
discriminating attitude has its roots not only in negative stereotypes and unproved prejudices but also
in the advantages that are prescribed in the Labour Law (for example, less working hours, limitations
to employ a person at night hours). Risk for unemployed persons is also increased by unwillingness of
young mothers to join the labour market and the spread tendency not to work and look after the child
till it reaches the age of 2 years, which causes loss of qualification and skills.
In order to favour employment, increase of the allowance should take place simultaneously with
introduction of the first described alternative (diversification of forms of babysitting and strengthening
of the system of babysitters). In addition to the allowance as a solution that would favour employment,
there should also be some facilitations (babysitting in a groups free of charge or refunding of services
of a qualified babysitter) for the parents who work full or part time jobs, who study or attend, for
example, training courses that are organized by the NEA.
c. Financial Analysis (Cash Flow) of the Alternative
When relating the allowance to all the parents of the children of a certain age group, the expected
expenses on the increased allowance from the national budget would constitute LVL 5 million per
year (basing on the number of children born in the previous years, in the time period from 2003 –
2005, which constitutes LVL 21 thousand per year). If we limit the target audience of the alternative
till those parents only who have made social insurance instalments, the expected expenses would
constitute LVL 4 million per year. The expenses are based on the number of beneficiaries of the
allowance on December 2005 (16.8 thousands of beneficiaries who have a child aged 1-2 years).
196

Expected positive results:
1) For all the society – a possible improvement of the demographic situation that is favoured by
improvement of living condition of the inhabitants with small children and their greater
satisfaction with possibilities to coordinate family life and job. This is the result that cannot be
estimated in numbers.
2) For legislators and decision makers – higher satisfaction of inhabitants and support of electors.
3) For families with small families – improvement of material situation simultaneously with the
increase of the amount of the allowance by LVL 20 per month. If this addition sum is used for
paying a babysitter (about 20 hours per month), the parents have more possibilities to get a
job, as well as to use the free time for studies or improvement of qualification.
4) If the sum of the allowance is used to pay a babysitter – employment of woman, mainly young
woman or retirement age women. However until there will be no appropriate and motivating
system of register of babysitters introduced, this will still remain an illegal form of
employment.
e. Possible Risks of Alternative Introduction and Measures of Its Prevention

First of all, the most often mentioned but the less important risks of the alternative introduction is the
negative consequences mentioned by the experts that socially disadvantageous families could undergo,
the problems of which are mainly constituted by an asocial behaviour of its family members (alcohol
addiction, drug addiction, breach of law, etc.). This is the group of inhabitants for who increase of
allowances would provide additional resources for acquisition of drugs and alcohol. However the work
group considers that the above-mentioned argument, thou often used in the public discourse, is not
related to a large group of inhabitants. Even if 8712 families are concerned that are controlled as
disadvantageous families by the orphan court and parish court as to January 1, 2005 where child care
is not properly maintained and the needs are not met (MCFA, 2006: 3), only some of these families
have children aged 1 – 2 years.
Measures of risk prevention – in accordance with the tasks of the social services of municipalities that
are provided by the Law of social services and social assistance, continue supporting development of
social care services. During the last years reduction of disadvantageous families has been observed
that are under control of orphan courts and parish courts that makes us to conclude that the work of
social services and social worker is becoming more effective. This means that activities of specialists
of social work could serve as an effective means of preventing risks.
Second and the most important risk of alternative introduction that is closely related to the basic aim
of the study – to favour growth of employment, is possible negative consequences that would emerge
in the case if increase of the allocation would decrease the number of women that are involved in the
labour market. This would take place in the case if the amount of the allowance would be sufficient for
the target group to survive and would not induce them have some labour activities.
On the one hand, introduction of the alternative would turn out negative for those parents who receive
the allocation at its minimum amount during the first years of the child’s life – people who were
unemployed of received the minimum wage. In the case of the present alternative increase of the
allowance form LVL 30 to LVL 50 would have different impact in different regions, countryside,
towns and in Riga, however in general it does not reach the necessary minimum resource for a family
with a small child in order to survive.
Measures of risk prevention:
1) Pay the allowance disregarding the employment statues of a person. This would decrease the
risks level for employment rate because if people do not have to choose between a job and
receiving the allowance, then parents would more actively use the possibilities offered by the
open labour market after the leave for child care.
197
2) To define the increase of the allowance and to offer it as a target subsidy to favour mobility of
parents with small children.
3) In addition to this to offer the target group to look for appropriate ways of improving
qualification of acquiring a profession while they still are on leave in the time and place that
are the most advantageous for the parents (for example, in the evening, during weekends,
distance education).
4) In collaboration with employers, to offer within the framework of the measures of subsidized
employment the parents in the form of employment that is the most appropriate and
corresponding to their needs after the leave for child care.
5) In order to reduce the most effectively the possible risks of introduction of the second
alternative, we have to emphasize again that this activity has to be introduced together with
the first alternative thus favouring various ways of babysitting that would be situated as close
as possible to the living or work places of the parents. In addition to the allowance, there
should also be some facilitations supported by the municipality that would serve as a solution
contributory to employment (for example, children game groups free of charge, services of
trained babysitters or partial payment for private kindergartens) that would solve the problem
of babysitting for those parents who have a full time or part time job, study or attend training
courses organized by the NEA.
10.3. Third Alternative: Coordination of the Wage of a Teacher to the Average

