CHAPTER NUMBER

#1
INTRODUCTION
TO
QURANIC STUDIES
 Arabia before Islam
In writing the history of Islam, it is customary to begin with a survey of the
political, economic, social and religious conditions of Arabia on the eve of the
Proclamation by Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) of his mission as Messenger of
God.

Political Conditions in Arabia

The most remarkable feature of the political life of Arabia before Islam was the
total absence of political organization in any form. With the exception of Yemen in
the south-west, no part of the Arabian peninsula had any government at any time,
and the Arabs never acknowledged any authority other than the authority of the
chiefs of their tribes. The authority of the tribal chiefs, however, rested, in most
cases, on their character and personality, and was moral rather than political. The
modern student of history finds it incredible that the Arabs lived, generation after
generation, century after century, without a government of any kind. Since there
was no government, there was no law and no order. The only law of the land was
lawlessness. In the event a crime was committed, the injured party took law in its
own hands, and tried to administer “justice” to the offender. This system led very
frequently to acts of horrendous cruelty. If the Arab ever exercised any modicum
of restraint, it was not because of any susceptibility he had to questions of right or
wrong but because of the fear of provoking reprisals and vendetta. Vendetta
consumed whole generations of Arabs. Since there were no such things as police,
courts or judges, the only protection a man could find from his enemies, was in his
own tribe. The tribe had an obligation to protect its members even if they had
committed crimes. Tribalism or ‘asabiyya (the clan spirit) took precedence over
ethics. A tribe that failed to protect its members from their enemies, exposed itself
to ridicule, obloquy and contempt. Ethics, of course, did not enter the picture
anywhere. Since Arabia did not have a government, and since the Arabs were
anarchists by instinct, they were locked up in ceaseless warfare. War was a
permanent institution of the Arabian society. The desert could support only a
limited number of people, and the state of inter-tribal war maintained a rigid
control over the growth of population.

Economic Conditions
Economically, the Jews were the leaders of Arabia. They were the owners of the
best arable lands in Hijaz, and they were the best farmers in the country. They were
also the entrepreneurs of such industries as existed in Arabia in those days and they
enjoyed a monopoly of the armaments industry. Slavery was an economic
institution of the Arabs. Male and female slaves were sold and bought like animals
and they formed the most depressed class of the Arabian society. The most
powerful class of the Arabs was made up by the capitalists and money-lenders. The
rates of interest which they charged on loans were exorbitant and were especially
designed to make them richer and richer and the borrowers poorer and poorer. The
most important urban centers of Arabia were Makkah and Yathrib both in Hijaz.
The citizens of Makkah were mostly merchants, traders and money-lenders. Their
caravans traveled in summer to Syria and in winter to Yemen. They also traveled
to Bahrain in the east and to Iraq in the northeast. The caravan trade was basic to
the economy of Makkah and its organization called for considerable skill,
experience and ability.

Social Conditions
Arabia was a male-dominated society. Women had no status of any kind other than
as sex objects. The number of women a man could marry was not fixed. When a
man died, his son “inherited” all his wives except his own mother. A savage
custom of the Arabs was to bury their female infants alive. Even if an Arab did not
wish to bury his daughter alive, he still had to uphold this “honorable” tradition,
being unable to resist social pressures. Drunkenness was a common vice of the
Arabs. With drunkenness went their gambling. They were compulsive drinkers and
compulsive gamblers. The relations of the sexes were extremely loose. Many
women sold sex to make their living since there was little else they could do. These
women flew flags on their houses, and were called “ladies of the flags” (dhat-er-
rayyat). Social conditions were extremely poor.

