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The method of virtual work, or sometimes referred to as the unit-load method, is one of the several techniques available
that can be used to solve for displacements and rotations at any point on a structure.
The following paragraphs briefly describe this concept. Please refer to an introductory text book on structural analysis
for a complete description of this approach.
(1)
Rotation at a point:
(2)
Where Q is a virtual load applied at the point of interest in the direction of interest (i.e., in the direction of which a
displacement needs to be calculated). This Q load is often taken to be unity and must be consistent with the units being
used in the analysis (i.e., the load Q is a unit force or a unit moment in the case of calculating a translation and rotation,
respectively). The moments M and m are the moments induced in a structure due to the applied "real" loads and the
virtual load, Q, respectively. E and I are the Young's modulus and the moment of inertia for the member over which the
integration is being evaluated.
The integration to solve for the displacement can be carried out using either direct integration or by utilizing a visual
integration method. With direct integration, the equations of M and m for each segment of the structure must be
developed for use in the equation,
(3)
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The determination of the moments M and m due to the applied "real" loads and the virtual load respectively can be
quite difficult and is prone to error, especially with complex bending moment diagrams. An alternative to this
approach is to construct the moment diagrams by using either the method of superposition or the cantilever method
(examples for each method are given below).
The visual integration technique is a simplified process that completes the integration of equations (1) and (2) by
utilizing the following relationship,
(4)
Where n is the number of segments in the M diagram. The segments are selected and numbered to simplify the
integration of equation 4. A is the area of the moment diagram of each segment and h is the respective height of the m
diagram at the centroid of each segment of the moment diagram, M.
By using equation (4), the calculation of deflections and rotations becomes a simple matter of addition rather than
integration.
IMPORTANT NOTES:
In performing the integration in equation 4 using visual integration, the following rules must be observed.
1) Construct the moment diagram due to the applied loads on the structure.
2) Divide the moment diagram, M, to segments that you can easily be able to calculate the area and locate
the center of each segment (see note 5 below). Calculate the area and locate the center of each segment on the
M-diagram. Project the location of the center of each area on the m-diagram.
3) Draw the m-diagram due to a virtual load Q. The virtual load Q, has an arbitrary value, most of the
time a value of one is used. This load is applied at the point of interest and in the direction of which a
displacement is to be calculated. Measure the height, hi, on the moment diagram of the virtual load.
Note: Q is a unit force when calculating horizontal or vertical displacement and is a unit moment when
calculating rotation.
4) Both moment diagrams must be continuous over the length over which the integration being
performed.
5) If the moment diagram due the applied loads or the moment diagram due to the virtual load is not
continuous, one MUST divide the integration into segments, each of which is continuous over the integration
length. See the following example:
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Examples
The following example utilizes the cantilever method to determine the "real" and
virtual moment diagrams used in the calculation of deflections of a beam.
Note: The colors of the loads and moments are used to help indicate the
contribution of each force to the deflection or rotation being calculated. The
moment diagrams show the moments induced by a load using the same color as
the load.
problem statement
Determine the vertical displacement at end C of the beam shown in the figure below.
The modulus of elasticity (E) and the moment of inertia (I) are constant for the entire
beam.
Solution:
§ calculate the support reactions
Calculate the support reactions (caused by the applied "real" loads) using the
following relationships.
§ draw shear (V) and moment diagrams (M) for the structure
under applied "real" loads
The resultant shear and moment diagrams can be determined using statics (see figures
below).
In this example we will use the cantilever method find an equivalent moment diagram
in order to carry out the required integration.
To construct the moment diagrams caused by the applied "real" loads utilizing the
cantilever method, a point on the structure is selected and a fixed support is assumed
at this location. In this example, point B is selected and a fixed support is inserted
(see figure below).
Notice that all reaction forces are applied as loads on the structure with the assumed
fixed support at B.
Plot the moment diagram for each applied load separately, i.e., by parts. The final
results can then be obtained by utilizing the method of superposition i.e., by summing
the contribution of each individual load to the displacement being calculated. This
method is applicable since the structure is assumed to be elastic and the deflections
are small.
Note: The centroid of each area is indicated by the numbered arrow and dot.
Notice that the resultant moment diagram (figure 3 above) is the sum of these four
diagrams.