Wage of Specialists of Natural Sciences or Hard Sciences
The aim of the alternative is to involve high qualified pedagogues to work at schools by increasing the
wage of teachers, thus favouring the will of young people to study and acquire higher (at least a
completed secondary education) level of education and diminish segregation of professions in the
labour market.
Increase of the wage of a teacher, on the one hand, would contribute competitiveness of the profession
of a teacher with other professions, thus attracting young and talented specialists and reducing
horizontal segregation. On the other hand, this would considerably increase the quality of primary and
secondary education in general. Moreover, by widening knowledge of a pupil in natural sciences and
hard sciences, young people would be better prepared to acquire technical professions and professions
that are related to natural and hard sciences in higher educational institutions and professional
education institutions. An important result in reaching the aim is reduction of the number of pupils
who have not completed primary or secondary education. This concerns boys in particular who
because of various objective and subjective factors do not complete their education.
Increase of the wages of pedagogues is an important issue that has to be balanced with the changing
situation of the labour market that could serve as a solution for the question under consideration. A
gradual and comparatively slow rise of the prestige of the profession of a teacher, reduction of the
causes for profession segregation and increase of the education level for males is considered not only
as a long term but also positive effect.
Characteristics of the Situation
During the academic year 2005/2006, there were 27282 teachers working in the schools of Latvia, and
the proportion of female teachers constituted 88%. During the last eight years the proportion of males
and females in this profession has not changed (see Image 10.3.1.). For several years already there is
lack of teachers at the schools in Latvia, and this is a characteristic feature of the schools in Riga and
the regions. Starting the academic year 2006/2006, there is lack of 253 teachers (State Education
Inspection, 2006).
We have to admit that numerically this is the largest and the most homogenous target groups of the
alternative disregarding predominance of one gender over another among representatives of the
profession. Material supply of the representatives of the groups differs and this is determined by
several aspects, location of the school and specialization included. For example, location of the school
198
in a particular administrative territory influences not only the size of the wage of a teacher, but also the
level of material supply and prestige of the occupation in comparison with other inhabitants of the
same populated place. One can see that the size of the target group in the case of introducing of the
alternative will increase because thus the present vacancies will be occupied.
Figure 10.3.1. Number of teachers in comprehensive schools,
primary schools, secondary schools and special schools of Latvia
13,3 12,9 12,7 12,4 12,3 12,3 12,4 12,2 %
86,7 87,1 87,3 87,6 87,7 87,7 87,6 87,8

)
3)
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38
98
77
32
84
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82
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98
91
82
78
75
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72
27
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Sievietes
19
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20
20
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Source: Statistical and analytical department of the Ministry of Education and Science of Latvia.
The situation that the profession of a teacher during the last century has changed its nature from purely
masculine to purely feminine form of employment, and this has been favoured by several factors. Fits
of all the level of education for women has increased in general. Secondly, the prestige of the
profession of a teacher has diminished, that at large extent has been influenced by low wage.
Regarding form the historical point of view, it was first of all determined by the price policy in the
Soviet Union that provided higher wages for workers in the industrial sector and workers of a special
qualification, whereas wage rates in the humanitarian sector was considerably lower. Even today,
when we consider the wage of a teacher in national educational institutions in Latvia, we can conclude
that insufficient level of wage rate does not contribute to the rise of the prestige of the profession.
At present in the schools of Latvia the order of payment for fork, the amount of the wage and working
hours in national and municipal educational institutions are determined by “the Regulations of the
Remuneration of the Work of Pedagogues” Cabinet of Ministers, August 24, 2004) and amendments
of these regulations (CM, December 20, 2005) that came into force in January 1, 2006.
Table 10.3.1. Rate of the lowest gross wage of teachers in lats
No. Name of the pedagogue occupation (profession) Length of service of pedagogical work (in years)
Less than 5 From 5 to 10 More than 10
1. Methodologist of education in supporting 208 223 237
educational institutions founded by the state
2. Methodologist of education 183 193 204
3. Pedagogue with the lowest Professional 180 184 190