The State of Religion in Pre-Islamic Arabia

The period in the Arabian history which preceded the birth of Islam is known as
the Times of Ignorance. Judging by the beliefs and the practices of the pagan arabs,
it appears that it was a most appropriate name. The Arabs were the devotees of a
variety of “religions” which can be classified into the following categories.
1. Idol-worshippers or polytheists: Most of the Arabs were idolaters. They
worshipped numerous idols and each tribe had its own idol or idols and fetishes.
They had turned the Kaaba in Makkah, which according to tradition, had been built
by the Prophet Abraham and his son, Ismael and was dedicated by them to the
service of One God, into a heathen pantheon housing 360 idols of stone and wood.
2. Atheists This group was composed of the materialists and believed that the
world was eternal.
3. Zindiqs They were influenced by the Persian doctrine of dualism in nature.
They believed that there were two gods representing the twin forces of good and
evil or light and darkness, and both were locked up in an unending struggle for
supremacy.
4. Sabines. They worshipped the stars.
5. Jews When the Romans destroyed Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and drove the Jews out
of Palestine and Syria, many of them found new homes in Hijaz in Arabia. Under
their influence, many Arabs also became converts to Judaism. Their strong centers
were the towns of Yathrib, Khayber, Fadak and Umm-ul-Qura.
6. Christians. The Romans had converted the north Arabian tribe of Ghassan to
Christianity. Some clans of Ghassan had migrated to and had settled in Hijaz. In
the south, there were many Christians in Yemen where the creed was originally
brought by the Ethiopian invaders. Their strong center was the town of Najran.
7. Monotheists There was a small group of monotheists present in Arabia on the
eve of the rise of Islam. Its members did not worship idols, and they were the
followers of the Prophet Abraham. The members of the families of Muhammad,
the future prophet, and Ali ibn Abi Talib, the future caliph, and most members of
their clan – the Banu Hashim – belonged to this group.

Education among the Arabs Before Islam

Among the arabs there were extremely few individuals who could read and write.
Most of them were not very eager to learn this art. Some historians are of the
opinion that the culture of the period was almost entirely oral. The Jews and the
Christians were the custodians of such knowledge. The greatest intellectual
accomplishment of the pagan Arabs was their poetry. They claimed that God had
bestowed the most remarkable qualities of the head upon the Greeks (its proof is
their science and philosophy); of hand upon the Chinese (its proof is their
craftsmanship); and of the tongue upon the Arabs (its proof is their eloquence).
Their greatest pride, both before and after Islam, was their eloquence and poetry.
 Revelation and its True Nature
Since the Holy Quran was revealed to our beloved prophet Sayyiduna Muhammad al-Mustafa
(upon him blessings and peace) by means of wahi (revelation), an understanding of some
particulars about wahi is imperative at the very outset of delving into the study of the Quran and
its exegesis.

The Need for Revelation

Every Muslim knows that Allah Almighty sent man into this world as a matter of testing him and
that in return for his being obligated with certain duties the entire universe was placed at his
service. For this reason, man, once he is in the world, must do two things:

1. Make the best use of this world and of things created in it.
2. While using this world to his advantage, keep the injunctions of Allah Almighty in sight
and do nothing that goes against His will and pleasure.

For these two functions man needs knowledge. Therefore, unless he knows the reality of this
world, the properties of different things, and the manner in which they can be put to use, he
cannot use anything in this world to his advantage. Likewise, unless and until he knows the will
of Allah Almighty as to what pleases Him and what displeases Him, it will be impossible for him
to lead a life in line with the will of Allah Almighty.

Allah Almighty, along with the creation of man, created three things through which he could
continue receiving knowledge of the above-mentioned matters of concern. These are:

1. The five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.

2. Reason.
3. Revelation (wahi)

Consequently, man discovers many things through his senses, many others through reason, and
the knowledge of things he cannot attain through these two sources are bestowed upon him
through wahi.

The arrangement between these three sources of knowledge is such that each one has its limits
and a particular sphere of activity beyond which it does not work. In natural sequence, the
knowledge of things man collects through his senses cannot be deduced through bland reason.
For instance, one knows by seeing a wall with one’s eyes that its color is white. But, should one
close their eyes and try to discover the color of the wall on the sole strength of their reason, it
would be impossible. Similarly, the knowledge of things that comes through reason cannot be
discovered by senses alone. For instance, one cannot discover who made the wall by simply
seeing it with one’s eyes or touching it with one’s hands. Reason is needed to arrive at that
conclusion.

