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Invented in 1971, the microprocessor evolved from the inventions of the transistor
(1947) and the integrated circuit (1958). Essentially a computer on a chip, it is the
most advanced application of the transistor. The influence of the microprocessor
today is well known, but in 1971 the effect the microprocessor would have on every-
day life was a vision beyond even those who created it. This paper presents the his-
tory of the microprocessor in the context of the technology and applications that
drove its continued advancements.
Introduction
The microprocessor, which evolved from the The history of the microprocessor can be divided
inventions of the transistor and the integrated circuit into five stages:
(IC), is today an icon of the information age. The per- • The birth of the microprocessor,
vasiveness of the microprocessor in this age goes far • The first microcomputers,
beyond the wildest imagination at the time of the first • A leading role for the microprocessor,
microprocessor. From the fastest computers to the • The promise of reduced instruction set com-
simplest toys, the microprocessor continues to find puter (RISC), and
new applications. • Microprocessors of the 1990s.
The microprocessor today represents the most These five stages define a rough chronology, with
complex application of the transistor, with well over some overlap. Each stage could be said to reflect a
10 million transistors on some of the most powerful generation of microprocessors, with corresponding
microprocessors. In fact, throughout its history, the generations of applications. For each stage, we discuss
microprocessor has always pushed the technology of representative microprocessors and their key applica-
the day. The desire for ever-increasing performance tions. Figure 1 shows a timeline of the development
has led to the rapid improvements in technology that of the microprocessor, starting with the Intel* 4004.
have enabled more complex microprocessors. The information in this paper was taken from
Advances in IC fabrication processes, computer archi- many sources, including other overviews of the his-
tecture, and design methodologies have all been tory of the microprocessor.1,2,3,4 We have selected the
required to create the microprocessor of today. microprocessors discussed in this paper based on their
As we trace the history of the microprocessor, innovation and their success in the marketplace.
we will explore its evolution and the driving Embedded processors are given limited coverage since,
forces behind this evolution. In the earliest in many cases, the microprocessors mentioned in
stages, microprocessors filled the needs of embed- more detail have led to versions for embedded applica-
ded applications. It was not long, however, tions. We have not covered digital signal processors
before advances in microprocessors and comput- (DSPs), even though they could be considered a type
ers drove the capabilities and needs of both. We of microprocessor. However, we have included in the
will discuss these and other forces behind the appendix of the paper a history of microprocessors at
history of the microprocessor, including the Bell Labs, which has designed microprocessors since
impact of individuals and companies. the latter half of the 1970s.
Copyright 1997. Lucent Technologies Inc. All rights reserved. Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Autumn 1997 29
The Birth of the Microprocessor
“Announcing a New Era of Integrated Electronics”
Panel 1. Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Terms
—Headline, Intel 4004 ad
The history of the microprocessor begins with the ARM—Advanced RISC Machines
birth of the Intel 4004, the first commercially available BiCMOS—bipolar complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor
microprocessor (see Panel 2). The roots of this devel-
BIOS—basic input/output system
opment can be traced directly back to the inventors of BIU—bus interface unit
the transistor. In 1955, William Shockley founded CISC—complex instruction set computer
Shockley Semiconductor in Palo Alto, California CMOS—complementary metal-oxide semicon-
(arguably the birth of Silicon Valley). This company ductor (with n- and p-type transistors)
eventually employed Gordon Moore and Robert CPI—cycles per instruction
Noyce, who left with others to form Fairchild
CP/M—control program/monitor
CPP—communications protocol processor
Semiconductor in 1957. While at Fairchild, Noyce
CPU—central processing unit
played a significant role in the development of the IC, CTC—Computer Terminal Corporation
first commercially available in 1961. In 1968, Moore DEC—Digital Equipment Corporation
and Noyce left Fairchild to form Intel Corporation. DMA—direct memory access
Intel’s focus at that time was the development of mem- DRAM—dynamic random access memory
ory chips, but Intel’s history was forever changed by DSP—digital signal processor
EU—execution unit
the events leading to the development of the 4004 for
FPU—floating-point unit
the Busicom calculator company. The first fully func- GaAs—gallium arsenide
tional 4004 parts were available in March 1971, with GUI—graphical user interface
the first public announcement in November 1971. IC—integrated circuit
Around the same time Intel developers began IEEE—Institute of Electrical and Electronics
working on the 4004, they also began work on the Engineers
I/O—input/output
1201 project for Computer Terminal Corporation
MIPS—millions of instructions per second
(CTC). The 1201 was intended to be a single metal- MIPS—microprocessor without interlocking pipe
oxide semiconductor (MOS) chip that would replace a stages
similar processor designed using medium-scale- MMU—memory management unit
integration components. The 1201 was later renamed MOS—metal-oxide semiconductor
the Intel 8008. The 8008 was the first 8-bit micro- MPEG—Motion Picture Experts Group
MSI—medium-scale integration
processor and laid the foundation for future micro-
NMOS—MOS with n-type transistors
processors from Intel. The 8008 was designed in OS—operating system
10-micron PMOS (metal-oxide semiconductor using PC—personal computer
p-type transistors) technology, and required approxi- PMOS—MOS with p-type transistors
mately 3,500 transistors. The die for the 8008 mea- RAM—random access memory
sured 4.9 mm 3 6.7 mm. The 8008 was packaged in RISC—reduced instruction set computer
an 18-pin dual inline package, ran at 200 kHz, and
ROM—read only memory
SC/MP—single-chip microprocessor
was capable of 60,000 instructions per second.