qualification
Source: Amendments tot the regulations of the August 24, 2004 of the Cabinet of Ministers No. 746 „Regulation
of the Wage of Teachers”, Regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers No. 998.
199
These regulations single out a separate wage for one workload in four different groups of pedagogues
(see: regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers No. 746, till the Article 7), that can be used for precise
calculation of the basic wage for each representative of separate groups depending on the workload of
the pedagogue, i.e. number of hours, level of professional training and time period of working as a
teacher. In addition to this teachers get supplementary payments that are calculated in percents from
the basic wage of a teacher and depend on the work place, work quality, additional pedagogical work
and time schedule of a teacher, i.e. if the teacher has a divided working day.
In the study of professions carried out by the CSB as to 2005, it is indicated that senior specialists of
the social, public and individual services in Latvia (that could be evaluated as an equal profession to
that of a teacher according to the requirements of education provided in the legislation) received in
average LVL 243.44 per month (LVL 269.90 for male and LVL 230.79 for female representatives of
the profession) (CSB 2006: 134). In 2005 the average gross wage taken together with supplementary
payments for teachers in professional educational institutions constituted LVL 276.07 per month
(average wage for male – LVL 248.51 and LVL 281.56 for female). This prevalence of the average
wage over the one that is determined in the legislation shows that teachers choose to work more than
one workload in order to raise the total wage. There are also other reasons why they work more than
one workload, for example, if the total number of hours in one subject exceeds the full workload, it is
more advantageous for a teacher to take additional hours rather than for a headmaster to look for
another teacher to teach the subject. The fact that a teacher works more that one workload may
negatively influence his quality of work and improvement of professional skills.
In September 2006, the wage of a pedagogue was raised by LVL 50 (see Table 10.3.2) (C, June 4,
2006), thus taken together with the increase of the wage in July 6, 2006 by LVL 20 the average wage
of a pedagogue has now reached LVL 234 per month for one workload. The above mentioned increase
of wage corresponds to the order of Cabinet of Ministers No. 746 and No. 579 of August 29, 2005 on
increase of wage of pedagogues for 2006 – 2010 (CM, August 29, 2005), the first version of increase
of wages for pedagogues (see: Image 10.3.2).
Table 10.3.2. Rate of the lowest gross wage of teachers in lats (since September 1, 2006)
Length of pedagogical service (years)
No. Name of the occupation (profession)
Less than 5 From 5 to 10 More than 10
1. Methodologist of education in supporting 258 273 287
educational institutions founded by the state
2. Methodologist of education 233 243 254
3. Pedagogue with the lowest Professional 230 234 240
qualification
Avots: Grozījums Ministru kabineta 2004.gada 24.augusta noteikumos Nr.746 “Pedagogu darba samaksas
noteikumi”, „Ministru kabineta noteikumi Nr.562
The aim of the document “Programme of Wage Increase for Pedagogues 2006 – 2010” is “constant
increase of wages in order to approximate it to the average level in the states of the EU in accordance
with the statistical report of the CSB on the average annual wage of workers in the social sector when
it is multiplied by the coefficient” (CM, August 29, 2005). Thus in the result of the implication of the
programme it is planned to raise the wage of a teacher up to LVL 464 per month for one workload of a
teacher.
Accepting this system of wage calculation for teachers, it is possible to approximate the wage of a
teacher to that of an official. It is important to indicate that offering a teacher the status of an official is
one of the most often mentioned solutions for the problem of the prestige of the profession. However
this solution cannot function successfully because the wage of an official cannot be related with the
wage of a teacher because of the complicated system of supplementary payments.
The order of the Cabinet of Ministers No. 579 can be interpreted as non-effective, minimum and
insufficient increase of wages of teachers and as well as the one that will not motivate males work in
this professions, when considering the wage of males and females in this profession (bonuses and
supplementary payments included). When comparing the wages of males with those that are provided
in the order No. 579 of the Cabinet, we can see that if they worked as pedagogues, this would cause a
considerable decrease of their wage. Whereas when we consider the wages of females, we can
200
conclude that the increase of wages offered by the Cabinet of Minister, though very small, is the
motivating factor for women to work in the profession of a teacher. If we assume that the aim of this
programme is to involve new pedagogues, then males who work in this profession get lower wage
than if they worked in other professions. Female teachers have a comparatively higher wage than the
average index of wages of other professions.
Figure 10.3.2. Versions of increase of wages of pedagogues year by year
600
500
464 464
464
464 464
404 404
400
384 384 384
334 334 384
Ls 284 284 314 314

300 314 314
244 244
254 254
254 254
200 204 204
204 204
184
100
0
01.2006. 09.2006. 01.2007. 09.2007. 01.2008. 09.2008. 01.2009. 09.2009. 01.2010. 09.2010.
1. variants 2. variants (IZM) 3. variants (LIZDA)
Source: Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia (August 29, 2005), Order of the Cabinet of Ministers of
the Republic of Latvia (August 29, 2005)., increase of wages of pedagogues (except for the pedagogues that are
employed in preparatory schools for children aged five to six years) 2006 – 2010 (page 6)
b. Political and Economical Possibility of the Alternative

