Lithos 76 (2004) 51 – 74

www.elsevier.com/locate/lithos

Geology of the Gahcho Kué kimberlite pipes, NWT, Canada:

root to diatreme magmatic transition zones
C.M. Hetman a,*, B.H. Scott Smith b, J.L. Paul c, F. Winter d
a
De Beers Canada Kimberlite Petrology Unit, One William Morgan Drive, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4H 1N6
b
Scott-Smith Petrology Inc., Canada
c
De Beers Canada Exploration Inc., Canada
d
De Beers Geoscience Centre, South Africa
Received 21 June 2003; accepted 25 January 2004
Available online 2 July 2004

Abstract

The Cambrian Gahcho Kué kimberlite cluster includes four main pipes that have been emplaced into the Archaean basement
granitoids of the Slave Craton. Each of the steep-sided pipes were formed by the intrusion of several distinct phases of
kimberlite in which the textures vary from hypabyssal kimberlite (HK) to diatreme-facies tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (TKB).
The TKB displays many diagnostic features including abundant unaltered country rock xenoliths, pelletal lapilli, serpentinised
olivines and a matrix composed of microlitic phlogopite and serpentine without carbonate. The HK contains common fresh
olivine set in a groundmass composed of monticellite, phlogopite, perovskite, serpentine and carbonate. A number of separate
phases of kimberlite display a magmatic textural gradation from TKB to HK, which is characterised by a decrease in the
proportion of pelletal lapilli and country rock xenoliths and an increase in groundmass crystallinity, proportion of fresh olivine
and the degree of xenolith digestion.
The pipe shapes and infills of the Gahcho Kué kimberlites are similar to those of the classic South African pipes, particularly
those of the Kimberley area. Similar intrusive magmatic emplacement processes are proposed in which the diatreme-zone
results from the degassing, after breakthrough, of the intruding magma column. The transition zones represent ‘frozen’
degassing fronts. The style of emplacement of the Gahcho Kué kimberlites is very different from that of many other pipes in
Canada such as at Lac de Gras, Fort à la Corne or Attawapiskat.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: TKB; Tuffisitic kimberlite breccia; Hypabyssal kimberlite; Diatreme; Kimberlite emplacement; Petrography; Pelletal lapilli; Root
zone

1. Introduction

Canada is characterised by diverse types of kim-

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-416-423-5811; fax: +1-416-
423-9944.
E-mail addresses: casey.hetman@ca.debeersgroup.com
(C.M. Hetman); bhssmith@allstream.net (B.H. Scott Smith).
berlites with contrasting external pipe shapes and
pipe infills (Fig. 1). The variations are attributed to
different local country rock geology and emplace-
ment processes (Field and Scott Smith, 1999). The

0024-4937/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2004.03.051
52 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74

Fig. 1. Summary of the geology of kimberlites across Canada. A schematic reconstruction at their respective time of emplacement (updated after
Field and Scott Smith, 1999). The better-studied kimberlites across Canada have diverse pipe shapes, pipe infills and country rock setting.
RVK = resedimented volcaniclastic kimberlite; PK = pyroclastic kimberlite; PTK = pyroclastic tuffisitic kimberlite; TKB = tuffisitic kimberlite
breccia; HK = hypabyssal kimberlite.

pipes in the Gahcho Kué kimberlite cluster are
different from many other Canadian kimberlites such
as those found at Fort a là Corne, Attawapiskat or
Lac de Gras; however, they are similar to pipes in
southern Africa.
The Gahcho Kué kimberlite cluster is located
in the southeast Archaean Slave craton (Fig. 2).
The cluster comprises four main pipes, 5034,
Tesla, Hearne and Tuzo, as well as a number
of smaller associated sheets and blind intrusions
(Fig. 3). An emplacement age of 538.6 F 2.5 Ma
has been determined for 5034 using Rb –Sr meth-
ods on phlogopite (Heaman et al., 2003). Unpub-
lished ages for the Tuzo, Tesla and Hearne
kimberlites determined on phlogopite by Ar – Ar
methods are 542 F 6, 531 F 6 and 534 F 11 Ma,
respectively.
The 5034 pipe has a surface area of f 1.7 ha and
is estimated to contain 13.8 million tonnes of kim-
berlite to 300 m below surface with an average grade
of 164 carats/100 tonnes. The Hearne kimberlite
consists of two blows that have a total surface
expression of f 1.6 ha. The bodies together contain
an estimated 7.1 million tonnes of diamondiferous
kimberlite to a depth of 300 m with an average grade
of 233 carats/100 tonnes. The Tuzo Kimberlite is
f 1.2 ha in area at surface and contains an estimated
14.9 million tonnes of diamondiferous kimberlite to
360 m with an average grade of 122 carats/100
tonnes. Evaluation of these three pipes is ongoing
and, therefore, the internal geology has been inves-
tigated in more detail than that of the other Gahcho
Kué kimberlites. The geology of Tuzo, Hearne and
5034 will be presented here to show that they are
exceptional examples of intrusive root to diatreme
magmatic transition zones, as seen in southern
Africa. Some information for the less well studied
Tesla pipe is also included. This investigation is
based on the examination of a total of 243 drill
holes; 55 drill cores and 42 reverse circulation (RC)
holes from 5034; 16 drill cores and 29 RC holes
from Tuzo; 24 drill cores and 40 RC holes from
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74 53

Fig. 2. Location of the Gahcho Kué kimberlite cluster in the Archaean Slave Craton.

Hearne; as well as 9 drill cores and 28 RC holes
from Tesla (Fig. 4).
2. Rock-type classification
The Gahcho Kué pipes are infilled with rocks
characterised by macrocrystic textures (Fig. 5). The
rocks contain two generations of olivine (Fig. 6a):
medium grained (up to 5 mm) anhedral macrocrysts
and finer grained, anhedral to euhedral primary olivine
phenocrysts ( < 0.5 mm). Fresh olivine macrocrysts
display strain features, which include undulose extinc-
tion, kink banding and rare recrystallisation, and thus
represent mantle-derived xenocrysts (Scott Smith,
1996). Mantle-derived xenocrysts other than olivine
include peridotitic and lesser eclogitic garnet. Chrome
diopside, spinel and ilmenite are rare to absent. The
54 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74

Fig. 3. Location and shape of kimberlites in the Gahcho Kué cluster. The approximate present surface is 370 m hae (height above ellipsoid).
Lake water—grey; land—white. Dashed line indicates the probable extent of the Dunn kimberlite sheet.

olivine crystals are set in a fine-grained groundmass
(Fig. 6b) that is dominated by monticellite and phlog-
opite. Other groundmass minerals include serpentine,
carbonate, spinel, perovskite, apatite and probable
melilite. The xenolith assemblage present within the
pipes consists of the following rock types in decreas-
ing order of abundance: local country rock granitoids,
gneiss, diabase, mica schist, deeper crustal amphibolite
and garnet granulite as well as mantle-derived garnet
peridotite and eclogite. Significant quantities of dia-
monds are present. Based on all these features the
Gahcho Kué pipe infills are classified as kimberlites
(sensu stricto, Woolley et al., 1996). This classification
is based on the nature of the magmatic, or hypabyssal,
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74 55

Fig. 4. Three-dimensional geological models of the four main kimberlite pipes showing their size, external shape and dominant pipe infill.
Green = tuffisitic kimberlite (TK); blue = hypabyssal kimberlite (HK); ha = hectares. All drill holes completed on the bodies are included. The
investigation of most of these drill holes forms the basis of this study. The internal geology of Tesla has not been modeled and thus the lesser HK
is not shown. Looking west for Tuzo, looking northeast for Hearne, looking northwest for Tesla and 5034 looking north respectively.