SCP—Seattle Computer Products
While the 8008 was being developed, a June 1971 SPICE—simulation program integrated circuit
Texas Instruments (TI) advertisement in Electronics emphasis
magazine showing a “Computer On A Chip” revealed SRAM—static random access memory
that CTC had also contracted with TI to produce a chip TI—Texas Instruments
similar to the 8008. This presented a difficult situation VLIW—very long instruction word
VLSI—very large scale integration
for Intel, which had not yet announced the 4004 and
presumed it was ahead of the competition. As it
68060
Motorola 6800 68000 68020 68030 68040 PPC601 PPC604
88100
Pentium Pentium
Intel 8008 8080 8086 80286 386 486 Pentium
4004 Pro II
Year
Figure 1.
Microprocessor timeline.
turned out, the TI chip was not operational. TI sor. In 1969, prior to either TI’s or Intel’s micro-
dropped the project when CTC decided not to use processor efforts, an engineer named Gilbert Hyatt
either the 8008 or the TI chip. filed for a patent6 that covered a computer on a sin-
The architecture of the 8008 was based on the gle integrated chip. Twenty-one years later, when the
existing CTC processor and had a single 8-bit accumu- patent was finally awarded, it would cause a great
lator (A), along with six general-purpose 8-bit registers deal of turmoil and legal action.
(B, C, D, E, H, and L). It supported a 14-bit address In Search of Applications
and included logical operations and interrupts. The The first commercially available microprocessors,
8008 was designed to interface with standard memory the Intel 4004 and 8008, were developed with specific
chips. Information on the 8008 was publicly available applications in mind. The 4004 was intended for an
as early as December 1971, followed by the official electronic calculator, and the 8008 was designed for a
introduction in April 1972. computer terminal. They were intended to replace a
A significant result of TI’s efforts was a 1971 number of smaller devices wired together to perform
patent application,5 which in 1978 resulted in the the desired function. Beyond their original applica-
first patent issue covering a microprocessor. Intel tions, it was unclear what the market was for these
never applied for a patent covering the microproces- first microprocessors.
The calculators of the early 1970s were the most Implementations requiring fewer and fewer chips
advanced form of computing available to the masses, eventually led to a calculator on a chip and, as we
costing hundreds of dollars. The closest general- have seen, the first commercial microprocessor. The
purpose computer, the minicomputer, cost several question still remained—What were the other possible
tens of thousands of dollars at the time. The calcula- applications of the microprocessor?
tor received a huge amount of coverage in the press The impact of the 4004 at the time was actually
and, over time, created a revolution of its own, quite small, with little press attention. The 4004 and
eventually replacing the engineer’s trademark slide 8008 microprocessors, along with Intel’s push to mar-
rule. With increasing demand came competition, ket the new invention, were greeted with little fanfare
which created constant pressure to reduce cost. well into 1972. Few chips were actually being sold at
Given this situation, it is obvious why the calculator first, with more interest in the design tools and test
market would require the eventual cost and size boards being offered. Intel’s efforts to generate interest
advantages of the microprocessor. in its new chips were initially met with skepticism.
