ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Rishamjot kaur , Raman Maini

1
Computer Engineering Department,
University College of Engineering
Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab,India
2
Reader, Computer Engineering Department,
University College of Engineering
Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India

ABSTRACT:- Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the area of computer

Real-world planning problems can require search
over thousands of actions and may yield a multitude
of plans of differing quality. To solve such real-world
planning problems, we need to exploit domain
control knowledge that will prune the search space to
a manageable size.   Unfortunately, most state-of-the-
art planners cannot exploit control knowledge, and
most of those that can exploit user preferences
require those preferences to only talk about the final
state. Here, we report on a body of work that extends
classical planning to incorporate procedural control
knowledge and rich, temporally extended user
preferences into the specification of the planning
problem   of While our work is firmly rooted in AI
planning it has broad applicability to a variety of
computer science problems relating to dynamical
systems.
Topics discussed:-
Topics discussed in this paper include overview of
artificial intelligence with area
1. Introduction
science focusing on creating machines that can
engage on behaviors that humans consider intelligent.
The ability to create intelligent machines has
intrigued humans since ancient times, and today with
the advent of the computer and 50 years of research
into AI programming techniques, the dream of smart
machines is becoming a reality. Researchers are
creating systems which can mimic human thought,
understand speech, beat the best human chessplayer,
and countless other feats never before possible. Find
out how the military is applying AI logic to its hi-
tech systems, and how in the near future Artificial
Intelligence may impact our lives.
Artificial Intelligence is a branch of Science
which deals with helping machines find solutions
to complex problems in a more human-like
fashion. This generally involves borrowing
characteristics from human intelligence, and
applying them as algorithm in human friendly
way. It is basically the ability of a machine to
think for itself. It aims at getting computers to do
tasks which require human intelligence. In short
it can be described as:
Simple things turn out to be the hardest to
automate:
*Recognizing a face.
*Navigating a busy street.
*Understanding what someone says.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Motivation...
Computers are fundamentally well suited to
performing mechanical computations, using
fixed programmed rules. This allows artificial
machines to perform monotonous tasks
efficiently and reliably, which humans are ill -
suited to. For more complex problems, things
get more difficult. Unlike humans, computers
have trouble understanding specific situations,
and adapting to new situations. Artificial
Intelligence aims to improve machine behaviour
in tackling such complex tasks.
2 How does Artificial Intelligence
work?
Technology...
Over the past five decades, AI research has
mostly been focusing on solving specific
problems. Numerous solutions have been
devised and improved to do so efficiently and
reliably. This explains why the field of Artificial
Intelligence is split into many branches. Some of
the branches have been explained below:
2.1 Planning:
Planning programs start with general facts about
the world (especially facts about the effects of
actions), facts about the particular situation and
a statement of a goal. From these, they
generate a strategy for achieving the goal. In the
most common cases, the strategy is just the
sequence of actions.
2.2 Pattern recognition:
The main focus in AI today is getting a computer
to recognize, make senses and recreate in what
it sees and hears.
The two major divisions of pattern recognition
are machine vision and sound.
Pattern-Recognition-Vision:
It's goal is to get a computer to recognize
pictures so that it can recognize objects in its
surroundings that would be helpful in robotics.
Pattern-Recognition-Sound:
It wants to achieve a similar goal but is a primary
concern with companies that want to produce a
new means in which a person interacts with a
computer by talking.
2.3 Ontology:
Ontology is the study of what objects are and
what are they made of. It is the study of kinds of
things that exist. In AI, the programs and
sentences deal with various kinds of objects,
and we study what these kinds are and what
their basic properties are.
2.4 Robotics:
Robotics is the study of how to design, build,
use, and work with robots. Robots are
mechanical devices that can move and react to
sensory input giving them some degree of
autonomous control.
Robots are widely used in the industrial sector
performing high-precision jobs such as painting
and wielding. They are used in laboratories for
repetitive tasks in chemistry and biology, and in
situations, which would be dangerous for
humans such as cleaning toxic waste or
defusing bombs.
Three laws of robotics:
1. A robot may not injure or harm a human being
or allow a human being to come to harm.
2. 2. A robot must follow the instructions given to
it by a human being without violating Rule 1
3. 3. A robot must protect itself as long as such
protection does not violate Rules 1 and 2.