rocks at Gahcho Kué. Such classification cannot
readily be applied to the texturally modified kimber-
lites (TKB) described in the next section that lack well-
crystallised groundmasses.
3. Textural classification
The textural classification used to describe the
Gahcho Kué kimberlites is that of Field and Scott
Smith (1998). Two contrasting textural types of kim-
berlite (Fig. 5) dominate the pipe infill at Gahcho Kué
(Fig. 4). The first type is a classic fresh hypabyssal
kimberlite (HK) in which all the coarser constituents,
mainly olivine, are set in a well-crystallised fine-
grained groundmass as described in Section 2 (Fig.
6). The second textural type is composed of abundant,
angular, locally derived, granitoid xenoliths set in a
lighter-coloured matrix (Fig. 5, upper). The matrix is
composed dominantly of pelletal lapilli (sensu Clem-
ent and Skinner, 1985; Field and Scott Smith, 1998)
as shown in Fig. 7a. The pelletal lapilli typically
comprise thin, fine-grained to cryptocrystalline selv-
ages of kimberlite that rim most of the olivines and
other coarse constituents. When discernible, the rims
are composed of cryptocrystalline and microlitic ser-
pentine, microlitic and fine laths of phlogopite and
fine opaque oxide minerals. The inter-lapilli matrix is
composed of phlogopite microlites in a base of
serpentine (Fig. 7b). These characteristic, and diag-
nostic, features show that these rocks can be classified
as tuffisitic kimberlite breccias (TKB; B=>15% xen-
oliths, >1 cm in size). The textures of these rocks are
extremely similar to those of the TKBs found in many
kimberlite diatremes in southern Africa. Rocks that
display textures that are gradational between these
two end members, HK and TKB, are common at
Gahcho Kué and are discussed in Section 6.
56 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74

Fig. 5. Typical polished slabs of the two textural end members of kimberlite, tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (TKB) and hypabyssal kimberlite (HK),
found in the Gahcho Kué pipes. Note the common country rock xenoliths (X) present within the lighter-coloured TKB. Scale in centimetres.
Tuzo. Drill hole MPV-02-111C. TKB from 97 m; HK from 299 m.

4. Pipe shapes and infill
The four main Gahcho Kué pipes have contrasting
external shapes and contrasting types of pipe infill
(Figs. 3 and 4). Tuzo has a circular plan view shape
with smooth steep-sided pipe walls and is dominant-
ly infilled with TKB. Hearne consists of two bodies.
Hearne South is a circular pipe dominantly infilled
with TKB and Hearne North is a larger, elongate
body infilled with approximately equal amounts of
HK and TKB. Tesla is a subcircular pipe containing
mainly TKB but some HK occurs at depth. The 5034
kimberlite has a very complex irregular plan view
shape and subsurface structure with irregular pipe
walls. Three main lobes are exposed at the present
surface and the fourth northern main lobe occurs
under in situ country rock. 5034 is dominantly
infilled with HK. The Tesla pipe is the least well
studied of the four main pipes and an internal
geological model has not been developed. The pipe
infill shown in Fig. 4 is merely the dominant rock
type, TKB.
There is a correlation between the pipe shape and
the texture of the kimberlite infill (Fig. 4). TKB
occurs in the circular smooth-sided pipes, Tuzo,
Hearne South and Tesla, whereas HK dominates the
complex irregular 5034 pipe. At Hearne North, an
intermediate pipe shape contains both TKB and HK.
5. Country rock geology
The Gahcho Kué kimberlites were emplaced into
the Archaean basement of the Slave Craton. The
paleogeology of this area at the time of emplacement
of the Gahcho Kué kimberlites in the Cambrian
suggests that the granitic basement should not have
had any sedimentary cover. This suggestion is sup-
ported by the absence of sedimentary xenoliths within
the kimberlite. The xenoliths are mainly locally de-
rived granitoids (Fig. 5, upper). Rare small black
xenoliths of volcanic rocks are present, suggesting
that the basement may have been covered by some
volcanics at the time of emplacement.
The country rock adjacent to the pipes consists
mainly of fresh granitoid and minor diabase. The
granitoids are typically massive, medium to coarse
grained with a subtle foliation in some areas. Pegma-
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74 57

Fig. 6. (a) Photomicrograph of hypabyssal kimberlite. Note the uniform distribution of the fresh olivine macrocrysts (O) and phenocrysts.
Hearne North. Drill hole MPV-02-080C, 211 m. FOV=2.2 mm. xN. (b) Hypabyssal kimberlite (HK) similar to (a) at higher magnification
showing the well-crystallised uniform groundmass consisting of a monticellite (M) and spinel (S) and phlogopite. Tuzo. Drill hole MPV-02-
111C, 299 m. FOV=0.2 mm, PPL.

titic veins are present. Some of the country rock kimberlite. These features are best developed adjacent
adjacent to the pipes displays evidence of both to the HKs. The country rock alteration is character-
chemical and physical reaction with the intruding ised by pitting related to joints, often up to tens of
58 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74

Fig. 7. (a) Photomicrograph of tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (TKB). Note the abundant pelletal lapilli composed of dark-coloured, thin-skinned
selvages around the olivine grains and the turbid intra-lapilli matrix. Pelletal lapilli = PL; olivine = O; country rock xenocryst = X. Tuzo. Drill
hole MPV-02-111C, 27 m. FOV = 8 mm, PPL. (b) Phlogopite microlites occur in the inter-lapilli matrix of the tuffisitic kimberlite breccia
(TKB). Photomicrograph. Microlites = M; pelletal lapillus = PL. Tuzo. Drill hole MPV-02-111C, 47 m. FOV = 0.6 mm, PPL.

metres from pipe contacts. The pitting is most intense the frequency of the jointing. In general, both the
next to the joint surfaces and decreases away from frequency of joints and the width of the pitted zone
each joint. The overall degree of pitting is related to associated with each joint decrease with increasing
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74 59