Let us emphasize the aims that we want to reach with the help of increase of wages for pedagogues: to
involve talented and high qualified human resources to the work of a teacher thus increasing the
amount and quality of knowledge of pupils; to motivate young people acquire as high level of
education as possible; to motivate males to work in the profession of a teacher and lessen segregation
of professions and prevent drain of teaching stuff from schools to other fields.
Political possibility of the alternative is related to understanding of the state administration as a power
group and the society of the notion of education in socialization of a person (becoming a member of
the society), as well as acquisition of skills that would meet the needs of the national economy.
Increase of wages for teachers as a national priority has already been emphasized several times.
Educational system is one of the main fields that is mentioned in the National Development Plan
(further used as NDP) and the Programme of Lisbon of Latvia. Regular proposition to change and
improve educational system are received form different non-governmental organizations: Association
of Pedagogues and Teachers of Latvia (like Labour Union of Workers in Education and Science in
Latvia), as well as form associations of employers. Teacher associations indicate mainly inability of
the Ministry of Education and Science to make a school a competitive work place and provide enough
high wages for teachers. Association of employers is concerned about the fact that the present
education system of Latvia cannot offer the labour market high qualified and numerous specialists of
various fields.
It is emphasized in the NDP of 2007 – 2013 that development of the country cannot be realized
without well-educated people, whose decisions are based on knowledge. Development of Latvia is
closely related to creation of educated society and development, at the result of which the educational
201
system will become the central element of this plan. This document contains a link on the connection
that exists between an educational institution and the person to be educated, as well as the role of a
teacher. The authors of the NDP write: “Quantitative basis of knowledge of the society and secondary
– all-round or professional – education is the initial capital, without which there is no possibilities for a
person to join fully and successfully the labour market” (NDP, 2006: 15). Then it is indicated, “a
stable interest in studies and progress is promoted by a successful work of pedagogues. Renovation of
the prestige of this profession is related to a considerable increase of wage for pedagogues,
improvement of the methodology of education and involvement of new and motivated specialists in
the system…” (ibid). Fears related to decrease of the quality of formation are also expressed in the
Programme of Lisbon: “Professional skills of pedagogies and possibilities of further training are
insufficient, pedagogues and academic stuff become old. There is decrease of the number of
pedagogues and academic persons having an academic degree” (Cabinet of Ministers, October 19,
2005: 36).
We can see that in the documents where they speak about the strategy and tactics of the development
of Latvia, the particular role of a teacher in the plans of development of the state is mentioned. It is
emphasized in the documents that the professional work of a pedagogue is directly related to the
development of the society in general, to the growth of labour force and human resources, as well as to
further economical development of the state. In these documents they also indicate some measures that
are to be implicated in order to involve new and capable stuff to the profession of a teacher and favour
increase of the level of professionalisms of teachers at present. One of the most urgent measures that
will help to reduce the need for teachers at schools and also will help to involve new and talented
people is the necessity to increase the wage of a teacher. Events that are mentioned in the political
documents coincide with the aim of the alternative, and this is why one can assume that theoretically
there is a high political probability. Introduction of the alternative can be endangered by the priority of
other political decisions or lack of resources to raise the wages of pedagogues. The letter risk
determines the economical probability of the alternative. Offered increase of wages for pedagogues
that will be discussed in the next chapter include analysis of three versions that increase the probability
that at least one of them will be considered as feasible to realize.
202
c. Financial Analysis of the Alternative