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Apply the virtual load at the point of interest in the desired direction. In this case,
apply a unit load at point C in the vertical direction. (see figure below)
Following the same procedure as used previously, calculate the support reactions
(caused by the virtual load).
Determine the moment diagram due to the virtual load using the same procedure used
to draw the "real" moment diagram i.e., with a fixed support assumed at point B.
Once the "real" moment diagrams are determined, calculate the area enclosed by each
moment diagram and determine the location of the centroid of each of these areas.
Location of centroid
Area No. Area/EI (k-ft2/EI)
from support B (ft)
1. -56x20/EI=-1120/EI X1 = 1/2x20 = 10
2. 1/3x20x-400/EI=-2666.67/EI X2 = 1/4x20 = 5
3. 1/2x20x420/EI=4200/EI X3 = 1/3x20 = 6.67
4. 1/2x6x-36/EI=-108/EI X4 = 1/3x6 = 2
Determine the values - heights (hi) - on the virtual moment diagram (m) at the
centroids of the moments due to the real loads. This is needed to carry out the
integration by using the equation given in the introduction,
Proportions can be used to determine these heights (hi) on the moment diagram (m).
For example, using similar triangles from the shared angle (location of X1, X2, X3 &
X4 were determined previously)
The heights (hi) are shown in the figure above at the locations of the centroids of the
corresponding areas from the moment diagrams (M).
§ integrate
Multiply the areas of the "real" moment diagram by the heights of the virtual moment
diagram and add them together.
Since EI is constant throughout the structure, the total deflection at C equals -1008
k2-ft3/EI.
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The negative sign indicates that the displacement is opposite to the direction of the
unit load that was applied at C - therefore the deflection is upward.
Note: The colors of the loads and moments are used to help indicate the
contribution of each force to the deflection or rotation being calculated. The
moment diagrams show the moments induced by a load using the same color as
the load.
problem statement
Determine the vertical displacement at end C of the beam shown in the figure below.
The modulus of elasticity (E) and the moment of inertia (I) are constant for the entire
beam. (This problem is identical to the Vertical Deflection of a Beam - Cantilever
example, except that the moment diagrams are developed using the method of
superposition.)
Solution:
§ calculate the support reactions
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Calculate the support reactions (caused by the applied "real" loads) using the
following relationships.
§ draw moment diagram (M) for the structure under applied "real"
loads
Using the method of superposition, draw a moment diagram for each separate load
applied to the beam.
Note: The centroid of each area is indicated by the numbered arrow and dot.
Notice that the resultant moment diagram is equal to the sum of these three diagrams.
Apply the virtual load at the point of interest in the desired direction. In this case,
apply a unit load at point C in the vertical direction. (see figure below)
Following the same procedure used previously, calculate the support reactions
(caused by the virtual load).
Once the "real" moment diagrams are determined, calculate the area enclosed by each
moment diagram and determine the location of the centroid of each of these areas.
(the locations of X1, X2, X3 & X4 were determined previously)
Location of centroid
Area No. Area/EI (k-ft2)
from support (ft)
1. 1/2x-56x20/EI=-560/EI X1 = 1/3x20 = 6.67
2. 2/3x20x100/EI=1333.33/EI X2 = 1/2x20 = 10
3. 1/2x20x-36/EI=-360/EI X3 = 1/3x20 = 13.33
4. 1/2x6x-36/EI=-108/EI X4 = 1/3x6 = 2
Determine the values - heights (hi) - on the virtual moment diagram (m) at the
centroids of the moments due to the real loads. This is needed to carry out the
integration by using the equation given in the introduction,
.
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The heights (hi) are shown in the figure above at the locations of the centroids of the
corresponding areas from the moment diagrams (M).
§ integrate
Multiply the areas of the "real" moment diagram by the heights of the virtual moment
diagram and add them together.
Since EI is constant throughout the structure, the total deflection at C equals -1008
k2-ft3/EI.
The negative sign indicates that the displacement is opposite to the direction of the
unit load that was applied at C - therefore the deflection is upward.
problem statement
Using the same structure as used in the Beam Deflection examples, determine the
rotation at A of the beam shown in the figure below using the Cantilever Method. The
modulus of elasticity (E) and the moment of inertia (I) are constant for the entire
beam.