distance from the pipe margins. The pitting appears to
result from the alteration and removal of one constit-
uent mineral, probably quartz. Country rocks that are
characterised by pitting can be bleached and intensely
broken and, in extreme cases, consist of completely
disaggregated granitoid fragments less than 5 mm in
size. Cameron (1999) shows that the alteration in the
granitoids is accompanied by an enrichment of CO2,
H2O, MgO, FeO, MnO, CaO, K2O and REEs further
showing that the alteration of the country rock results
from kimberlite emplacement. Also, dolomite was
found to have been pervasively introduced into the
country rock surrounding the 5034 kimberlite. The
absence, or less common, alteration of the country
rocks adjacent to areas of TKB is significant. In
addition, similar altered and pitted granitoids were
observed as xenoliths in the TKBs in Tuzo. This
suggests that areas of altered and pitted country rock
were incorporated as xenoliths during the formation
of the TKBs.
A second type of more restricted reaction ( F 1 m
from contact) occurs in the country rock granitoids
adjacent to the hypabyssal kimberlites. The granitoids
are ‘kimberlitised’ (term after Scott Smith et al., 1983)
by the high-temperature hypabyssal kimberlite that
alters the rocks to an overall dark green colour.
6. Main textural types of kimberlite
As discussed in Section 4 and as shown in Fig. 4,
the Gahcho Kué pipes are dominated by two main
textural types of kimberlite, HK and TKB (Fig. 5).
Tuzo, Hearne and Tesla, however, each contain sig-
nificant amounts of kimberlite that displays a contin-
uous gradation in texture from TKB to HK with
increasing depth within a single phase of kimberlite.
Separate phases of kimberlite are identified by con-
trasting features indicative of the nature of the intrud-
ing magma. Such features include texture, grain size,
xenolith size and type, mantle xenocryst size, type and
abundance as well as groundmass mineralogy.
The textural gradation is similar in each of the
pipes. The complete textural gradation has been sub-
divided into four rock types termed (1) TKB, (2)
transitional tuffisitic kimberlite breccia or TKtB
(t = transitional), (3) transitional hypabyssal kimberlite
or HKt and (4) HK. Although the cutoffs between the
subdivisions of the gradational features are somewhat
arbitrary, the textural classification is repeatable and
can be applied during both macroscopic and micro-
scopic examinations. The main features of the four
subdivisions are summarised in Table 1. With increas-
ing depth as the textures grade from TKB through
TKtB and HKt to HK, the colour of the kimberlite
becomes darker, the olivines become fresher; there is
a decrease in the proportion of clay minerals, xen-
oliths, pelletal lapilli and microlitic textures, while
there is increase in the proportion of magmatic tex-
tures as well as the degree of crystallisation of the
groundmass. The main features of the four subdivi-
sions are described in more detail below.
6.1. Tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (TKB)
The TKBs are olive green to light brown, relatively
soft rocks that often contain common clay minerals
(Fig. 5, upper). The olivine grains are completely

Table 1
Summary of the main macroscopic and microscopic features of the textural types of kimberlite present at Gahcho Kué
TKB TKtB HKt HK
Colour Olive green Green-brown Brown Black – dark green
Clay minerals Common Less common Low Absent
Xenolith abundance 30 – 99% 10 – 40% 5 – 25% < 10%
Xenolith size 0.5 – 500 cm 0.5 – 200 cm 0.5 – 50 cm < 25 cm
Xenolith reaction Minor Slight Intermediate Significant
Olivine replacement No fresh grains No fresh grains Minor fresh grains Common fresh grains
Pelletal lapilli Common Present Rare Absent
Autoliths Present Present Common Rare
Primary carbonate Absent Absent Rare Present
Microlitic textures Common and fine Variable and coarse Rare and coarse Absent
Kimberlite texture Pelletal Pelletal>Magmatic Magmatic>Pelletal Magmatic (hypabyssal)
60 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
pseudomorphed by serpentine, phlogopite and rare
carbonate. The TKBs are composed of a uniform
distribution of pelletal lapilli that are typically com-
posed of thin, fine-grained to cryptocrystalline selv-
ages of kimberlite that rim most of the olivines and
other coarse-grained constituents such as country rock
xenocrysts (Fig. 7a). The lapilli are typically less than
10 mm in size. The pelletal lapilli usually have ovoid
shapes given that the thin selvages mimic the shapes
of the olivine kernels. Pelletal lapilli without kernels
are rare. When discernible, the rims are typically
composed of cryptocrystalline serpentine, microlites
of serpentine, microlites and fine stubby laths of
phlogopite and opaque oxide minerals. Occasional
thicker kimberlite selvages contain spinel, perovskite
and olivine phenocrysts. Thin selvages are not present
around all country rock xenoliths and xenocrysts. The
pelletal lapilli are typically matrix-supported or ‘float-
ing’ within the cryptocrystalline matrix. The inter-
lapilli matrices consist of common phlogopite micro-
lites (Fig. 7b), serpentine, clays and variable amounts
of fine country rock xenocrysts (Fig. 7a) derived from
the local host rocks. The matrix is often turbid and
altered. Clinopyroxene microlites are rare and primary
carbonate is not present. Importantly, composite, ac-
cretionary or vesicular lapilli are not present and
broken lapilli are rare.
A characteristic feature of these rocks is the pres-
ence of common to abundant locally derived, angular
country rock xenoliths that consist of pink fresh
granitoids (Fig. 5, upper). The xenoliths vary in
abundance from f 30 to 99% and range in size up
to 5 m. Some rounded, green, ‘kimberlitised’ exam-
ples must have been resident longer in the kimberlite
magmas and thus represent kimberlite-transported
xenoliths. Xenocrysts of country rock are common
throughout (Fig. 7a) and often have shard-like shapes.
Some of the TKBs within the Gahcho Kué pipes have
been classified as ‘microbreccias’ because they con-
tain greater than 15% country rock less than 1 cm in
size. Thin veins of carbonate are present within some
of the fresh granitoid xenoliths but not within the
adjacent matrix, thus suggesting that formation oc-
curred within the country rock before incorporation
into the kimberlite. Autoliths of HK are present.
Near the bottom of each TKB, the textures begin to
grade into TKtB. Thicker lapilli selvages as well as
more irregularly shaped lapilli containing multiple
grains of olivine and closer packed textures become
apparent. These areas of the kimberlite, however, are
still dominated by pelletal lapilli.
6.2. Transitional tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (TKtB)
Rocks classified as TKtB are broadly similar to
TKB but are more competent and somewhat darker
in colour. The kimberlite textures, however, are
different in that they are inhomogeneous or patchy.
Patches with pelletal lapilli and microlitic textures
dominate, but other patches with more magmatic
textures and a greater degree of crystallisation be-
come more common with depth (Figs. 8 and 9a).
The patches with contrasting textures are intimately
mixed. Patches with intermediate textures displaying
incipient development of pelletal lapilli are also
present (Figs. 8b and 9a). The interstitial areas
resemble the pool-like segregations of serpentine
present in the HK. This patchy distribution of
textures occurs on both macroscopic and microscopic
scales (compare Fig. 8a and b). In the more mag-
matic patches, clinopyroxene microlites are common
and notably slightly coarser grained than the miner-
als with microlitic textures in the pelletal areas.
Compared with the TKB, country rock xenoliths in
the TKtBs are overall less common and show greater
reaction with the host kimberlite. The xenoliths often
have a green colour and, therefore, are more difficult
to distinguish within the kimberlite matrix. The
xenoliths present in these rocks, especially the
smaller ones, are more common in the pelletal
textured patches compared with the magmatic
patches (Fig. 8a). Olivine macrocrysts and phenoc-
rysts are completely altered. With increasing depth,
the TKtB rocks grade into HKt.
6.3. Transitional hypabyssal kimberlite (HKt)
The rocks classified as HKt have a similar inho-
mogeneous or patchy distribution of contrasting tex-
tures as the TKtB. The HKt, however, is dominated by
magmatic textured areas with less common patches
displaying pelletal textures. The rocks are dark in
colour and are more competent. Olivine macrocrysts
and phenocrysts are commonly pseudomorphed by
serpentine. The granitoid xenoliths show a degree of
reaction with the host kimberlite that is intermediate
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74 61

Fig. 8. (a) Transitional tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (TKtB). Polished slab. The kimberlite consists of patches with pelletal and patches with
magmatic textures that are intimately associated with each other. Note the difference in olivine alteration and xenolith abundance between the
two textural varieties present. Pelletal lapillus = PL; country rock xenoliths and xenocrysts = X; Olivine = O. Tuzo. Drill hole MPV-02-111C, 254
m. FOV = 10 mm. (b) Transitional tuffisitic kimberlite (TKt). This photomicrograph illustrates the intimate association of the pelletal and
magmatic textured patches as seen in (a). Also illustrated is the development of incipient pelletal lapilli within, and from, the magmatic
kimberlite. Tuzo. Drill hole MPV-02-111C, 234 m. FOV = 2.2 mm, PPL.
62 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74