Financial analysis of the alternative includes, first of all, comparison of wages of teachers with the
wages of other professions and secondly, survey of three versions of increase of wages. Comparison of
wages to those of other professions is necessary in order to determine the point of reference that would
define the amount for which the monthly wage of teachers is to be increased. The three versions of
increase of wage provide different rates of wage increase, which means that they provide different
load on the national budget.
One of the possibilities of increase of wage of a teacher is to fully accept the programme of teacher
promotion that is reflected in the order of the Cabinet No. 579. The programme provided that until
2010 wages of teachers will be increased up to LVL 464. It is planned to attain this increase by using
the following model of calculations: every year there will the average gross wage of workers of the
social sector for the previous year taken as the basis and it will be multiplied by the coefficient 1.2.
This system of calculation of the wage for teachers is based in the assumption that the basic wage that
serves for calculation of the wage for a teacher will increase by 10% each year. This means that the
MES for the wage of teachers higher by 10% that the gross wage is for the workers of the social
sector. In September 2006, the gross wage of pedagogues has to be LVL 204, according to this plan.
Another approach provides to choose a more adequate profession, to which the wage of a teacher
would be approximated. A teacher is a profession with high professional requirements and very
specific contents of job. This means that at present the comparison included in the normative acts
between teachers and workers of public sector cannot be regarded as proper, and one should not use
the gross wage of a worker of public sector as the basis for calculation of the wage. This indicates that
wages of males and females differ in various sectors of national economy (about 20%). When the
wage is related to the index of one or another profession, the wage is increased taking into
consideration the difference of the mentioned wage between a male and a female. Thus the wage is
made to be competitive among women, but is cannot compete with the wage of a male. When relating
a teacher to a particular profession, the profession that is equal to the profession of a teacher has to be
chosen. The wage with the coefficient has to be adapted to the gross income of the chosen profession
of to the average wage of a male of the profession for the previous year.
In order to preserve the motivation of teachers to work and be inclined to develop in their profession,
it is necessary to maintain the difference of wages that are mentioned in the order of the Cabinet No.
579 that is ensured with the help of indexation of the average gross wage of the comparative
profession for the previous year with the index 1.2. This system works if the growth of the wage of the
comparative profession remains constant – in this case it can be expected that the wage would increase
by 0.1%. Thus it is possible to maintain a constant difference between the wages under comparison
(the wage of pedagogues reach the index of 1.2 from the comparative wage for the previous year; the
comparative wage grows by 110% (the index being 1.1); the difference of these wages is 10% in any
year of wage increase).
Basing oneself on the requirements formulated in the legislation on education of pedagogues and the
idea that is formulated in the alternative, the wages of pedagogues should be related to the sub group
of professions “physicists, chemists, mathematicians, engineers and senior specialists of related
professions” (average gross wage is LVL 381.56, which means that average wage for females – LVL
322.96 and for males – LVL 408.33) (CSB, 2006: 75). The wage level of these professions can be
considered as the most appropriate ones for determining the basic wage of pedagogues because: these
professions could be alternative work places for teachers and these professions could help to involve
new teachers, as well as requirement of education are similar to those of a teacher.
Taking into consideration that the load for the national budget will be considerable if the wages would
be swiftly increased till the desired level, the work group offers increasing of the wage gradually so
that the wage of pedagogues would correspond to the prognosticated wage of “physicists, chemists,
mathematicians, engineers and senior representatives of related professions” (reference groups) in
2010. This means that initially the expected wage of the reference group is calculated as to 2010, then
the correspondent wage of pedagogues is determined for the same time period, and different rates of
increase of wages for teachers are elaborated in order to hit the target.
203
When determining the wage of the reference group for 2010, it is assumed that the wage will increase
by 10% each year (Cabinet of Ministers, August 20, 2005). When determining the correspondent wage
of pedagogues, it is possible to assume two versions of calculation. The first version is based on the
assumption that wages of teachers should be a little bit higher that the wages of the competing
reference groups. In accordance with the order No. 579of the Cabinet (Cabinet of Ministers, August
20, 2005), the optimal difference of wages of a teacher and a representative of the reference group
should be additional 10%. Then the wage of teachers is formed by indexing the basic salary of the
previous year by 1.). In the case of this alternative, the gross wage of teachers in 2010 would
constitute LVL 670 per month (first version of the alternative).
Another version provides that the wage of teachers is completely approximated to the wage of
“physicists, chemists, mathematicians, engineers and senior representatives of related professions”
without prescribing that it could exceed the wage of the reference group. Then the wage of teachers in
2010 would constitute LVL 615 per month. In this case the wage of a teacher is calculated by indexing
the wage of the representatives of the above-mentioned professions with the index 1.1. This
calculation is not advantageous because the aim of the wage increase is attraction of males to work at
school. The wage calculated would motivate mainly women, however it would remain interesting
attraction for males, too. In order to reach the target set – coordination of the wage of teachers to the
wage of the reference group in 2010, it is possible to perform the gradual increase in two ways: by
indexing the wage by 1.15 two times a year (the second version of the alternative) or indexing the
wage of teachers by the index 1.2 two times a year (the third version of the alternative).
Using one of the above-mentioned strategies for increase of wages for teachers has comparatively
small economic advantages that one could express numerically. This strategy considerably increases
expenses from the national budget. Assuming that the second and the third version of the alternative
where the gross wage of teachers reach LVL 615 in 2010, this would require the national budget
additional resources each year, which in 2010 would reach LVL 83 million. Accepting the first version
(wage in 2010 – LVL 670) would exceed the limit of additional resources from the budget at the
amount of LVL 100 million. It is self-evident that the Ministry of Finances that is responsible for
elaboration and integration of the budget for the workers of the public sector could resist the
introduction of the above mentioned policy alternative.

