Apparent Hypocrisy - Adolescents often do not
recognize the difference between expressing an idea,
such as conserving energy, and making the sacrifices
necessary to live up to it, such as driving less.
Tactile - given to touching others, especially as an
unselfconscious expression of sympathy or affection.
Holophrasis - is the prelinguistic use of a single word to
express a complex idea. A holophrase may resemble an
interjection, but whereas an interjection is linguistic,
and has a specific grammatical function, a holophrase is
simply a vocalization memorized by rote and used
without grammatical intent.
Code Mixing - mixing of mostly words, but also phrases,
clauses or even complete sentences of two languages or
varieties.
Fast Mapping - is the term used for the hypothesized
mental process whereby a new concept is learned
based only on minimal exposure to a given unit of
information.
Menarche- is the first menstrual cycle, or first
menstrual bleeding, in female humans. From both social
and medical perspectives, it is often considered the
central event of female puberty, as it signals the
possibility of fertility.
Pragmatics - Study of the relationships between
linguistic forms and the users of those forms. Deals with
speaker meaning rather than sentence meaning.
Three Stages of Speech Development
Social Speech – an external communication used to talk
to others. In this stage a child uses speech to control the
behavior of others. A child uses speech to express
simple thoughts and emotions such as crying, laughter
and shouting.
Egocentric Speech – is the act of a child talking to
himself or herself, usually through an event or activity.
Inner Speech - This is the type of speech used by older
children and adults. This type of speech allows us to
direct our thinking and behaviour.
Deductive reasoning - relies on a general statement or
hypothesis—sometimes called a premise or standard—
held to be true. The premise is used to reach a specific,
logical conclusion.
Inductive reasoning - a method of reasoning in which
the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for
the truth of the conclusion
Nocturnal - describes activity which occurring's
normally during the dark period of a daily cycle.
Estrogen - are hormones that are important for sexual
and reproductive development, mainly in women. A
female sex hormones.
Nocturnal Emission - informally known as a wet dream
or sex dream or sleep orgasm, is a spontaneous orgasm
during sleep that includes ejaculation for a male, or
vaginal wetness or an orgasm (or both) for a female.
Sexual Maturity - is the capability of an organism to
reproduce. It may be considered synonymous with
adulthood, but, in humans, puberty encompasses the
process of sexual maturation and adulthood is based on
cultural definitions.
Puberty - Physical characteristics that occur during
adolescence
The Growth Spurt - Rapid changes in height and weight
during puberty.
Primary Sex Characteristics - The changes that mark
the beginning of puberty for girls and boys.
Secondary Sex Characteristics - Other external changes
that make adolescents look like mature men and
women.
Electra complex - is a psychoanalytic term used to
describe a girl's sense of competition with her mother
for the affections of her father.
Oedipus complex - is a term used by Sigmund Freud in
his theory of psychosexual stages of development to
describe a child's feelings of desire for his or her
opposite-sex parent and jealousy and anger toward his
or her same-sex parent.
Psychosexual Development - is a central element of the
psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings,
from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy)
that develops in five stages.
Four types of parenting styles
AUTHORITARIAN – may use punishments instead of
discipline.
AUTHORITATIVE - have rules and use consequences
but also take their children’s opinions into account.
PERMISSIVE - Often only step in when there’s a serious
problem. “Kids will be kids.”
UNINVOLVED - this style is low in both demandingness
and responsiveness.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Parten’s Stages of Play.
The stages describe the play development of children
and the gradual increase of social interaction as they go
through these stages.
Unoccupied - The child appears not to be playing but
directs his attention on anything that interests him.
Onlooker - The child spends time watching others play.
He may talk to them but does not enter into play with
them.
Solitary play - The child starts to play on his own. He
seems not to notice other children playing nearby.
Parallel play - The child plays with toys similar to those
near him, but only plays beside and not with them. No
interaction takes place.
Associative play - The child plays with others. There is
interaction among them, but no task assignment, rules
and organization are agreed upon.
Cooperative - The child plays with others bound by
some agreed upon rules and roles. The goal is maybe to
make something, play a game, or act out something.
DENTITY STATUS THEORY (MARCIA)
Refining and extending Erik Erikson’s work, James
Marcia came up with four Identity Statuses of
psychological identity development. The main idea is
that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the
choices and commitments made regarding certain
personal and social traits.
IDENTITY STATUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL IDENTITY
DEVELOPMENT
Identity Diffusion – the status in which the adolescent
does no have a sense of having choices; he or she has
not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a
commitment
Identity Foreclosure – the status in which the
adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant
roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this
stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend
to conform to the expectations of others regarding their
future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine a career
direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a
range of options.
Identity Moratorium – the status in which the
adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various
commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not
made a commitment to these choices yet.
Identity Achievement – the status in which adolescent
has gone through a identity crisis and has made a
commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or
value) that he or she has chosen.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Pre conventional level
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience
orientation
- motivation to avoid punishment
Stage 2: Instrumental relativist orientation
- motivation to obtain rewards
Conventional levels motivated by conventional laws
and values
Stage 3: Good boy and nice girl orientation
- Motivation to gain approval and to avoid
disapproval
Stage 4: Society maintaining orientation
- Motivation to fulfill ones duty and to avoid
feelings of guilt
Post conventional level motivated by abstract moral
principle
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
- Motivation to follow rational, mutually agreed
upon principles and maintain the respect of others
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
- Motivation to uphold one’s ethical principles
and avoid self condemnation
Self esteem and self efficacy
Self concept - The self concept is a factual description of
how you perceive yourself. The self concept is derived
from self esteem and self efficacy. If a person has low
self esteem the self concept may be skewed in in the
direction of negative description
Self esteem - It is the regard or respect that a person
has for oneself. It also refers to the general feelings or
self worth or self value.
Self efficacy - Is the belief in ones capacity to succeed at
task.
* General self efficacy - is belief in ones general
capacity to handle task
* Specific self efficacy - refers to belief about ones
ability to perform specific task
Self esteem vs Self efficacy
Self esteem is conceptualized as a sort of general or
overall felling of ones worth or value. Self esteem is
focused more on being while self efficacy is focused
more on doing. Feeling that you are up to challenge
Resilience has been defined as the ability of an
individual to function competency in the face of
adversity or stress . It is the ability to bounce back
during or after difficult times and get back to feeling
good as before.
Stages of Language Development
• Pre Linguistic Stage - The period before children
utter their first meaningful words.
• Holophrastic Stage - Infants utter single words
that may sometimes seem to represent an
entire sentences worth of meaning.
• Telegraphic Stage - children begin to combine
words to a simple sentences that are
remarkably similar across languages. These
early combinations are sometimes called
telegraphic speech because they resemble the
abbreviated language of a telegram.
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Skinner: Operant Conditioning
 B. F. Skinner believed that children learn
language through operant conditioning; in other
words, children receive “rewards” for using
language in a functional manner.
 Skinner also suggested that children learn
language through imitation of others,