Fig. 9. (a) Transitional tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (TKtB). The kimberlite shown in this photomicrograph consists of thin-skinned pelletal lapilli
(PL) as well as magmatic patches in which the textures are being modified and the formation of incipient pelletal lapilli can be seen. Tuzo. Drill
hole MPV-111C, 255 m. FOV = 2.2 mm, PPL. (b) Transitional hypabyssal kimberlite (HKt). This photomicrograph illustrates the presence and
relative coarse grain size of the clinopyroxene (CPX) in the upper area. The bottom of the photomicrograph consists of more typical hypabyssal
kimberlite groundmass dominated by phlogopite (PHL) with a uniform distribution of opaque minerals and irregular pool-like segregations
composed of carbonate and serpentine. Tuzo. Drill hole MPV-02-111C, 291 m. FOV = 2.2 mm, PPL.
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
between that of HK and TKtB and are typically dark
green to black. The grain size in the magmatic patches
is somewhat coarser compared with the TKt and
groundmass minerals include phlogopite, spinel, car-
bonate, serpentine and perovskite. Clinopyroxene can
also be common in the groundmass where it is much
coarser grained than the microlites present within
TKB and TKtB rocks (Fig. 9b). Clinopyroxene micro-
lites are absent within the HK. With increasing depth
the HKt rocks grade into HK.
6.4. Hypabyssal kimberlite (HK)
Rocks classified as HK at Gahcho Kué are mainly
hard, fresh and competent, dark grey, dark green and
dark green to black, and are characterised by macro-
crystic textures (Fig. 5, lower). In contrast to the rocks
described above, the HKs have uniform, coarser-
grained groundmasses composed of variable propor-
tions of monticellite, phlogopite, calcite and serpentine
(Fig. 6b). The groundmasses are dominated by mon-
ticellite and/or phlogopite. Fresh monticellite is often
present. Phlogopite occurs as a mosaic of interlocking
grains or as stubby to elongate lath shaped crystals that
typically enclose monticellite, opaque oxide minerals
and perovskite. Primary serpentine and carbonate are
present as irregular pool-like segregations throughout
the groundmass. Some of the segregations are charac-
terised by inward growing crystals of groundmass
minerals. Accessory primary groundmass minerals
include apatite, perovskite and opaque oxides. The
alteration of the olivine is variable but fresh grains
are common (Fig. 6a). The altered olivine macrocrysts
and phenocrysts are typically pseudomorphed by ser-
pentine, phlogopite, calcite, and vermiform probable
serpentine and chlorite.
In some areas of HK, common mica and clinopyr-
oxene as well as pectolite and vermiform probable
serpentine occur in reaction haloes surrounding kim-
berlitised xenoliths. The xenoliths are dominated by
granitoids with rare diabase. Different phases of HK
are characterised by different xenolith assemblages.
Some HKs are characterised by significant amounts of
country rock xenolith digestion. The country rock
xenoliths are rounded to irregular shaped with smooth,
or diffuse margins as a result of digestion. In general,
the country rock xenoliths in the HKs are smaller and
less common than those in the TKBs (typically < 25
63
cm and rarely >1 m). Hypabyssal kimberlite breccias
(i.e., >15% of >1 cm xenoliths) are not common and
occur in distinct isolated zones within the pipes. The
kimberlitised country rock xenoliths are extensively
replaced by serpentine and calcite. In contrast to the
fresh pink xenoliths present in the TKB rocks, the
xenoliths within the HKs are typically pale white or
green with grey reaction haloes. The width of the
reaction haloes is often greater than that of the xeno-
lith. Any kimberlite containing significant proportions
of xenoliths typically displays a patchy colouration.
Microxenoliths ( < 1 cm) are virtually absent within the
HK due to complete digestion.
6.5. Origin of contrasting textures
Table 1 summarises the changes in characteristics
through the textural gradation from HK to TKB at
Gahcho Kué. The four subtypes of kimberlite, and the
textural gradation they represent, have been observed
in three of the main Gahcho Kué pipes. Importantly,
these textural gradations occur within a single phase of
kimberlite. Extremely similar textural gradations occur
in single phases of kimberlite in a number of southern
African kimberlite pipes such as those described by
Clement (1982), Clement and Reid (1989) and Skinner
and Marsh (2004). These similarities show that the
observed HK – TK textural gradation has been repeated
in space and time. It is also important to note that
igneous rocks, other than kimberlites, containing the
so-called pelletal TK textures are rare. As the surface is
approached, the textures of the HK begin to change in
small patches (Figs. 8 and 9). The contrasting patches
are intimately associated and thus can only reflect the
textural modification in different areas of one batch of
magma. This in situ textural modification is also
indicated by the visible development of incipient
pelletal textures in the transitional rocks (Fig. 8b and
9a). Towards the surface, the rocks show two impor-
tant changes: (1) the textures within the modified
patches grade from magmatic to pelletal textures;
and (2) the proportion of the patches with the modified
textures increases until finally the whole magma
texture has been modified. There is a progressive
development of pelletal lapilli within the magma until
the rocks near surface become ‘classic’ pelletal lapilli-
dominated TKB. Thus it can be concluded that the
TKB texture results from the textural modification
64 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74

Table 2
Selected summary drill logs from Hearne and Tuzo illustrating the textural variations present within single phases of kimberlite

Rock type = textural classification after Table 1 and Figs. 5 – 9. Phase = the subdivision of each drill core into separate phases of kimberlite. The
terms A, B and C are specific to each core hole. %xenoliths = measured percentage of drill core that is composed of xenoliths >10 cm in size.
This figure does not include clasts < 10 cm in size and thus does not represent total xenolithic material in each intersection. NA = not applicable.
Hae = height above ellipsoid.
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74 65

within a single magma column as it approaches sur-

face. In turn, this shows that the TKB-dominated
diatreme zones are formed by intrusive magmatic
processes.

7. Internal pipe geology

The textures in Tuzo, Hearne and 5034 are discussed

Fig. 10. Side view looking west of the three-dimensional geological
model of the Tuzo kimberlite (plan view size is f130120 m). The
upper green area corresponds to the tuffisitic kimberlite breccia
(TKB) or Zone 1 and the lower, yellow area corresponds to the
transitional textures or Zone 2 described in Section 7.1.
in more detail to expand further on the conclusions in
Section 6.5. Data for one selected drill core per body
are presented in Table 2. The textural gradation has
been examined in most detail within the single domi-
nant phase of kimberlite in Tuzo and Hearne North.
7.1. Tuzo
The Tuzo kimberlite is a steep-sided, circular pipe
that is infilled mainly with TKB (Fig. 4). The pipe
increases in size with depth. Such pipe shapes are