The question at that time was whether a hard- Many thought the applications of the microprocessor
wired or general-purpose approach provided the best were limited to a few niche areas. They did not see the
solution for the advance of the calculator. potential of the microprocessor to revolutionize com-
Sync/test/
ROM/RAM output buffer Timing
reset
Reset F/F
Control Condition
register logic
D0
D1 Address
Access
I/O ALU Instruction counter
and index
buffers decoder and
D2 registers
logic
D3
Refresh
logic
System bus
Figure 2.
Block diagram of the 4004.
puting. Through extensive marketing and publicity, tral processing unit (CPU) on a chip, but it was not
interest in the microprocessor grew. Articles in trade until the next generation of processors that a true
and technical publications started to appear in the microprocessor market was realized.
middle of 1972, with coverage of the microprocessor The initial applications for the microprocessor
becoming commonplace in 1973. In a short time, the were mostly embedded applications. The application
microprocessor had gone from an interesting technol- that would ultimately drive the continued advances
ogy to one that would change the way engineers in microprocessors was the microcomputer. The
design electronic products and systems. The promise of 8008 was used in a variety of microcomputer kits, as
the microprocessor was now recognized. The next step well as pre-assembled systems. The first micro-
was to start to fulfill this promise.
processor-based pre-assembled computer was the
Micral, built in France using the 8008. Another early
The First Microcomputers
microcomputer was the Scelbi-8H,* also using the
“Project Breakthrough! World’s First Minicomputer Kit”
—Popular Electronics cover, January 1975 Intel 8008, which was available in kit and non-kit
The introduction of the Intel 4004 and 8008 form. These computers were not very successful, but
demonstrated the possibility of putting an entire cen- they did show the potential of the microprocessor.
CM-RAM 0-3
3 3
Sync CM-ROM
4004 4001 2 2
Reset CPU 1 4002
1
Address bus
Data bus
Serial Serial
out out
Figure 3.
Typical 4004 system.
The following years would see a series of micro- Intel’s 8080 and the Altair
processors that powered the first microcomputers to Intel’s experience with the 8008 provided a
gain widespread acceptance. tremendous source of ideas on how to improve on
The experience of the initial microprocessors and the microprocessor. Starting in the middle of 1972,
the continued advances in IC technology led to the these ideas were used to define the Intel 8080 micro-
processor. The improvements in the 8080 included
development of more advanced chips. Among the
more instructions, a 64-KB address space, 256 I/O
next generation of chips were the first microcontroller
ports, 16-bit arithmetic instructions, and vectored
and a series of more advanced 8-bit microprocessors
interrupts. The designers of the 8080 included some
from numerous companies. of the key individuals responsible for the 4004 and
TI’s TMS1000, the First Microcontroller 8008, Federico Faggin and Masatoshi Shima. The
The first commercially available microprocessor- 8080 was introduced in early 1974 with a price tag of
based product from TI, the TMS1000, was introduced $360. The 8080 was designed in 6-micron MOS with
n-type transistor (NMOS) technology and required
in late 1972.7 The TMS1000 was the first microcon-
6,000 transistors. The 40-pin package allowed for
troller, integrating a simple 4-bit microprocessor, 1K
separate address and data buses. The first 8080 ran at
read only memory (ROM), and 32-byte random access
2 MHz and was rated at 0.64 millions of instructions
memory (RAM) on a single chip. This chip was inex- per second (MIPS).
pensive and saw numerous applications in embedded Unlike the 4004 and 8008, the 8080 was quickly
systems. An important application within TI was the adopted by designers. It was incorporated into numer-
Silent 700* series of terminals. ous products, the most significant being the Altair
Data bus
INT
NMI Instruction A F
MI register Second
Bus H L register set
MREQ control ALU D E
logic Instruction
IORQ decoder B C
RD
IX
WR IY
SP
State
Clock timing I R
PC
WAIT
Incrementer/
BUSRQ Main decrementer
BUSAK Memory control
cycle Address
RESET
control register
HALT
RFSH
A0-A15
Figure 4.
Block diagram of the Z80.