In short, reason gives no guidance as far as the five senses work efficiently, and when the five
senses become helpless reason starts to function. But even the guidance given by reason is not
unlimited. It too has its limits. There are things the knowledge of which can neither be acquired
through senses nor through reason. For instance, to find out how that very wall can be used to
please Allah Almighty and in what manner of its use will it displease Him, neither the senses nor
reason can be of use here. In order to provide man the answer to such questions, the source that
Allah Almighty prescribed is what is known as wahi (revelation). The method it follows is that
Allah Almighty selects one of His servants, ordains him as His messenger, and then to him He
reveals His Word. This Word is wahi.

It should thus be clear that wahi is the highest source of knowledge for man which offers him the
answer to questions about life which cannot be solved by means of reason and the senses but
which are nonetheless necessary to know. It should further be apparent that reason and
perception alone are not sufficient to show man the way. It is rather all the more necessary,
almost inevitable, that divine revelation be there for his guidance. Since wahi is needed where
reason does not function, it is therefore not necessary that everything communicated through
wahi be compulsively comprehended through reason.

On the contrary, as reason is of no help in ascertaining the color of some object since that is the
job of the senses, so is the gracious transmission of knowledge of many religious beliefs the sole
prerogative of wahi and not of reason. Furthermore, trusting reason alone for their
comprehension is not sound or correct.

To begin with, it is totally senseless to discuss the issue of wahi with a person who, Allah forbid,
does not accept the very existence of Allah. But, for a person who believes in the existence of
Allah Almighty and has faith in His perfect power, it is not at all difficult to understand that wahi
is a rational need, that it is possible, and that it is real. If one has faith in the fact that the universe
has been created by an absolutely powerful entity and that He is the One who has sent man down
here to accomplish some particular mission, how then is it possible to imagine that He, after once
having created man, would leave him off in total darkness without explaining to him why he
came into the world, what his duties were, where he was destined to go, and how he could realize
the purpose of his life? How could a person, sound in intellect, send one of his servants on a trip
with a designated mission without ever telling him the purpose of the trip while he is leaving, nor
explaining it to him later on through some message? When a man of ordinary reason cannot do
such a thing, how then can it be imagined with respect to the most Holy Lord of the Universe
under Whose ultimate wisdom the system of all the worlds is functioning? After all, how is it
possible that the Being that created such a mind-boggling system composed of the moon, the
sun, the sky, the earth, the stars and the planets, would remain unable to institute some
arrangement of communication with His servants through which human beings could be given
guidance about the purpose of their lives? If one has iman, or faith, in the ultimate wisdom of
Allah Almighty then admitting that He did not forsake His servants in darkness and ignorance
will become all the more necessary. Surely, He has instituted some regular system for their
guidance. This regular system of guidance is known as wahi (revelation) and risalah
(prophethood).

It is thus crystal clear that wahi is not only a religious belief but also a rational need the rejection
of which amounts to a rejection of the ultimate wisdom of Allah Almighty.
 The Modes of Descent (Revelation)

This sacred sequence of wahi (revelation) and risalah (prophethood) came to an end with the last
of the prophets, Muhammad al-Mustafa (upon him blessings and peace). Nevermore shall wahi
descend upon any man nor is there any need for it. Wahi used to come to the Holy Prophet (Upon
him blessings and peace) in several forms and modes. In a hadith from Sahih al-Bukhari,
Sayyidah ‘A’ishah (may Allah be pleased with her) says that Sayyiduna Harith ibn Hisham (may
Allah be pleased with him) once asked the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) as to
how wahi came to him. The Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) replied that “there are
times when I hear something like the chiming of bells and this mode of wahi is the hardest on
me. After that, when this chime-sequence ends, that which has been said by the sound seems to
have been committed to my memory. And then there are times when the angel appears before me
in the shape of a man.” (Sahih al-Bukhari 2:1)