Fig. 11. Aspects of the internal geology of the Tuzo kimberlite. (A) Schematic representation of the geology of the centrally located 300 m
vertical drill core MPV-02-111C from Table 2A. The background colour indicates the two textural zones of kimberlite: green is upper Zone 1
TKB and yellow is deeper transitional Zone 2 (see Section 7.1). The pink insets illustrate the variable distribution of country rock xenoliths. The
upper Zone A contains 30 – 50% xenoliths. The middle Zone B contains 50 – 99% xenoliths. The lower Zone C consists of <25% xenoliths. (B)
Side view looking northeast of the three-dimensional geological model showing only (i) the central xenolith-rich zone of TKB (green), as
defined using RC data, which has a basin-shaped base and, (ii) the basin-shaped upper limit of the lower transitional kimberlite (yellow). (C)
Side view of the three-dimensional geological model showing the upper dark green TKB zone and the yellow underlying transitional kimberlite.
Within the TKB, the lighter green corresponds to the middle xenolith-rich kimberlite also shown in (B).
66 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
unusual but have been observed elsewhere, such as
the Lace Pipe in South Africa (Clement, 1982). The
pipe infill is dominated by a single phase of kimberlite
and therefore has the simplest internal geology of the
four main Gahcho Kué pipes. The geology of one
centrally located drill core through this phase of
kimberlite is presented in Table 2A and Figs. 5, 6b,
7, 8 and 9 (see also Fig. 2 in Hetman et al., 2003). A
second small marginal remnant of TKB is preserved
in the upper northeast part of the pipe and will not be
discussed further. With increasing depth, the dominant
phase of kimberlite grades from TKB through a
textural transition into HK at approximately 300 m
below the present surface and can be subdivided in
two main zones (Figs. 10 and 11A):
Zone 1: Upper TKB ( < f 227 m).
Zone 2: Lower transition ( f 227 to f 300 m).
7.1.1. Zone 1: upper TKB
At the present surface, the upper zone consists of
TKB as described in Section 6.1 (Fig. 5, upper) and
displays most of the hallmark features including a
uniform distribution of pelletal lapilli set in a matrix
dominated by serpentine (Fig. 7). The same uniform
or monotonous texture continues to approximately
227 m from the surface (Table 2A). The kimberlite
within this upper zone is massive and structureless.
Although typical thin-skinned pelletal lapilli are dom-
inant, less-abundant, thick-skinned lapilli are present.
Other lapilli-like bodies are characterised by irregular
shapes and protruding olivines and sometimes have
diffuse margins. These bodies resemble, and appear to
be derived from, the magmatic kimberlite at depth.
Some autoliths are present.
7.1.2. Zone 2: lower transition
Between f 227 and 300 m below surface (Fig. 10,
Table 2A), the darker green kimberlite has the patchy
distribution of contrasting textures (Figs. 8 and 9)
characteristic of the transition described in Section 6.
In most areas, this kimberlite is dominated by patches
with pelletal lapilli textures (Fig. 9a) similar to those
of the overlying TKB (Fig. 7a). With the onset of
some magmatic textured areas, the rocks are termed
transitional tuffisitic kimberlite breccias (TKtB). The
size of these patches varies on a millimetre to centi-
metre scale (Fig. 8). The textures within Zone 2 also
oscillate on a larger scale between TKB, TKtB, HKt
and HK and the ‘contacts’ between the different
textures are all gradational. These observations sug-
gest that patches with contrasting textures also occur
on a much larger scale (metres). In general, the
textures within the upper part of the transition zone
are dominated by TKtB. With increasing depth, the
kimberlite contains more common HKt (Fig. 9b). At
300 m, the drill cores consist of partially fresh HK
(Table 2A, Figs. 5, lower, and 6b). The three-dimen-
sional modelling of the geometry of the upper limit of
the transitional textures observed in multiple drill
holes (e.g., Table 2A) is shown in Figs. 10 and 11B,
where it can be seen to be basin-shaped.
The TKtB is broadly similar to the upper TKB, but
in thin section, the TKtB contains abundant pelletal
lapilli that have slightly thicker selvages and appear
closer packed. The kimberlite selvages consist of
coarser-grained phlogopite that contributes to the more
orange colour of the rims. The shapes of the lapilli are
also more variable and include rare curvilinear exam-
ples. The inter-lapilli matrix is less turbid than in the
TKB rocks and is dominated by small phlogopite laths
and microlites. Clinopyroxene microlites are present.
Irregularly shaped lapilli and autoliths are more com-
mon and more obvious at the top of the transition zone.
The country rock xenoliths and xenocrysts are slightly
altered (Fig. 8a); in particular, feldspar grains can be
extensively sericitised.
The HKt areas within the transition zone are
dominated by patches with magmatic textures, with
less common patches having pelletal textures. The
HKt is harder, darker and more competent than the
TKtB. The country rock xenoliths show extensive
reaction to the host kimberlite and appear dark green
to black. Fresh olivine is rare. The matrix consists
of phlogopite, clinopyroxene, serpentine and carbon-
ate. Phlogopite and clinopyroxene are present as
laths and coarse microlites that dominate the matrix
(Fig. 9b). The phlogopite crystals contain common
inclusions of opaque oxide minerals. The clinopyr-
oxene crystals occur in clusters, distinctly separate
from the phlogopite and appear to be related to the
local digestion of country rock xenoliths. Irregular
pool-like segregations are composed of serpentine
with lesser carbonate. Opaque minerals including
spinel are more abundant and have a uniform
distribution within the more magmatic areas.
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
With increasing depth, the kimberlite grades at
f 300 m into typical macrocrystic HK (Table 2A)
with a uniform well-crystalline groundmass and rare
country rock xenoliths (Fig. 5, lower). The ground-
mass consists of monticellite, phlogopite, spinel, pe-
rovskite, primary carbonate and serpentine (Fig. 6b).
Pelletal lapilli and microlitic clinopyroxene are not
present. Fresh olivine can be present. The olivine
macrocrysts and phenocrysts are pseudomorphed by
serpentine, phlogopite and carbonate. Irregular pool-
like segregations of serpentine and carbonate are
present. The limit of core drilling is 300 m, so it is
not clear if this is the top of a more extensive HK root
zone or whether the transition zone extends deeper.
Thus, this HK does not appear in the geological
models shown in Figs. 10 and 11.
7.1.3. Xenolith distribution
The distribution of the xenoliths within the main
phase of kimberlite described above is variable (Table
2A). Based on the relative proportion of xenoliths, the
kimberlite can be subdivided into three zones as
shown in Fig. 11A.
Zone A: Upper TKB ( < 124 m).
Zone B: Xenolith-rich TKB (>124 to f 227 m).
Zone C: Xenolith-poor transition zone ( f 227 to
f 300 m).
The majority of the xenoliths in each zone are
angular, relatively fresh granitoids derived from the
local country rock. Zone A is characterised by a
uniform distribution of 30– 50% xenoliths ranging in
size up to 50 cm (Table 2A < 124.4 m; note that the
%xenoliths in this table are for clasts >10 cm in size
while figures in this section are for total xenolith
contents). The xenolith content of this zone is similar
to that of TKBs elsewhere. Zone B is defined by a
marked increase in xenolith size and abundance (Fig.
11A). This zone contains a wide range of xenolith sizes
ranging up to 5 m. The proportion of xenoliths in this
zone is highly variable: commonly greater than 50%,