Note: The colors of the loads and moments are used to help indicate the
contribution of each force to the deflection or rotation being calculated. The
moment diagrams show the moments induced by a load using the same color as
the load.
Calculate the support reactions (caused by the applied loads) using the following
relationships:
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Using the cantilever method, fix the structure at joint B and draw the resulting
moment diagram induced by the applied "real" loads.
Plot the moment diagram for each applied load separately, i.e., by parts. The final
results can then be obtained by utilizing the method of superposition i.e., by summing
the contribution of each individual load to the displacement being calculated. This
method is applicable since the structure is assumed to be elastic and the deflections
are small.
Note: The centroid of each area is indicated by the numbered arrow and dot.
Notice that the resultant moment diagram (figure 3 above) is the sum of these four
diagrams.
Apply the virtual load at the point of interest in the desired direction. In this case, we
want to know the rotation at point A. Therefore, apply a unit moment at point A in the
positive (clockwise) direction.
Following the same procedure used previously, calculate the support reactions
(caused by the virtual load) using the following relationships:
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Determine the moment diagram due to the virtual load using the same method as used
to find the moment diagrams for the applied loads.
Moment diagram due to the virtual load by using the cantilever method and fixing the
structure at joint B.
Once the "real" moment diagrams are determined, calculate the area enclosed by each
moment diagram and determine the location of the centroid of each of these areas.
Location of centroid
Area No. Area/EI (ft2-k/EI)
from support (ft)
1. -56x20/EI=-1120/EI X1 = 1/2x20 = 10
2. 1/3x20x-400/EI=-2666.67/EI X2 = 3/4x20 = 15
3. 1/2x20x420/EI=4200/EI X3 = 2/3x20 = 13.33
4. 1/2x6x-36/EI=-108/EI X4 = 1/3x6 = 2
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Determine the values - heights (hi) - on the virtual moment diagram (m) at the
centroids of the moments due to the real loads. This is needed to carry out the
integration by using the equation given in the introduction,
§ integrate
Multiply the areas of the "real" moment diagram by the heights found in the virtual
moment diagram and add them together.
Since EI is constant throughout the structure, the total rotation at A equals +173.33
ft3-k2/EI.
The positive sign indicates that the rotation is in the same direction as the unit
moment applied at A - therefore the rotation is in the clockwise direction.
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problem statement
Using the same structure as used in the Beam Deflection examples, determine the
rotation at A of the beam shown in the figure below using the method of
Superposition. The modulus of elasticity (E) and the moment of inertia (I) are
constant for the entire beam.
Note: The colors of the loads and moments are used to help indicate the
contribution of each force to the deflection or rotation being calculated. The
moment diagrams show the moments induced by a load using the same color as
the load.
Calculate the support reactions (caused by the applied loads) using the following
relationships:
Using the method of superposition, draw a moment diagram for each separate load
applied to the beam.
The resulting moment diagram can then be calculated by solving for each applied load
separately and adding the results.
Note: The centroid of each area is indicated by the numbered arrow and dot.
Notice that the resultant moment diagram is equal to the sum of these three diagrams.
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Apply the virtual load at the point of interest in the desired direction. In this case, we
want to know the rotation at point A. Therefore, apply a unit moment at point A in the
positive (clockwise) direction.
Following the same procedure used previously, calculate the support reactions
(caused by the virtual load) using the following relationships:
Determine the moment diagram due to the virtual load using the same method as used
to find the moment diagrams for the applied loads.
Once the "real" moment diagrams are determined, calculate the area enclosed by each
moment diagram and determine the location of the centroid of each of these areas.
Location of centroid
Area No. Area/EI (k-ft2/EI)
from support (ft)
1. 1/2x-56x20/EI=-560/EI X1 = 1/3x20 = 6.67
2. 2/3x20x100/EI=1333.33/EI X2 = 1/2x20 = 10
3. 1/2x20x-36/EI=-360/EI X3 = 1/3x20 = 13.33
4. 1/2x6x-36/EI=-108/EI X4 = 1/3x6 = 2
Determine the values - heights (hi) - on the virtual moment diagram (m) at the
centroids of the moments due to the real loads. This is needed to carry out the
integration by using the equation given in the introduction,
§ integrate
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Multiply the areas of the "real" moment diagram by the heights found in the virtual
moment diagram and add them together.