As regards the likening of the sound of wahi to the sound of bells in the hadith cited above,
Imam Muhi al-Din Ibn al-‘Arabi has provided two explanations. First, the sound of wahi is
continuous like the sound of a bell which does not break off in between. Second, when a bell
rings continuously it is generally difficult for the listener to determine the direction of its sound
because its sound seems to be coming from all directions. And the Divine Word too carries with
it the distinction that it has no one single direction. In fact, the sound gives the impression of
being heard from all directions. A correct realization of this phenomenon is just not possible
without auditory experience. However, for ease of comprehension the Holy Prophet (upon him
blessings and peace) simply likened it to the sound of bells. (Fayd al-Bari 1:19,20)

With the descent of wahi in this mode, the Holy Prophet (Upon him blessings and peace) came
under very heavy strain. Sayyidah ‘A’ishah (may Allah be pleased with her) says towards the
end of this very hadith that she had seen the coming of wahi to him during days of extreme
winter. When the progression of wahi ceased, his blessed forehead would have already become
dripping wet with sweat despite the chilly weather. In yet another narration, Sayyidah ‘A’ishah
(may Allah be pleased with her) relates: “When wahi came to him, his breath would seem to
stop, his radiant face would change, turning pale like the branch of a date palm, the front teeth
would shiver from cold, and he would perspire so much that its drops would roll down like
pearls.” (al-Itqan1:46)

On occasions, so much intensity would be generated in this state of wahi that the animal he
would be riding at that time would sit down, wilting under his weight. Once, when he was resting
his blessed head on the lap of Sayyiduna Zayd ibn Thabit (may Allah be pleased with him), wahi
began to descend. This released so much weight upon Sayyiduna Zayd’s thigh that it seemed like
it would break. (Zad al-Ma‘ad 1:18,19)

There were times when a low-volume sound of the revelation could be perceived by others.
Sayyiduna ‘Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) says: “When wahi came to him, a sound
somewhat similar to the buzzing of honey-bees could be heard close to his luminous face.
(Tabwib Musnad Ahmad 20:212)
Under the second mode of wahi an angel would come to him in some human form and deliver
Allah’s message. Generally, under such occasions Sayyiduna Jibra’il (upon him be peace) used
to come to him in the form of Sayyiduna Dihyah al-Kalbi (may Allah be pleased with him). At
other times, he would come in other forms. In any case, this mode of the revelation through
Sayyiduna Jibra’il (upon him be peace) appearing in human form was the easiest on the Holy
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace). (al-Itqan 1:46)

The third mode of the coming of wahi was when Sayyiduna Jibra’il (upon him be peace) would
appear in his original form without having taken the shape of a man. This, however, only
occurred thrice in his entire lifetime. The first instance was when the Holy Prophet (upon him
blessings and peace) himself wished to see Jibra’il in his real form and shape. The second time, it
was during the Mi‘raj (the Ascension to Heaven), and the third time it was at Ajyadd in Makkah
during the very early days of prophethood. The first two occurrences stand proven authentically.
The last incident, however, suffers from weak chains of authority and is therefore doubtful. (Fath
al-Bari 1:18,19)

The fourth mode of revelation is distinguished by being a direct two-way conversation with
Allah Almighty. This honor was bestowed upon the Holy Prophet only once, that is on the
occasion of the Mi‘raj while awake. Additionally, once in a dream it is reported that the Prophet
(upon him blessings and peace) engaged in a conversation with Allah Almighty.

Under the fifth mode of wahi, Sayyiduna Jibra’il (upon him blessings and peace) would, without
appearing physically in any form, allow some words of the divine message to fall into his heart.
This is technically known as nafh fi ’l-ruh, or blowing into the heart. (Fath al-Bari 1:18,19)
 The Chronology and Background of Quranic Revelation
The Noble Quran is Allah’s Divine Word. Hence it is secure in a Preserved Tablet about which the Quran
states:

Rather, [this] Quran is a glorious Heavenly Recitation, [that you receive, O Prophet, and] in a [Heavenly]
Tablet, [it is] well-preserved. (al-Buruj, 85:21-22)

From the Preserved Tablet the descension of the Quran took place in two stages. First, it was sent as a
whole to Bayt al-‘Izzah (The House of Honor), the exalted house of worship located in the heavens. This
exalted house, also known as Bayt al-Ma‘mur, is a heavenly house situated directly above the Ka‘bah
and serves as a place of worship for angels. This first descension took place on Laylat al-Qadr (or the
Night of Power).