prompting, and shaping.
Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device
 Noam Chomsky’s work discusses the biological
basis for language and claims that children have
innate abilities to learn language. Chomsky
terms this innate ability the “language
acquisition device.”
 Chomsky also believes in the existence of a
“universal grammar,” which posits that there
are certain grammatical rules all human
languages share. However, his research does
not identify areas of the brain or a genetic basis
that enables humans’ innate ability for language.
Piaget: Assimilation and Accommodation
 Jean Piaget’s theory of language development
suggests that children use both assimilation and
accommodation to learn language.
 Assimilation is the process of changing one’s
environment to place information into an
already-existing schema (or idea).
 Assimilation is the process of changing one’s
environment to place information into an
already-existing schema (or idea).
 Accommodation is the process of changing
one’s schema to adapt to the new environment.
 Piaget believed children need to first develop
mentally before language acquisition can occur.
Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development
 Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development
focused on social learning and the Zone of
Proximal Development.
 The ZPD is a level of development obtained
when children engage in social interactions with
others; it is the distance between a
child’s potential to learn and the actual
learning that takes place.
 Vygotsky’s theory also demonstrated that
Piaget underestimated the importance of social
interactions in the development of language.
STAGE THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET)
SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS OLD)
The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself
and reality (and how things work) through interactions
with the environment. It is able to differentiate
between itself and other objects. Learning takes place
via assimilation (the organization of information and
absorbing it into existing schema) and accommodation
(when an object cannot be assimilated and the
schemata have to be modified to include the object.
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (AGES 2 TO 4)
The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and
needs concrete physical situations. Objects are
classified in simple ways, especially by important
features.
CONCRETE OPERATIONS (AGES 7 TO 11)
As physical experience accumulates, accomodation is
increased. The child begins to think abstractly and
conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain
his or her physical experiences.
FORMAL OPERATIONS (BEGINNING AT AGES 11 TO 15)
Cognition reaches its final form. By this stage, the
person no longer requires concrete objects to make
rational judgements. He or she is capable of deductive
and hypothetical reasoning. His or her ability for
abstract thinking is very similar to an adult.
Deductive Logic
Piaget believed that deductive reasoning becomes
necessary during the formal operational stage.
Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general
principle to determine a particular outcome.
Abstract Thought
The ability to think about abstract concepts emerges
during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying
solely on previous experiences, children begin to
consider possible outcomes and consequences of
actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term
planning.
Problem-Solving
The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical
and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal
operational stage of cognitive development are often
able to plan quickly an organized approach to solving a
problem.
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
Piaget believed that what he referred to as
"hypothetical-deductive reasoning" was essential at this
stage of intellectual development. At this point, teens
become capable of thinking about abstract and
hypothetical ideas. They often ponder "what-if" type
situations and questions and can think about multiple
solutions or possible outcomes.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
This mastery helps children grow into successful,
contributing members of society. During each of
Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict
that must be successfully overcome in order for a child
to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.
Stages Of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. Mistrust
From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that
adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a
child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent
upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive
and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to
develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as
a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who
do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of
anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the
world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or
their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely
grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their
world, they learn that they can control their actions and
act on their environment to get results. They begin to
show clear preferences for certain elements of the
environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A
toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy
vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the “me do it” stage.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6
years), they are capable of initiating activities and
asserting control over their world through social
interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool
children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with
others, preschool children can master this task.
Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs
when parents allow a child to explore within limits and
then support the child’s choice..
Industry vs. Inferiority
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12),
children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children
begin to compare themselves with their peers to see
how they measure up. They either develop a sense of
pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports,
social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and
inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure
up. If children do not learn to get along with others or
have negative experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and
adulthood.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of
identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an
adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?”
and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way,
most adolescents try on many different selves to see
which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set
goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves.
Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a
strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to
their beliefs and values in the face of problems and
other people’s perspectives.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are

concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have
developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready
to share our life with others. However, if other stages
have not been successfully resolved, young adults may
have trouble developing and maintaining successful
relationships with others. Erikson said that we must
have a strong sense of self before we can develop
successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not
develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may
experience feelings of loneliness and emotional
isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time

known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-
60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity
vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s
work and contributing to the development of others
through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and
raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults
begin contributing to the next generation, often
through childbirth and caring for others; they also
engage in meaningful and productive work which
contributes positively to society.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period

of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task
at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that
people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel
either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.
People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a
sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives
with few regrets. However, people who are not
successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been
wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should
have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of
their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and
despair.