Apple II and VisiCalc created a compelling reason first microprocessor to support multiple bus masters on
for businesses to take notice. One of those busi- its system bus. This feature supported multiple SC/MPs
nesses would be IBM. and other bus masters, such as a direct memory access
(DMA) controller. Arbitration was controlled by a
Other Noteworthy Microprocessors
“daisy chain” connecting the bus masters in priority
The 8-bit RCA 1802, introduced in 1974, was one
order. The ENOUT (enable out) and ENIN (enable in)
of the first microprocessors designed using comple-
signals of the SC/MP were used to chain the processors
mentary MOS (CMOS) technology. The 1802 ran at
together. Another unique feature of the SC/MP was its
6.4 MHz with a 10-volt supply, making it one of the
bit serial arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
fastest microprocessors of its time. Its simple design
The 16-bit TI TMS9900, introduced in 1976, was
included sixteen 16-bit registers, which were also the first single-chip 16-bit microprocessor. Its architec-
usable as thirty-two 8-bit registers. It used an 8-bit ture was based on the TI 990 minicomputer. The
opcode to implement the limited instruction set. The TMS9900 had only two 16-bit internal registers, with
most significant applications of the 1802 were in sev- one of them pointing to the memory-resident register
eral NASA space probes. It was used in those cases set. The speed of memory at the time made it feasible
because a version that used the radiation-resistant to use external memory for the register set. A simple
silicon-on-sapphire technology was available. adjustment of the internal register could be used to
The 8-bit National Semiconductor single-chip save the registers for a procedure call or interrupt. A
microprocessor (SC/MP), introduced in 1976, was the version of the TMS9900, the TMS9940, was used in
suade IBM to adopt the 8088 in spite of its technical tomer support, documentation, and development tools
deficiencies. It is largely accepted that Intel achieved for its processors.3 Furthermore, the 8088 enabled the
this with superior marketing. use of a wide library of 8-bit peripheral chips, which
Intel’s “Operation CRUSH” emphasized better cus- the 68000 lacked. By marketing a system approach,
Intel 8088 6/79 5/8 16-bit, 8-bit external 1 MB, segmented CPU for IBM PC
Intel 80286 2/82 8/10/12 16-bit 16 MB, protected mode Virtual memory
Motorola 68000 9/79 4 to 12.5 32-bit, 16-bit external 16 MB, linear First with 32-bit
programmer’s view
Motorola 68010 3/82 4 to 12.5 32-bit, 16-bit external 16 MB, linear Virtual memory
architecture research (outside the x86 arena) began to designing these chips were grappling with internal
consider how to design microprocessors to execute details such as compatibility with 8-bit predecessors,
compiled code more efficiently. extending memory addressing to more than 64 KB,
The popularity of C (developed with UNIX from virtual memory, instruction caches, and even new
1969 through 1973) was intertwined with UNIX. UNIX architecture paradigms. A survey of the significant
became popular for software and hardware develop- microprocessors of the period illustrates the technical
ment in industry and academia outside the PC space, decisions that were made. Table I shows the basic fea-
offering a productive environment for building tools. tures of these microprocessors.11,12,13
Invented at Bell Labs, UNIX was available to oth- The 8086 microprocessor was structured as a bus
ers for study and modification. The versions developed interface unit (BIU) and an execution unit (EU). The
at the University of California at Berkeley were partic- BIU handled instruction and operand fetches from
ularly influential, producing Berkeley Software memory. The BIU fed opcodes to and requested
Distributions (BSD). UNIX became the development operands from the EU, which performed the instruc-
platform for the infant electronic design automation tions. Figure 5 shows a block diagram of the 8086.14
industry, feeding a synergistic relationship between The BIU and EU constituted a simple pipeline,
microprocessor development tools and microprocessor with the BIU fetching instructions concurrently with
development platforms. Early in the 1980s, the combi- processing in the EU. The 8086 was source-code-com-
nation of C, UNIX, and university research gave rise to patible with the 8080/8085. It used variable-length
a new architecture paradigm, RISC. New industry instructions of one or more bytes fetched into the
players, such as MIPS Technologies in 1984, brought prefetch queue. The four 16-bit registers could be used
such microprocessors to market. as either 16-bit or 8-bit registers. The 8086 instituted
16-Bit, 32-Bit, and Early RISC Microprocessors an unusual form of segmented addressing. Within a
Although the systems and software defined micro- segment, addressing was limited to 64 KB. Addressing
processors of this era to end users, the engineers was expanded to 1 MB by the addition of the segment
Temp A
Upper adder
AH AL
Temp B
BH BL
CH CL
DH DL
Temp C
4 segment
registers
Full function ALU PSW
Prefetch
queue
Figure 5.