The second descension of the Quran was a gradual revelation to the Noble Prophet (upon him blessings
and peace) that reached its completion after twenty-three years. These two modalities of the Quranic
revelations become clear through indications within the Holy Quran itself. Additionally, Imams Nasa’i,
Bayhaqi, al-Hakim, Ibn Abi Shaybah, Tabarani, and others have reported several narrations from
Sayyiduna ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him) which affirm that the first descent of
the Noble Quran was to the firmament of the world and took place all at one time while the Holy
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) was blessed with the second descension gradually. (al-Itqan
1:41)

Explaining the wisdom behind the first descension of the Noble Quran on the firmament facing the
world, Imam Abu Shamah states that it aimed at demonstrating the exalted majesty of the Noble Quran
and at the same time inform the angels that it was the last scripture meant to be sent down for the
guidance of the people of this earth.

Imam Zarqani in his Manahil al-‘Irfan additionally points out that the purpose of the two separate
descents was to affirm that the Book is free from any doubt about its Divinity and that apart from its
preservation in the memory of the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace), it is also preserved in
two other places, namely the Preserved Tablet and Bayt al-‘Izzah. (Manahil al-‘Irfan 1:39)

It is generally agreed upon by the scholars that the second gradual descension upon the heart of the
Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) began when he was forty years of age. According to the
widely-accepted view based on authentic reports, this descent commenced on the Night of Power. This
was also the same date on which, eleven years later, the Battle of Badr would came to pass. However,
nothing definite can be said about the exact date of Ramadan when this night fell. There are some
reports which identify it to be the seventeenth Ramadan while others place it on the nineteenth, and
still others indicate the night of the twenty- seventh. (Tafsir Ibn Jarir 10:7)
 The First Verses to be Revealed

It is authentically reported that the first verses to be revealed to the Holy Prophet were the initial verses
of Surat al-‘Alaq. According to Sahih al-Bukhari, Sayyidah ‘A’ishah (may Allah be pleased with her)
narrates that the very first revelations came to the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace)
through true dreams. Thereafter began an inner urge to worship in seclusion and meditate.

During this period, he would spend night after night in the Cave of Hira and remain in seclusion devoted
to worship until one day Allah sent an angel to the cave and the first thing he said was, “Iqra’ (Read, or
recite)!”

The Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) replied: “I am unable to read/recite”. The subsequent
events were described by the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, himself. He states, “The angel
then embraced me so hard that I was in much difficulty. Then he let go of me and said again,
‘Read/Recite!’ I again replied, ‘I am unable to read/recite.’ The angel embraced me again even harder
and then let go, saying, ‘Read/Recite!’ I again replied, ‘I am unable to read/recite.’ He embraced me a
third time and then let go, reciting: “Read, [O Prophet,] in the name of your Lord who created! He has
created man from a clinging clot. Read! For your Lord is the most Gracious [One], who has taught man
what he has known not!” (Surat al-‘Alaq, 96:1-5)

These were the first verses to be revealed. Thereafter, a period of three years passed without any
further revelation. This is known as the period of fatrat al-wahi (or pause from revelation). After three
years, the same angel who had visited the Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) in the Cave of Hira’
appeared before him between the sky and the earth and read to him the verses of Surat al-Muddaththir.
Thereafter, the process of wahi continued again.