Area (a)
Area Height (h)
from M diagram (k- Ai*hi (k2-ft3/EI)
No. from m diagram (ft-k)
ft2/EI)
1. -560/EI 2/3 -373.33/EI
2. 1333.33/EI 1/2 666.67/EI
3. -360/EI 1/3 -120/EI
4. -108/EI 0 0/EI
Total 173.33/EI
Since EI is constant throughout the structure, the total rotation at A equals +173.33
k2-ft3/EI.
The positive sign indicates that the rotation is in the same direction as the unit
moment applied at A - therefore the rotation is in the clockwise direction.
The following example utilizes the cantilever method to determine the deflection of a
frame.
Note: The colors of the loads and moments are used to help indicate the
contribution of each force to the deflection or rotation being calculated. The
moment diagrams show the moments induced by a load using the same color as
the load.
problem statement
Solution:
§ calculate the support reactions
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Check these reactions by summing the moments at any point on the structure.
Construct the moment diagrams caused by the applied loads utilizing the cantilever
method.
This diagram can be determined by using statics, or the cantilever method can be
used.
In the cantilever method, a point on the structure is selected where a single fixed
support can be used to replace all the degrees of freedom in the structure. This method
is only useful in statically determinate structures.
In this example, point B is selected and a fixed support is inserted at this location.
The resulting moment diagram can be calculated by solving for each applied load
separately and adding the results. This can be done by using superposition of the loads
on the members acting as cantilevers off of support B.
Note: The centroid of each area is indicated by the numbered arrow and dot.
The sum of these four diagrams equals the total resultant for the structure.
Apply the virtual load at the point of interest in the desired direction. In this case, we
want to know the horizontal deflection at point D. Therefore, apply a unit load at
point D in the horizontal direction. (see Figure 3 below)
Following the same procedure used for the loaded structure, calculate the support
reactions (caused by the virutal load).
Positive moment is in the clockwise direction
note: the value of XA is negative because the resulting force acts in the opposite
direction to how it is drawn in Figure 10, above.
Check these reactions by summing the moments at any point on the structure.
Determine the moment diagram due to the virtual load using the same procedure used
to draw the "real" moment diagram.
Again, notice that the moments on both sides of joint B are equal.
Determine the values - heights (hi) - on the virtual moment diagram (m) at the
centroids of the moments due to the real loads. This is needed to carry out the
integration to determine the deflection.
Using the locations of the centroids, determined previously, determine the heights (hi)
on the virtual moment diagram (m) at these locations.
2. 5 ft -10
3. 5 ft -12.5
4. 10 ft -10
§ integrate
Multiply the areas of the "real" moment diagram by the heights of the virtual moment
diagram and add them together.
Area Area (A) from M diagram (k- Height (hi) from m diagram Ai*hi (k2-
No. ft2)/EI (k-ft) ft3)/EI
1. -562.5 -11.25 6328.125/EI
2. 1687.5 -10 -16875/EI
3. -2250 -12.5 28125/EI
4. 6187.5 -10 -61875/EI
Total -44296.875/EI
The negative sign indicates that the displacement is opposite to the direction of the
unit load that was applied at D - therefore the deflection is to the right.
The following example utilizes the superposition method to determine the deflection
of a frame.
Note: The colors of the loads and moments are used to help indicate the
contribution of each force to the deflection or rotation being calculated. The
moment diagrams show the moments induced by a load using the same color as
the load.
problem statement
Solution:
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Check these reactions by summing the moments at any point on the structure.
Construct the moment diagrams caused by the applied loads utilizing the
superposition method.
To get the final moment diagram by superposition, start by selecting one of the
applied loads, determine the support reactions due to the load and drawing the
resulting moment diagram.
This diagram can be simplified by drawing the effects of each load separately, i.e.;
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The sum of these diagrams are equal the total resultant for the structure.
Apply the virtual load at the point of interest in the desired direction. In this case, we
want to know the horizontal deflection at point D. Therefore, apply a unit load at
point D in the horizontal direction. (see figure 3 below)
Following the same procedure used for the loaded structure, calculate the support
reactions (caused by the virutal load).