2.5 Artificial life:
Artificial life is a field of scientific study that
attempts to model living biological systems
through complex algorithms. Scientists use
these models to test and experiment with a
multitude of factors on the behaviour of the
systems.
Artificial life: From robot dreams to reality
It is a diverse field of research, but a common
theme is testing out the fundamental principles
of life by building detailed working models. One
of the most ambitious goals of artificial-life
research is the construction of living systems out
of non-living parts. Artificial life is a blanket term
used to refer to human attempts at setting up
systems with lifelike properties all biological
organisms possess, such as self-reproduction,
homeostasis, adaptability, mutational variation,
optimization of external states, and so on.
2.6 Epistemology:
Epistemology is a study of knowledge that are
required for solving problems in the world.
3 Who uses Artificial Intelligence?
Applications...
To be useful, a system has to be able to do
more than just correctly perform some task.
Artificial Intelligence is helping people in every
field to make better use of information to work
harder not smarter. The potential applications of
Artificial Intelligence are abundant. However,
some of the applications of AI have been listed
below:
3.1 Medicine:
NEW BLOOD TEST SPOTS CANCER:
In one of the biggest advances in cancer
research in years, scientists have developed a
blood test that can detect cancer with a greater
than 90% accuracy. This artificial intelligence
--already tested for cancers of the breast, ovary,
and lung--could one day be used to detect many
types cancer. 'All that's needed is a single drop
of blood’… 'The computer does the rest.'...In
tests on several hundred blood samples, some
taken from women with ovarian cancer and
others from healthy women, the test proved 'an
astonishing' 100% accurate in detecting cancer,
even at the earliest stages.
3.2 Artificial nose:
Scientists have endowed computers with eyes to
see, thanks to digital cameras, and ears to hear,
via microphones and sophisticated recognition
software. Now they're taking computers further
into the realm of the senses with the
development of an artificial nose.
E-NOSE TO SNIFF OUT HOSPITAL
SUPERBUGS:
"E-nose analyses gas samples by passing the
gas over an array of electrodes coated with
different conducting polymers. Each electrode
reacts to particular substance by changing its
electrical resistance in a characteristic way.
Combining the signals from all the electrodes
gives a 'smell-print' of the chemicals in the
mixture that neural network software built into
the e-nose can learn to recognize. As a result, it
can be detected from the smell alone that what
the bacterial infections are.
3.3 Military:
A NEW MODEL OF ARMY SOLDIER ROLLS
CLOSER TO THE BATTLEFIELD:
The American military is working on a new
generation of soldier, far different from the army
it has. 'They don't feel hungry,' said Gordon
Johnson of the Joint Forces Command at the
Pentagon. 'They are not afraid. They don't forget
their orders. They don't care if the guy next to
them has just been shot. Will they do a better
job than humans? Yes.' The robot soldier is
coming. The Pentagon predicts that robots will
be a major fighting force in American military in
less than a decade, hunting and killing enemies
in combat. Robots are a crucial part of the
Army's effort to rebuild itself as a 21st-century
fighting force, and a $127 billion project called
Future Combat Systems is the biggest military
contract in American history.
3.4 Game AI:
ONLY A PAWN IN IT'S GAME:
Hydra is the latest chess supercomputer to lay
down the gauntlet to the world's top players. Its
architects say it is the greatest ever built, but
don't expect it to rejoice in victory or get the
post-match drinks in.
It is a behemoth of a machine that pits 32-linked
processor against its flesh-and-blood opponents.
Hydra's backers claim it can analyze 200 million
chess moves in a second and project the game
up to 40 moves ahead.
3.5 Natural Language processing:
The goal of the Natural Language Processing
(NLP) group is to design and build software that
will analyze, understand, and generate
languages that humans use naturally, so that
eventually you will be able to address your
computer as though you were addressing
another person.
This goal is not easy to reach. "Understanding"
language means, among other things, knowing
what concepts a word or phrase stands for and
knowing how to link those concepts together in a
meaningful way. It's ironic that natural language,
the symbol system that is easiest for humans to
learn and use, is hardest for a computer to
master. Long after machines have proven
capable of inverting large matrices with speed
and grace, they still fail to master the basics of
our spoken and written languages.
Expert Systems:
The primary goal of expert systems research
is to make expertise available to decision
makers and technicians who need answers
quickly. There is never enough expertise to go
around--certainly it is not always available at the
right place and the right time. Portable with
computers loaded with in-depth knowledge of
specific subjects can bring decades worth of
knowledge to a problem.