Block diagram of the 8086.
register shifted by four to a 16-bit address. The 80286 of the Z80 to make better use of a 16-bit external bus
extended addressing to 16 MB, but still through seg- to memory and to make the instruction set orthogonal
ments of no more than 64 KB and only in “protected” with respect to its 16 general-purpose registers.15 The
mode as opposed to the 8086’s “real” mode. The 8086 Z80’s 8-bit opcodes could not encode more than one
had a companion floating-point chip, the 8087. The of the 16 registers as an operand. The Z8000’s 16-bit
8087 introduced Intel’s 80-bit floating-point format, registers could also be used as thirty-two 8-bit regis-
greatly influencing the IEEE floating-point standard ters, eight 32-bit registers, and even as four 64-bit reg-
754, issued in 1985. isters. The Z8000 was not pipelined because it was felt
The 68000 had a more orthogonal architecture that the fixed 16-bit instruction format and simple
than the 8086. The 68000 fetched instructions of one address calculation eliminated the need for prefetch-
or more 16-bit words. It featured 32-bit address and ing. The Z8000 was also singular in using hardwired
data registers, providing a linear address space and a logic instead of microcode ROM, in spite of increasing
path to future full 32-bit implementations. The 68000 the instruction set from 128 instructions in the Z80 to
had a simple pipeline, overlapping instruction fetch 414. This may have contributed to its lack of success,
and execution. The 68010 added virtual memory sup- since it suffered from initial bugs.
port through the ability to restart instructions on a Another similarly notable processor of this period
page fault. The 68020 was one of the first true 32-bit was the Intel iAPX432.* The 432 implemented many
processors with a true pipeline, overlapping operand advanced features, unfortunately before the technol-
access with internal execution. It also was one of the ogy could support them. The 432 was positioned as an
first microprocessors with an on-chip instruction cache ideal Ada processor, incorporating many object-ori-
of 256 bytes. ented features. Implementing these features in hard-
The Z8000 was Zilog’s follow-on to the successful ware slowed memory access with multiple segment
Z80. However, the Z8000 sacrificed the compatibility lookups. The instruction set was bit-aligned in mem-
Cache size (KB) 8/8/96 32/32 16/16 Not on chip 32/32 8/8
BHT entries 2K x 2-bit 512 x 2-bit 512 x 2-bit 256 x 2-bit 512 x 2-bit >512
processors, Intel continues to stay ahead of its high out-of-order issue rate and techniques such as
x86 rivals and threatens the application domain of register renaming, branch prediction, and speculative
workstation vendors. execution have increased complexity, making it diffi-
Performance improvements in the first half of the cult to ship a bug-free processor. The most famous of
1990s have been realized by using more of the same: these bugs was the Pentium floating-point division
more functional units, more pipeline stages, higher bug, which embarrassed Intel and forced it to replace
issue rates, more out-of-order instructions, more defective CPUs.
bandwidth and pins. Table II shows the high-perfor-
mance desktop processors currently in production.18 Future Directions
Omitted from the list are the x86 compatibles from The expected performance enhancements deliv-
AMD and Cyrix, which still trail the leading edge ered by microprocessors may slow down in the future
defined by Intel. because of problems associated with IC technology,
The increased clock speed brought new thermal computer architecture, and market forces. The shrink-
problems for chip designers. The several million tran- ing line widths of the next-generation ICs will require
sistors of a processor clocked at several hundred MHz new lithographic techniques to draw finer lines. Thus
consume 30 to 40 watts. The thermal problems were far, the intrinsic delay of the transistor itself has been
first faced by Alpha, with its high clock rates. Power reduced to enable commensurate increases in clock
consumption has been significantly reduced by drop- speed. With finer geometries, the resistance-capacitance
ping the voltage. The 5-volt standard of the 1980s has delay caused by interconnects becomes the limitation.
yielded to voltages between 2 and 3 volts. At the sys- To reduce this requires basic changes in the IC process
tem level, thermal problems have been addressed with itself. Resistance must be lowered by replacing alu-
heat sinks and fans dedicated to cooling the CPU. The minum with copper or gold and capacitance reduced