Positive moment is in the clockwise direction
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Check these reactions by summing the moments at any point on the structure.
Determine the moment diagram due to the virtual load using the same procedure used
to draw the "real" moment diagram.
Determine the values - heights (hi) - on the virtual moment diagram (m) at the
centroids of the moments due to the real loads. This is needed to carry out the
integration to determine the deflection.
Using this locations of the centroids, determined previously, determine the heights (hi)
on the virtual moment diagram (m) at these locations.
§ integrate
Multiply the areas of the "real" moment diagram by the heights (hi) of the virtual
moment diagram and add them together.
Area Area (A) from M diagram Height (hi) from m diagram Ai*hi (k2-
No. (k-ft2) (ft-k) ft3)/EI
1. 281.25 -7.5 -2109.375
2. 843.75 -10 -8437.5
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The negative sign indicates that the displacement is opposite to the direction of the
unit load that was applied at D - therefore the deflection is to the right.
The virtual work method can be used to determine the deflection of trusses. We know
from the principle of virtual work for trusses that the deflection can be calculated by
the equation with n equal to the virtual force in the member and equal
to the change in length of the member. Therefore, the deflection of a truss due to any
condition that causes a change in length of the members can be calculated. This
change in length can be caused by the applied loads acting on each member,
temperature changes, and by fabrication errors.
Axial Deformation:
From statics we know how to determine member forces in a truss by using either the
method of joints or the method of sections. Once these forces are known we can
determine the axial deformation of each member by using the equation:
The equation for the deflection can be modified with this value for .
where m is equal to the number of members, n is the force in the member due to the
virtual load, N is the force in the member due to the applied load, L is the length, A is
the area, and E represents Young's Modulus of Elasticity.
Temperature Changes:
The equation for the deflection is then modified with this value for .
where j is the number of members experiencing temperature change and n is the force
in the member due to the virtual load.
Fabrication Errors:
where k is the number of members undergoing fabrication errors and n is the force in
the member due to the virtual load and is the change in length of the member due to
fabrication errors.
The total deflection of a truss is made up of the sum of all of these cases.
This equation is now used to find the deflection of a truss. Please refer to an
introductory text book on structural analysis for a complete description of this
approach.
problem statement
Using the method of virtual work, determine the vertical deflection at joint G in the
truss below, under the loading conditions show in figures i), ii), and iii).
i)
Figure 1 - Truss structure to analyze
ii)
Figure 2 - Fabrication errors present
Calculate the support reactions (caused by the applied loads) by summing the
moments about A and E: (answers in Kips)
Sum vertical and horizontal forces to determine the force in each member, (Kips)
Remember that in the method of joints, a joint reaction is in the opposite direction to
how the force acts on the member. Therefore, member AB is in compression.
Apply the virtual load at the point of interest in the desired direction. In this case, we
want to know the deflection at point G. Therefore, apply a unit load at point G.
Following the same procedure used previously, calculate the support reactions
(caused by the virtual load).
Use the method of joints as illustrated in Step 2 to determine the member results due
to the unit virtual load. Add the results to your existing table:
The deflection of the truss can now be determined by completing the equation:
nNL/AE
Member n(k) N(k) L(in) AE (in2-ksi)
(in-k)
AB -0.67 -33.33 48 58000 0.0184
BC -0.67 -33.33 48 58000 0.0184
CD -0.67 -46.66 48 58000 0.0257
DE -0.67 -46.66 48 58000 0.0257
AF 0.83 41.67 60 58000 0.0359
BF 0 -10 36 58000 0
CF -0.83 -25 60 58000 0.0216
FG 1.33 53.33 48 58000 0.0589
CG 1 0 36 58000 0
CH -0.83 -8.33 60 58000 0.0072
GH 1.33 53.33 48 58000 0.0589
DH 0 -30 36 58000 0
HE 0.83 58.33 60 58000 0.0503
Total 0.3209
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Change in
Member n(k) n( )(k-in)
Length ( )(in)
AB -0.67 + 0.4 -0.268
FG 1.33 + 0.6 0.798
HE 0.83 - 0.3 -0.249
Sum 0.281
Since there were no temperature effects included in this example, the total deflection
at point G is the sum of these two results.
The positive answer of 0.602 in indicates that the structure will deflect down in the
direction of the virtual load