3.6 EXPERT SYSTEMS - MAKE A
DIAGNOSIS:
Intuition may seem like a human trick, but
machines can be pretty good at it too.
Underlying a hunch are dozens of tiny,
subconscious rules-truths we that have learned
from experience. Add them up and you get
instinct: a doctor's sense that a patient's
stomach-ache might really be appendicitis, for
example. Program those rules into a computer
and you get an expert system- one of many that
can screen lab tests, diagnose blood infections,
and identify tumors on a mammogram.
4. Conclusion and Future of AI
Technology:
Artificial Intelligence and robotics are likely
to creep into our lives without us really
noticing. However, AI has spawned some
useful applications like expert systems and
game AI, but the truly pervasive use of AI is
still to come as more research and
improved technology surfaces in the future.
Here are a few applied innovations that AI
promises in the future and the technologies
behind them.
4.1 Telephone Translators:
One of the common cliches when one talks
about the future is how the world is
shrinking every day. Distance used to be a
barrier in travel and the invention of the
airplane changed all that. Time used to be a
factor in communication since the mail
system took months to deliver a letter
across the United States, but the telephone
dissolved such a hurdle. The combinations
of travel and communications has brought
whole nations together except now the last
barrier in international relationship is
language. This is where telephone translators
will change all that.
Essentially, a person from the United States
says some things in English into his telephone.
Almost instantaneously, a computer intercepts
the voice, translates what was said, and
synthetically generate the appropriate Japanese
words to the person on the other line. Of
Course, the translator would need advanced
voice recognition, natural language processing
and inferencing to extract what was meant by
the English-speaker, and then synthesize a
human-sounding Japanese person's voice in
conversational Japanese.
4.2 A Greater Use of Expert Systems:
With such success as a diagnostic in medic
and mechanics presently, expert systems
will be more prevalent in other applications
that require an expert with whom people
can consult with. Need to identify the perfect
pet for a friend? A pet expert system could
ask some questions related to the person's
personality so that it can conclude the types
of animals that would be suited for them.
What kinds of dishes can one make tonight
with the food in the refrigerator? Input the
foods into a cook expert system and find
out. The possibilities for expert systems are
almost endless. If expert systems are
designed and built correctly, users should
be able to easily program their own expert
and should make better decisions in their
lives.
4.3 Passing the Turing Test:
The idea behind the test is that if a machine
could make a person think he/she was
interacting with an intelligent person, why
not consider the machine intelligent in its
own right? The controversy over the Turing
Test will probably continue into the future,
but once a computer convincingly passes
the test and becomes more and more
integrated with society, this test would be at
least the best approximation of intelligence
possible.
4.4 Research Assistants:
The world is moving from the Industrial Age
to the Information Age where the phrase
"knowledge is power" is becoming a reality.
With so much information out there, it has
become harder and harder to find what is
really relevant. This is where a research
assistant powered by AI can help. Not only
can the assistant understand what one is
looking for, which requires natural language
processing, it is smart enough to know
where to look and compare what it finds to
what it is looking for to see how relevant the
information is, so the person doesn't have to
do the 'dirty work.' Research assistants will
be an important tool in the future by keeping
the world of information from exploding into
an infinite chaos of unorganized facts and
figures.
5. References
1. ^ Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998,
p. 1 (who use the term
"computational intelligence" as a
synonym for artificial intelligence).
Other textbooks that define AI this
way include Nilsson (1998), and
Russell & Norvig (2003) (who prefer
the term "rational agent") and write
"The whole-agent view is now
widely accepted in the field" (Russell
& Norvig 2003, p. 55) These
textbooks are the most widely used
in academic AI. See Textbooks at AI
topics
2. ^ This definition, in terms of goals,
actions, perception and environment,
is due to Russell & Norvig (2003).
Other definitions also include
knowledge and learning as additional
criteria.
3. ^ Although there is some
controversy on this point (see
Crevier 1993, p. 50), McCarthy
states unequivocally "I came up with
the term" in a c|net interview. (See
Getting Machines to Think Like Us.)
4. ^ See John McCarthy, What is
Artificial Intelligence?
5. ^ See the Dartmouth proposal, under
Philosophy, below.
6. ^ a b c This is a central idea of Pamela
McCorduck's Machines That Think.