with many areas containing 75 – 99% xenoliths
(124.4 –227.5 m in Table 2A). The most xenolith-rich
areas typically consist of clast-supported xenoliths set
in a matrix of pulverised granitoid material, i.e.,
xenocrysts mainly less than 3 mm in size, and only
rare discernible kimberlitic constituents. This matrix
67
can be described as ‘‘rock flour’’. The interclast base of
some of the ‘‘rock flour’’ zones is composed of
common carbonate. Carbonate also occurs as veins
within some xenoliths that notably do not continue into
the adjacent matrix. A few rounded, altered xenoliths
are also present. There is no apparent structure or
bedding within this chaotic zone. The lower limit of
the large and extremely abundant xenoliths that char-
acterise Zone B is abrupt and occurs at approximately
227 m, which correlates with the top of the transition
zone and the change in kimberlite textures from TKB
to TKt between Zone 1 and 2 described above (e.g.,
227.5 m in Table 2A).
All the features described above in Tuzo are
based on drill core investigations. Some data from
the large-diameter reverse circulation (RC) bulk
sampling drill holes are also relevant. The abundance
of easily discernible xenolithic material within the
drill product is routinely recorded every metre. These
data are approximate rapid visual assessments,
which, for a number of reasons, are not a particularly
accurate representation of the actual proportion of
xenoliths but they do cater for the total xenolithic
content (in contrast to the data in Table 2A). Taking
a very arbitrary cutoff of greater than 40% xenolithic
material, these data also show that there is a higher
concentration of xenoliths in parts of the pipe as
shown in Fig. 11C. The most interesting feature of
the xenolith-rich area is the geometry of its base
when modeled using all the RC drill holes in three
dimensions. The lower limit of the xenolith-rich zone
is basin-shaped, which, notably, mirrors the upper
limit of the textural transition zone (Fig. 11B). It is
important to note that these two internal changes
shown in Fig. 11B were defined using independent
data and methods. Thus, the RC data offers strong
support for the drill-core-based, basin-shaped textural
change between Zone 1 and 2. It can be seen in
some drill cores that there is a marked decrease in
the proportion and size of xenoliths at f 227 m
(Table 2A, Fig. 11A), suggesting that the change in
kimberlite textures and the change in xenolith con-
tent occur at approximately the same point. The lack
of exact correlation between the two independently
determined changes shown in Fig. 11B likely results
from the inaccuracy of the RC data and/or the
arbitrary 40% value selected to define the RC-based,
xenolith-rich zone.
68 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
Fig. 12. Three-dimensional model looking west of Hearne North
(plan view size f 245  50 m) and Hearne South ( f 50  85 m).
One phase of kimberlite dominates the northern part of Hearne
North (to the right side of the dashed line). This phase of kimberlite
includes the complete textural gradation from TKB at surface
through a transition zone to HK at depth.
7.2. Hearne
The Hearne kimberlite consists of two bodies:
Hearne South and Hearne North (Figs. 3 and 4). Hearne
North is a larger, elongate body with steep smooth
sidewalls (Fig. 4). The internal geology is complex as
the pipe is infilled with multiple phases of kimberlites
of both HK and TKB (e.g., Table 2B). The single phase
of kimberlite that dominates the northern part of Hearne
North includes both TKB and HK with significant
amounts of kimberlite with transitional textures (TKt
and HKt) in between (Fig. 12). It is noteworthy that the
contacts between adjacent phases of kimberlite appear
to be sharp and contrasting textures can be juxtaposed
at these contacts. Thus, the textural gradation in the
northern main phase of kimberlite described below is
specific to one phase of kimberlite. Using a combina-
tion of drill core (e.g., Table 2B) and RC chip inves-
tigations supported by geophysical data, the main
phase of kimberlite can be subdivided into three zones
based on the textures (Fig. 12):
Zone 1: Upper Tuffisitic Kimberlite Breccia
(TKB).
Zone 2: Intermediate Transition (TKB + TKt +
HKt + HK).
Zone 3: Lower Hypabyssal Kimberlite (HK).
7.2.1. Zone 1: upper TKB
The upper uniform TKB within Hearne North is
characterised by slightly altered granitoid xenoliths set
in a pale-green kimberlite containing light-coloured
olivine macrocrysts (cf. Fig. 5, upper). The kimberlite
within this zone is massive and structureless. This
TKB is very similar to the main TKB in Tuzo, but
contains fewer country rock xenoliths. Some areas
contain less than 15% country rock xenoliths and
therefore cannot strictly be classified as a kimberlite
breccia, and are termed TK. Fresh country rock
xenocrysts derived from the granitic host rocks are
present. The TKB is dominated by thin-skinned
pelletal lapilli (cf. Fig. 7a), with complex or thick-
skinned lapilli being less abundant. Thicker selvages
are more common compared with the Tuzo TKB. In
Hearne, where the selvages are thicker, the lapilli
shapes are more irregular. Olivine phenocrysts can
be identified within the thicker selvages. In the deep-
est parts of Zone 1, the pelletal lapilli have somewhat
thicker kimberlite selvages and often a number of
pelletal lapilli are joined. The turbid brown inter-
lapilli matrix consists of serpentine, phlogopite, clay
minerals, scattered spinels and pectolite. Abundant
microlites of phlogopite form a felted mat and also
mantle the lapilli (cf. Fig. 7b). Microlitic clinopyrox-
ene is absent.
Fig. 13. Three-dimensional geological model looking north of 5034
kimberlite comprising the west lobe (plan view size f 125  42
m), central lobe ( f 115  70 m), east lobe ( f 65  80 m) and the
north lobe ( f 200  40 m). This body is infilled mainly with
hypabyssal kimberlite.
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
7.2.2. Zone 2: transition zone (TKB+TKt+HKt+HK)
The textures in Zone 2 include TK, TKt, HKt and
HK and thus is termed the transition zone between
the overlying TK and underlying uniform HK. The
transition zone has been defined by the limits of
uniform TK or HK textures. Three-dimensional mod-
elling of the transition zone as observed in multiple
drill holes shows that it is a 115-m-wide zone that
dips at f 45j to the north (Fig. 12). The upper and
lower limits of this zone are subparallel. The geom-
etry of the transition zone within Hearne North is
very different from the basin-shaped one in Tuzo
(Fig. 11B). The nature of the transition zone in
Hearne North is complex and consists of a minimum
of eight separate textural variations, and the textures
oscillate as shown in Table 2C (38.5 – 153.4 m; some
textures illustrated in Fig. 3a –c of Hetman et al.,
2003). The upper part of the transition zone is
dominated by thicker drill core intersections of TKt
and the lower parts of the transition zone by more
common HKt. The contacts between the different
textural varieties of kimberlite are gradational. The
changes in texture correlate with changes in concen-
tration and alteration of country rock xenoliths, the
proportion of clay minerals and the colour of the drill
cores. The change from TKB to TKtB in the upper
part of the transition zone is characterised by the
appearance in the groundmass of common clinopyr-
oxene as well as possible monticellite that is poiki-
litically enclosed within phlogopite laths. Also, the
country rock xenocrysts are green, and in thin
section, they can be seen to be completely replaced
by serpentine and clinopyroxene. Xenoliths larger
than 2 cm often contain partially fresh remnants in
their cores. Irregular pool-like segregations of ser-