The Role of a Teacher in Socialization of Children
In Latvia it is often considered but the most urgent question here is the impact of a pedagogue on a
pupil. This question can be divided in several sub-questions: What is the general impact of a
pedagogue on socialization of a child? What is the impact of a pedagogue of the process of education?
What is the impact of stereotypes related to gender that exist in the society on the system of education
and process of acquisition of knowledge? Rather complete answers to these questions can be found in
the studies carried out in other parts of the world that show the importance and necessity of balance
and male and female teachers at school.
Within the framework of the study carried out in Latvia “Realization of the Principles of Gender
Equality in the Municipalities of Latvia” the authors indicate that the proportion of male pedagogies
would be an appropriate mechanism for ensuring gender equality (Pranka, M., 2004). The authors of
the study think that involving of males in the profession of a teacher could ensure gender equality and
would lessen the stereotypes.
The authors of this study indicate that it is possible to involve male pedagogues in the teacher
profession only with the help of attracting additional economic resources. An important factor is
increase of the wage of teachers that has to be insured in order to attraction of male pedagogues. One
of the possible solutions of the situation is the possibility to increase wages for males only (positive
discrimination). The authors of the study reject this approach and they indicate that this could provoke
side effects that cannot be prognosticated, for example, resignation of female teachers and the resultant
consequences. Thus the authors of the study draw the conclusion that involvement of male sin the
educational system could be promoted only by the common increase of wages of the profession.
204
In the studies carried out outside Latvia, where the impact of the gander of the pedagogue on the
process of the education and quality of knowledge acquired by the pupils is studied, they mainly look
at the differences that are caused by the gender of the pedagogue in the knowledge of pupils. These
studies also pay attention to the mechanism of reproduction of gender stereotypes and influence of
gender stereotypes that are rooted in a person’s consciousness on the real and expected evaluation of
knowledge and activity evaluation, as well as on the process of education in general.
In the study of Joseph Klein, an Israeli researcher, the main attention is paid to the differences in
evaluation of knowledge of pupils that depends on the pupil itself and the gender of the teacher (Klein
J., 2004). Klein asks a question whether the differences in marks that can be observed between boys
and girls are rooted in the differences of real quantity and quality of knowledge, or they are related to
the stereotypes that dominate in the society. Disregarding the fact that the researcher does not provide
a clear answer on the question set by himself, there are several differences shown in the study that are
caused by the gender of the teacher in knowledge of pupils.
In the study on the peculiarities of behaviour at the schools of the USA, the authors of the study come
to the conclusion that male pedagogues pay less attention to the behaviour of the pupils and thus their
behaviour influences less evaluation of knowledge of a pupil (DeMarco, A., M., & Deretich, S., 2006).
Thus we can claim that if there were more male teachers involved in the teaching process, the pupils
would have a possibility to see and to learn the diverse models of human behaviour.
Eric Erickson in his theoretical work o formation of identity of young people provides answer to the
questions that are never answered in previously described studies. In the book “Identity: Youth and
Crisis” Erickson indicates that unequal division of pedagogues create understanding of young people
of knowledge. This is the way how pupils create their understanding, in cases if the proportion of
female teachers is higher than male teachers, where knowledge is considered as a purely feminine
characteristic. Young people create opposition where females know but males act: “…the majority of
teachers in our primary school are women; this division of work may lead to wrong identity of a boy
by assuming that knowledge is feminine characteristic, but action is masculine… The statement that
those who are able they act, and those who are not – teach how to act, is still alive in the parents’ and
pupil’ perceptions about school system” (Erickson, E.H., 1998: 98-99).
Consequences of Increase of the Wage
Increase of the wage for teachers would promote compatibility of this profession in the labour market.
In the result of this the schools would be able to complete the teaching stuff and ensure the necessary
specialists for all subjects. Another advantage would be increase of the prestige of the teacher’s
profession, as well as prestige of a school as a work place. This is the way how the system of
education would have advantage in general: as soon as it would be prestigious to work as a teacher and
earn well, the interest of potential employees would rise, at the result of which competitiveness on a
vacant place would increase thus ensuring the best specialists to occupy the position. Competition for
the position of a teacher would induce the employees of this sphere to improve their professional
skills. In the result of this the general quality of education would rise.
As it was mentioned above, teacher at present is a profession that is interpreted as the one that is
suitable for women. One can not indicate precisely in what time period the number of male and female
teachers will be balanced. However there is a reason to claim that the proportion of male teachers will
increase if the wage will also be increased.
Increase of the wage for teachers that would favour increase of number of those who are willing to
work in the profession, will decrease the wish of the teachers to work more than one workload, and
thus they will have more time to improve their professional skills. However it has to be indicated that
these consequences will start appearing only in the moment when teachers will feel that remuneration
for one workload is acceptable, and when they will make sure that the situation is stable.
205
Diminishing of Segregation of Profession and its Impact