She writes: "I like to think of
artificial intelligence as the scientific
apotheosis of a venerable cultural
tradition." (McCorduck 2004, p. 34)
"Artificial intelligence in one form or
another is an idea that has pervaded
Western intellectual history, a dream
in urgent need of being realized."
(McCorduck 2004, p. xviii) "Our
history is full of attempts—nutty,
eerie, comical, earnest, legendary
and real—to make artificial
intelligences, to reproduce what is
the essential us—bypassing the
ordinary means. Back and forth
between myth and reality, our
imaginations supplying what our
workshops couldn't, we have
engaged for a long time in this odd
form of self-reproduction."
(McCorduck 2004, p. 3) She traces
the desire back to its Hellenistic
roots and calls it the urge to "forge
the Gods." (McCorduck 2004,
pp. 340–400)
7. ^ The optimism referred to includes
the predictions of early AI
researchers (see optimism in the
history of AI) as well as the ideas of
modern transhumanists such as Ray
Kurzweil.
8. ^ The "setbacks" referred to include
the ALPAC report of 1966, the
abandonment of perceptrons in 1970,
the the Lighthill Report of 1973 and
the collapse of the lisp machine
market in 1987.
9. ^ a b AI applications widely used
behind the scenes:
o Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 28
o Kurzweil 2005, p. 265
o NRC 1999, pp. 216–222
10. ^ Pamela McCorduck (2004,
pp. 424) writes of "the rough
shattering of AI in subfields—vision,
natural language, decision theory,
genetic algorithms, robotics ... and
these with own sub-subfield—that
 would hardly have anything to say to
each other."
11. ^ a b This list of intelligent traits is
based on the topics covered by the
major AI textbooks, including:
o Russell & Norvig 2003
o Luger & Stubblefield 2004
o Poole, Mackworth & Goebel
1998
o Nilsson 1998
12. ^ a b General intelligence (strong AI)
is discussed in popular introductions
to AI:
o Kurzweil 1999 and Kurzweil
2005
13. ^ AI in Myth:
o McCorduck 2004, pp. 4–5
o Russell & Norvig 2003,
p. 939
14. ^ Sacred statues as artificial
intelligence:
o Crevier (1993, p. 1) (statue of
Amun)
o McCorduck (2004, pp. 6–9)
These were the first machines to be
believed to have true intelligence and
consciousness. Hermes Trismegistus
expressed the common belief that
with these statues, craftsman had
reproduced "the true nature of the
gods", their sensus and spiritus.
McCorduck makes the connection
between sacred automatons and
Mosaic law (developed around the
same time), which expressly forbids
the worship of robots (McCorduck
2004, pp. 6–9)
15. ^ Needham 1986, p. 53
16. ^ McCorduck 2004, p. 6
17. ^ "A Thirteenth Century
Programmable Robot". Shef.ac.uk.
http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/evie
w/articles58/robot.html. Retrieved
2009-04-25.
18. ^ McCorduck 2004, p. 17
19. ^ Takwin: O'Connor, Kathleen
Malone (1994). The alchemical
creation of life (takwin) and other
concepts of Genesis in medieval
Islam. University of Pennsylvania.
http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertati
ons/AAI9503804. Retrieved 2007-
01-10.
20. ^ Golem: McCorduck 2004, pp. 15–
16, Buchanan 2005, p. 50
21. ^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 13–14
22. ^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 17–25
23. ^ This insight, that digital computers
can simulate any process of formal
reasoning, is known as the Church-
Turing thesis.
24. ^ a b AI's immediate precursors:
o McCorduck 2004, pp. 51–
107
o Crevier 1993, pp. 27–32
o Russell & Norvig 2003,
pp. 15, 940
o Moravec 1988, p. 3
See also Cybernetics and early
neural networks (in History of
artificial intelligence). Among the
researchers who laid the foundations
of AI were Alan Turing, John Von
Neumann, Norbert Weiner, Claude
Shannon, Warren McCullough,
Walter Pitts and Donald Hebb.
25. ^ Dartmouth conference:
o McCorduck 2004, pp. 111–
136
o Crevier 1993, pp. 47–49, who
writes "the conference is
generally recognized as the
official birthdate of the new
science."
o Russell & Norvig 2003,
p. 17, who call the
conference "the birth of
artificial intelligence."
o NRC 1999, pp. 200–201