pentine are present within the groundmass. This
serpentine has a darker green colour than that replac-
ing the country rock xenoliths. The TKt contains
more common opaque minerals than within the TKB.
Lapilli selvages are characterised by diffuse margins.
The rocks classified as HKt are darker in colour,
contain minor fresh olivine and granitoid xenoliths
that display greater reaction and digestion by the
kimberlite. Only minor HK is present within Zone 2.
Brown autoliths are common within the transition
and consist of phlogopite HK with common apatite
and possible monticellite poikilitically enclosed with-
in the phlogopite.
69
7.2.3. Zone 3: lower hypabyssal kimberlite (HK)
The HK is much fresher, darker in colour, con-
tains less common xenoliths, more fresh olivine and
has a more crystalline groundmass compared with
the rocks in Zone 2. In thin section, the HK consists
of a uniform distribution of olivine macrocrysts and
phenocrysts set in a groundmass composed of highly
variable proportions of monticellite and phlogopite
(Fig. 6a). Other groundmass minerals include spinel,
perovskite, primary carbonate and serpentine. Spinel
and perovskite are uniformly distributed throughout
the groundmass. The olivine grains may be pseudo-
morphed by serpentine, carbonate and phlogopite.
The monticellite is present as fresh subhedral crys-
tals throughout the groundmass that are often poi-
kilitically enclosed by phlogopite laths. The
phlogopite occurs as fresh, short stubby or elongate
laths that often poikilitically enclose other ground-
mass minerals.
7.3. 5034
The external shape of 5034 is the most complex of
the four main pipes. The body has a very irregular
shape consisting of four distinct main lobes, which all
pinch out at depth (Fig. 13). Each of these lobes
appears to represent a separate pipe. Three of the lobes
are exposed at the present subglacial surface. The
northern lobe occurs below f 80 m of in situ country
rock and thus must be an intrusive blind pipe. In
addition to the four main lobes, other intrusive rocks
occur in the immediate area as shown in Fig. 3. 5034
South appears to be a small pipe that is exposed at the
present surface; 5034 extension is another blind pipe-
like intrusion. All the 5034 pipes occur in a trend
between the Hearne and Tuzo kimberlites. Other
intrusive kimberlite occurs at Wallace and in the Dunn
sheet. The 5034 kimberlite to country rock granitoid
contacts are intrusive. Offshoots of the main kimber-
lite form veinlets in the adjacent country rock, a
feature seldom seen in the other Gahcho Kué pipes.
Also, the granitoids at the contact have reacted with
the adjacent kimberlite and are dark green or grey in
colour up to 1 m from the kimberlite. This reaction
does not occur adjacent to TKBs. In addition, a zone
of altered broken country rock occurs for at least 56 m
above the blind northern lobe with intense alteration
and disaggregation present over the first 46 m. This
70 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
alteration is related to the intrusive kimberlite below
and probably results from exhalation of juvenile
volatiles. Country rock alteration and increased joint-
ing in the country rock adjacent to the kimberlite
contacts, in general, is more extensive around the
5034 kimberlite than other bodies within the Gahcho
Kué cluster, also indicating an association with HK
emplacement.
The 5034 body is composed of mainly HK as well
as minor amounts of kimberlite transitional to TK
(e.g., Table 2C). The HKs are similar to those in the
other Gahcho Kué pipes. The HKs are composed of
olivine macrocrysts and phenocrysts set in a well-
crystalline groundmass that contains common phlog-
opite and monticellite. Within a single phase of HK,
the groundmass mineralogy can be variable and may
be further complicated by the crystallisation of con-
taminant minerals resulting from the digestion of the
country rock xenoliths. As a result, the separation of
different phases of kimberlite within 5034 based only
on petrography is not straightforward. The internal
geology of the 5034 kimberlite is the most complex of
the four main pipes of the Gahcho Kué cluster. Firstly,
each of the four lobes consists of different phases of
HK. Secondly, each lobe is composed of multiple
phases of kimberlite (e.g., Table 2C). There are at
least nine different phases of kimberlite present in the
four main lobes. The contacts between separate phases
are rarely sharp.
Different phases of kimberlite within 5034 can be
separated using the following characteristics: abun-
dance of peridotitic and eclogitic garnets; size, abun-
dance and alteration of olivine macrocrysts;
abundance and reaction/alteration of country rock
xenoliths; and occasionally the abundance of mantle
xenoliths. Most garnets have kelyphite rims. Some
garnets are completely kelyphitised to a brown-black
material and these grains can be difficult to identify
in the dark-coloured drill cores. Mantle-derived indi-
cators other than garnet are extremely rare and
cannot be used to distinguish between phases of
kimberlite. Mantle xenoliths are not common; how-
ever, a single phase of HK close to the surface
within the centre lobe is characterised by frequent
fine-grained eclogite xenoliths.
The HKs of 5034 have variable xenolith contents.
The country rock granitoid xenoliths are generally
much less abundant than those present with the TKBs
at Gahcho Kué. Generally, most of the xenoliths are
less than 25 cm in size. One phase of HK within the
West lobe is characterised by xenoliths greater than 50
cm, which are rare in most of the other HKs at Gahcho
Kué. HK breccias are present at depth in the West and
Central lobe. In the upper part of the northern lobe,
breccias occur below the granite and the proportion of
xenoliths decreases with depth to xenolith-poor uni-
form, fresh HK. Contact breccias elsewhere are not
common.
Among the xenoliths present in the HKs, fresh
granitoids are not common because most have reacted
significantly with the host kimberlite. The variation in
abundance and degree of digestion of the xenoliths is
particularly useful in distinguishing separate phases of
kimberlite. The variable degree of kimberlitisation of
the granitoids is reflected in the range of colours of the
xenoliths from white, black, different shades of green
and pink to brown. A specific xenolith colour, or type
of kimberlitisation, is usually characteristic of indi-
vidual single phases of kimberlite. The proportion of
xenoliths can be difficult to estimate as they are
difficult to identify when they have been extensively
or totally digested. In areas with significant xenolith
reaction, the olivine macrocrysts are often completely
pseudomorphed by dark-coloured serpentine. This
alteration can be patchy. In addition, there is variable
development of reaction haloes around the xenoliths
where common phlogopite, clinopyroxene and pecto-
lite crystallise in the groundmass from magmas con-
taminated by xenolith digestion.
7.4. Composite geological model
All the different features of the Gahcho Kué pipes,
particularly the correlation of pipe morphologies and
pipe infill, allow the development of a composite
geological model as shown in Fig. 14. An upper
smooth-sided circular pipe is dominated by TKB with
high, and sometimes variable, xenolith contents. With
depth, there is a gradation into the transition zone
between the TKB and the underlying HK. The pipe
also becomes smaller and more irregular in shape.
Within the transition zone, the textures overall change
from TKt to HKt with depth. The base of the
transition zone grades with depth into a complex
shaped root zone composed of HK. Alteration of the
country rocks occurs preferentially along joints adja-
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74 71