As it was indicated above, increase of wages for pedagogues will promote prestige of the profession
and will favour increase of number of teachers. Involvement of male teachers would first of all favour
socialization process of pupils at school because this would ensure a more or less adequate micro
model of the society or healthy diversity when evaluating it from the point of view of gender and also
from the point of view of relations, values and diversity of behaviour models. Secondly involvement
of male teachers would help the pupils, both – girls and boys to get rid of gender stereotypes. In
addition to this increase of the number of male teachers would change the attitude of boys towards
formation and would contribute into interest of them to study, as well as it would influence the choice
of profession for boys that would be related to the level of education, thus decreasing segregation of
professions in different fields, like culture, education and medicine.
In order to ensure a successful education process, the pupils has to understand that the teacher is an
authority; he should sometimes identify him or herself with the teacher and his or her skills. (Ильин,
Е., П., 2002). As strong gender stereotypes exist in the society concerning behaviour models, this is
the reason why boys find it more difficult to identify themselves with the female teacher than the girls.
Boys are not ale to see an authority in a female teacher, and are trying to find it in another person with
who they have a direct contact. Correspondingly a male teacher could become an authority in the eyes
of boys and he would thus make them fulfil their tasks and create interest in the studied material
(Klein, J., 2004).
Work of male and female teacher in a united collective will strongly an positively influence progress
of the entire education process. At present education process is mainly lead by women. First of all, this
means that other information sources are used for boys to create conception of manliness and offer
them an adequate behaviour morel. These conceptions could also be created be a male teacher.
Secondly, girls also develop their conception and vision of life basing themselves in the information,
relation and behaviour models that are gained from insufficient access to diversity of approaches.
Among pupils who have not graduated high school there are more boys than girls (Baltic Institute of
Social Science, 2006). Simultaneously with the increase of number of male teachers in schools, boys
would have more example models of behaviour of a man, in the result of which progress of boys
would increase and there would be less of those who fail completing their studies.
When prognosticating a short-term impact that the increase of the proportion of male teachers would
cause, we can see that this would favour the will of pupils to continue their studies: first of all they
would complete their secondary education and then the highest education, which would diminish the
impact of gender stereotypes on the choice of a profession and professional carrier.
e. Risks of Alternative Introduction and Measures of Risk Prevention
When analysing the impact of increase of the wage of teachers on the aims that are set in the
alternative, it is important to indicate that theoretically the alternative fulfils all the tasks set. However,
apart from the alternative itself, there are some risks that may influence the outcome of this alternative.
First of all, it has to be mentioned that it is impossible to prognosticate precisely the rise of wages in
Latvia. One can assume by approximating the wage of any profession to the average wage that the
basic wage is the one with which wages of pedagogues have to compete and now this is the very time
to determine a concrete scenario of increase of wages, but one can not fully determine that the increase
of the basic wage will follow the assumed scenario. In the case if the level of wage in Latvia will
increase even faster, the wages of teachers may become non-competitive.
When solving this problem, there are several approaches possible. First of all, one can preserve the
scheme of increase of wages once a year by comparing the wage to the basic wages. In the case if the
wages grow faster and exceed the wage of teachers that is described in the scenario, it is possible to
make recalculation of it. This approach would allow preserving regularity in increase of the wage for
teachers and it would also ensure competitiveness. Whereas, if the basic wage would not provide the
expected growth, there will be no need to recalculate the wage.
Other possibility of risk prevention is to abandon the development of the expected basic wage. In this
case the wage of teachers is recalculated on the basis of the basic wage of the previous year. The
206
second scenario preserves a complete involvement of teachers to the basic wage and this ensures
development of the wage for teachers in correspondence with the development of the average wage of
workers involved in national economy. The preventive solution is more advantageous for the state
because it is more related to the situation that is the most probable. Thus in some periods of time,
when there is no general increase of wages in the entire state, wages of teachers do not have to be
raised.
As an important risk of alternative introduction is the fact that it can solve the aims set in a short
period only. First of all, it has to be indicated that the expected level of wages will be reached at best
in 2009, and this means that only at this moment the wage of a teacher will become competitive.
It has to be mentioned that it is hard to solve this problem because fast increase of wages till the level
of the basic wage would require the national budget large investments, and moreover redistribution of
the labour market can not take place so fast. The positive impact can be felt later because it is expected
that involvement of new and qualified stuff will take place gradually. Competitiveness that would
ensure possibilities to choose among several potential pedagogues will be possible only after when the
school will have completed the staff. Involvement of male teachers may take place even slower
because it is influenced not only by the wage rate and prestige of the profession of a teacher but also
by the present stereotypes on the profession of a teacher. At some extent educating the society and
continuing the initiated work on reduction of gender stereotypes with the help of informative
campaigns can diminish this risk.
207
Conclusions and Summary