Fig. 14. Composite geological model of the eroded Gahcho Kué kimberlite pipes. The ranges on the right-hand side indicate the kimberlite
geology observed in the available drill holes from each of the pipes. The upper end of the range for each pipe represents the present surface
for that pipe. The differences between these surfaces reflect the different depths of diatreme development from the original surface not
contrasting levels of erosion for each pipe within the cluster. The contrasting blue HK represents two adjacent dykes subparallel to the plane
of the cross section.

cent to the HKs. Other smaller HK intrusions occur
within the province (e.g., the dykes shown in Fig. 14).
The nature of the kimberlite in the transition zones
between the upper TKB and the deeper HK in the two
best-studied pipes, Tuzo and Hearne, are broadly
similar. To reiterate, the kimberlite in the top of the
transition close to surface is dominated by textures
that are similar to TKB, but with increasing depth, the
kimberlite becomes dominated by more magmatic
textures that eventually grade into well-crystallised
HK. The development of pelletal textures within, and
from, the magmatic kimberlite is clearly visible. The
pelletal textures appear to develop in patches at all
scales from millimetres to metres. The intimate asso-
ciation of the magmatic and pelletal patches, the
gradual vertical change in textures within both the
magmatic and pelletal patches and the change in
nature of the lapilli-like structures within these areas,
the incorporation of xenolithic material as the pelletal
textures develop and the textural oscillations all offer
72 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
further support for the suggestion in Section 6.5 that
the TKB texture results from the textural modification
of a single magma column as it approaches the
surface. The details of the kimberlite textures within
the transition zone as well as the geometry of the
zones are different in Tuzo and Hearne. In the circular
Tuzo pipe, the top of the transition zone is basin-
shaped, whereas in the elongate Hearne pipe, the top
and bottom of the zone dip at 45j. The transition zone
occurs over a width of 115 m in Hearne North and at
least 73 m in Tuzo.
8. Discussion
The Gahcho Kué kimberlite pipes are remarkably
similar to the pipes in the Kimberley area of South
Africa (De Beers, Wesselton, Dutoitspan, Bultfontein,
Finsch, Kamfersdam and Koffiefontein) described by
Clement (1982) and Field and Scott Smith (1999) and
other parts of South Africa (Venetia and Premier)
described by Skinner and Marsh (2004). By compar-
ison with the latter pipes and others in southern
Africa, those at Gahcho Kué are probably eroded to
approximately half their original vertical extent. Also,
the Gahcho Kué pipes are interpreted to have formed
by intrusive magmatic processes. Evaluations of the
detailed emplacement processes of the Gahcho Kué
pipes is beyond the scope of this paper; however, the
geology described in this paper, together with other
evidence, strongly supports the emplacement process-
es for these types of pipes proposed by Clement
(1982) and Clement and Reid (1989) and summarised
by Field and Scott Smith (1999). These processes as
applied to the Gahcho Kué pipes are discussed below.
The root zones were formed by the intrusion of
several pulses of magma. There was reaction with, and
alteration of, the adjacent country rocks during this
intrusion. The diatremes were formed by the rapid
depressurisation of an intrusive magma column fol-
lowing explosive breakthrough to surface. After break-
through, short-lived fluidised systems developed
downwards in the magma column and incorporated
large volumes of brecciated wall rock into the kimber-
lite magma. This process effectively scoured out a
steep-sided pipe or the diatreme zone. The wall rock
clasts include country rock material that was veined,
brecciated and pulverised during pre-breakthrough
embryonic pipe development and before incorporation
into the kimberlite. The processes affecting the wall
rock before incorporation probably resulted from the
invasion of volatile-rich kimberlitic fluids including
carbon dioxide into the country rocks. The pelletal TK
textures reflect the fluidisation and degassing of the
magma. As the surface is approached, the kimberlite
becomes finer grained, showing that it cooled more
rapidly and must be closer to surface. Thus, the
transition zones present within Tuzo and Hearne North
are interpreted as ‘‘frozen’’ degassing fronts. The
marked change in xenolith abundance, which corre-
lates with the fluidisation front and the top of the
transition zone in Tuzo, offers strong support for this
process. The basin shape of the base of the TKB in
Tuzo suggests that in this pipe, the degassing devel-
oped deeper towards the centre of the magma column.
After breakthrough, the emplacement processes in-
volve an important extrusive component. The now-
eroded part of the Gahcho Kué pipes would have
included the upper part of the diatreme and the crater
that developed at surface upon breakthrough as shown
in the reconstruction of Fig. 1. The juvenile lapilli in the
primary pyroclastic material related to the pipe forma-
tion would be the same pelletal lapilli that dominate the
underlying diatreme-zone TKB. This pyroclastic ma-
terial thus strongly resembles TKB except that it would
probably be bedded; this material is termed PTK for
pyroclastic ‘‘TK’’ (Fig. 1).
The Gahcho Kué pipe shapes and pipe infills are
extremely different from many other Canadian kim-
berlites such as those found at Fort à la Corne,
Attawapiskat and Lac de Gras (Fig. 1; Field and
Scott Smith, 1999). The Lac de Gras kimberlites are
infilled mainly with well-bedded resedimented vol-
caniclastic kimberlite. The Fort à la Corne and
Attawapiskat kimberlites are infilled predominantly
with primary pyroclastic kimberlite that contains
juvenile lapilli that are quite different from the
pelletal lapilli of Gahcho Kué. At these other local-
ities, the juvenile lapilli are often irregular to amoe-
boid in shape, composed of numerous olivines set in
a glassy to quenched groundmass that frequently
includes cryptocrystalline carbonate, and can have
vesicular textures. The interclast matrix is usually
composed of clean serpentine and/or carbonate. Fines
including olivine phenocrysts are often lacking. Ol-
ivine tuffs and fresh olivines are also common. These
 C.M. Hetman et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 51–74
features are not observed in TKB nor are pelletal
lapilli found in these other Canadian localities. The
differences in the kimberlite geology require the
development of quite different emplacement process-
es to those for Gahcho Kué (e.g., see Nowicki et al.,
2004; Webb et al., 2004; Berryman et al., 2004).
9. Conclusions
The geology of the Gahcho Kué pipes is sum-
marised in the composite geological model shown in
Fig. 14. The pipes comprise TKB-infilled diatremes
and deeper HK-infilled intrusive complex root
zones. The variations in pipe morphologies and infill
displayed by the Gahcho Kué kimberlites reflect
varying depths of diatreme development and are
not a result of different levels of erosion for each
pipe. A transition zone occurs between these two
contrasting parts of the pipe. The 73- and 115-m
wide zones of Tuzo and Hearne North have different
geometries; the latter dips at 45j and Tuzo is basin-
shaped. The difference in the geometry of the
transition zones is probably related to the contrasting
pipe shapes. Within single phases of kimberlite,
there is a continuous, although often oscillating,
gradation in magmatic textures from HK to TK.
The detailed nature of the HK to TK transition
zones shows that the TK develops by the textural
modification of magmatic kimberlite (or HK). The
textural modification occurs in patches, or pockets,
within the kimberlite magma that vary from milli-
metres to metres in size. In turn, this shows that the
Gahcho Kué kimberlites formed by intrusive mag-
matic processes. Associated extrusive processes
would have occurred after breakthrough.
Most aspects of the Gahcho Kué kimberlites are
similar to those of the Kimberley area of South Africa
and comprise similar root to diatreme transition zones.
The Gahcho Kué pipes, therefore, must have under-
gone significant erosion, probably to approximately
half their original depth. Similar emplacement pro-
cesses to those proposed by Clement (1982) and
Clement and Reid (1989) are invoked. Thus, the
Gahcho Kué transition zones are extremely well
preserved examples of ‘‘frozen’’ degassing fronts
within an intruding magma column as discussed by
Field and Scott Smith (1999) and Skinner and Marsh
73
(2004). The TKs result from the disruption of the
kimberlite magma following breakthrough and
degassing of the intruding magma. The Gahcho Kué
pipe shapes and pipe infills are extremely different
from many other Canadian kimberlites. The differ-
ences in the kimberlite geology require the develop-
ment of quite different emplacement processes from
those for Gahcho Kué.
Acknowledgements
A large number of people both within De Beers
Canada as well as other De Beers operations have
contributed to the team effort at Gahcho Kué and the
results presented here. D. Phillips and G.B. Kiviets are
gratefully acknowledged for unpublished age deter-
minations undertaken at the De Beers Geoscience
Centre. De Beers, Mountain Province Diamonds Inc.
and Camphor Ventures are thanked for their permis-
sion to publish this information. Reviews and com-
ments by Lionel Wilson, Howard Coopersmith and
Roger Mitchell improved this manuscript.
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