When analysing the three alternatives, we have to conclude that the first alternative is the most
tenacious and democratic, as well as the way of problem solution that is offered by it – diversification
of the forms of babysitting. Observation and maintaining of the basic principles of a democratic
society can take place in two ways. First of all, diversifying the forms of babysitting would provide
each family a possibility to choose the most appropriate one. Secondly, improving the infrastructure
that is necessary to coordinate family life and job of creating various forms of looking after children
will favour employment in various social groups, women after the leave for child care included, thus
improving the situation of gender equality in the labour market. However the first alternative is the
most complicating as to involvement of the society. It is not oriented on involvement of the present
partners, or on developing of social partnership in babysitting. As parties of all levels are interested in
increasing employment rate – municipalities, employers, ministries, social organizations – the more
successful these parties will be able to identify their resources and possibilities of participating in
reaching the target, the faster return of the alternative will be. An example of a ban experience is
development of babysitters’ service that has been postponed several times. Municipalities were not
able to create a register of babysitters because of lack of resources of will. Until now costs for these
activities have been the task of the municipalities. Creation of such register of babysitters would
favour availability and clearness of this form of babysitting.
Executive institutions, like Ministry of Finance (the aims of the alternative are also related to the
Ministry of Children and Family Affairs), are directly involved in introduction of the second
alternative. The support of the decision-making institutions (Saeima) directly depends on the
possibilities of the budget of that moment and lobby of the ministries, however there are no
considerable objections expected because this is the decision that will gain the support of the society.
As the NSDA is not too burdened, its attitude is rather neutral. Evaluation of the inhabitants and social
organizations will most probably be shared and the idea of the necessary support will be supported but
it will also gain some criticisms for the comparatively small increase. Different arguments can be
expected from organizations of social assistance and their employees who will ask to re-evaluate
increase of the allowance for families of social risk group and the usual practice of the parents to use
the money for other needs.
In comparison with the previous alternatives, the third one – increase of the wage of pedagogues –
may cause resistance in executive institutions, especially from the Ministry of Finance. Taking into
consideration the limits of capacity of administration of the Ministry of Education and Science, it is
possible that the alternative will be evaluated as disadvantageous. Having no doubt that the Saeima is
interested in solving the crisis, its will to balance the budget may dominate over the possibility to solve
the issue of pedagogue wages. As the question of the wage of teachers is still urgent and the interests
of pedagogues are being represented at the level of professional associations, we can expect a
corresponding attitude form them. Considerable critics can be expected for the Bank of Latvia and
commentators of socio-economical processes (who indirectly are creators of the public opinion) –
increase of wages for workers of the state sector when inflation takes place contradicts the efforts to
find solutions to “overheating” of the economy of the state. It is hard to evaluate attitude of employers
to this alternative. In the circumstances where there is lack of high-qualified specialists may cause
drain of workers to the well-remunerated governmental job with social guarantees. However,
considering long-term perspective, simultaneously with the rise of qualification of pedagogues and
balancing of gender proportion among the staff at schools, it is expected that there will involvement of
new specialists in technical field and the sphere of natural sciences take place.
208
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THE “LABOUR MARKET STUDIES” PROJECT OF THE

EUROPEAN STRUCTURAL FUND NATIONAL PROGRAMME

GENDER EQUALITY ASPECTS IN THE LABOUR

MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................4

5. FAMILY IN THE CONTEXT OF WOMEN’S AND MEN’S EMPLOYMENT..........................105

10. ASSESSMENT OF THE POLICY ALTERNATIVES FOR IMPLEMENTING THE GENDER

CSB – Central Statistical Bureau of the Republic of Latvia

MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It is necessary to realize more actively restrictive measures for unregistered employment. At

SUGGESTIONS FOR EACH READER OF THE RESEARCH

EVALUATED POLICY ALTERNATIVES

1.1. Review of Legislation and Political Documents

1.2. Review of Data and Previous Studies

1.3. The Theorethical Background of the Research

1.4. Hypothesis of the Research

TARGET GROUP OF ACTIVE AGE PEOPLE

2.1. Focus Group Discussions of Employed People

TARGET GROUP OF FAMILIES WITH SMALL CHILDREN

2.3. Focus Group Discussions of Parents Having Small Children

2.4. Quantitative Survey of Families Having Small Children

TARGET GROUP OF EMPLOYERS

2.5. In-depth Interviews with Employers

2.6. Quantitative Survey of Employers

2.7. In-depth Interviews with Students – Research on Study Programme

2.8. Econometric Analysis of Available Research data on Labour Market

2.9. The Audit of Information Flow

3. ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND EMPLOYMENT

RESEARCH OF OBJECTIVE INDICATORS

3.1. Description of General Situation

Employment rate, females Employment rate, males

EU25 EU15 EU10 Latvia

Economic activity of inhabitants. Increase of economic activity of inhabitants in Latvia started in

Figure 3.1.3. Level of economic activities of inhabitants of Latvia aged 15 – 64 in comparison

EU25 EU15 EU10 Latvia

Figure 3.1.4: Proportion of jobseekers among economically active inhabitants aged 15 – 64 by

Source: CSB LFS data.

8 The most prevalent occupation among

Base: currently employed respondents [n=1329]

Single-answer question (the sum of answers per gender compose 100%).

Figure 3.2.2. Activity of jobseeking (% - division of answers in percents)

Male [n=262] Female [n=411] %

3.3. Wage Gap Analysis

1995 2000 2005

HBS2002 HBS2004 W IF2005 W IF2005*

(b) with profession control

HBS2002 HBS2004 W IF2005 W IF2005*

Effect of profess ional segregation In profess ions

0,15 0,21 0,25 0,26

RESEARCH OF SUBJECTIVE INDICATORS

3.5. Labour Market Segregation and Concepts about Professions of Men

What a man is concerned about in his work?

Work collective and circumstances

What a woman is concerned about in her work?

Fear to loose job Thoughts of family and

Show oneself as a good employee

Work collective - relations

Source: FGD of parents with small children and employed inhabitants.

3.6. Working Conditions

3.7. Satisfaction with Work

4. GENDER AND MOTIVATIONS OF STUDY PROGRAM’S

4.1. Factors Influencing the Choice

4.2. Impact of School on the Formation of Motivation for Choosing Studies