The Makki and Madani Verses

You may have noticed that the titles of various chapters of the Quran denote them to be makki (or
Meccan, Makkan, Makkiyyah) or madani (Medinan, Medinite, Madaniyyah). It is essential to understand
the exact connotation of these terms. Most the Quranic commentators believe that a makki verse is that
verse which was revealed before the Prophet’s arrival in Madinah after his migration from Makkah.
Others purport that makki verses are those that were revealed in the city of Makkah and madani verses
are those that were revealed in Madinah. Most of the commentators, however, maintain that this view
is incorrect because there are several verses which were not revealed in Makkah but because they were
revealed in before Hijrah are classified as makki. Hence the verses that were revealed at Mina, ‘Arafat,
during the Mi‘raj (Ascension), and even during the migration from Makkah to Madinah are classified as
makki verses. Similarly, there were many verses which were not revealed in Madinah yet are still labeled
madani.
The Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) undertook several journeys after the migration in which he
even travelled hundreds of miles away from Madinah, yet all the verses revealed on these journeys have
been classified as madani, so much so that even the verses that were revealed in Makkah itself or in its
surrounding areas during the Conquest of Makkah or the Treaty of Hudaybiyah are classified as madani.
Hence the verse, “Surely, Allah commands you to fulfill trust obligations towards those entitled to them
(4:58)”, is madani although it was revealed in Makkah. (al- Burhan 1:88, Manahil al-‘Irfan, 1:88)

Then there are some surahs which are either wholly makki or wholly madani. For instance, Surat al-
Muddaththir is wholly makki and Surat Aal ‘Imran is entirely madani. It also so happens that some
surahs as a whole are makkan but contain one or more madani verses. For example, Surat al-A‘raf is a
makki surah but several verses within it are madani. Conversely, Surat al-Hajj is madani but four of its
verses are makki.

It should thus be clear that the classification of a surah as makki or madani is based on the nature of the
majority of its verses, although occasionally a surah is classified as makki because its initial verses were
revealed before the Migration, although the subsequent verses were revealed afterwards. (Manahil al-
‘Irfan 1:192)

Characteristics of Makki and Madani Verses

After a thorough analysis of both makki and madani surahs, the scholars of exegesis (tafsir) discovered a
set of characteristics that aid in identifying whether a surah is makki or madani. Some of these attributes
are universal while others only hold true most of the time. The universal rules are as follows:

1. Every surah in which the word ‫كل‬‫( ّا‬never) appears is makki. This word has been used 33 times in 15
different surahs, and all such occur in the second half of the Quran.

2. Every surah containing a verse of prostration (ayat sajdat al-tilawah) is makki. This rule only applies if
one takes the Hanafi stance in regards to the verses of prostration, since according to them there is no
verse of prostration in the madani Surat al-Hajj. According to Imam Shafi‘i, however, there is a verse of
prostration in Surat al-Hajj and so this chapter of the Quran would thus be the exception to the rule.

3. Every surah, with the exception of Surat al-Baqarah, in which the story of Adam and Iblis finds
mention is makki.

4. Every surah in which permission for jihad or a description of its injunctions is given is madani.

5. Every ayah in which there is mention of the hypocrites is madani. Note that the verses on the
hypocrites in Surat al-‘Ankabut are madani although the surah as a whole is makki.
 The Gradual Revelation of the Quran

It was mentioned earlier that the Noble Quran was not revealed to the Holy Prophet (upon him
blessings and peace) suddenly or instantly at one time. Rather, it was revealed in piecemeal over the
span of nearly twenty-three years. At times, Jibra’il (upon him be peace) came with a single verse or
even a small portion of a verse. Then there were times when several verses would be revealed at once.
The smallest portion of the Quran to be revealed was ‫( غير اأولى االضرر‬al-Nisa’, 4:94) which forms part of
a longer verse. On the other hand, the whole of Surat al-An‘am was revealed at one time. (Tafsir Ibn
Kathir 2:122)

Rather than being revealed all at once, why was the Quran revealed little by little? The polytheists of
Arabia, accustomed to hearing long eulogies in one sitting, had themselves posed this question to the
Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace). Allah Almighty took it upon Himself to answer the
question in the following words:

Moreover, those who disbelieve have said: If only the Quran was sent down to him all at once, [then
truly it would be from God]! Yet even so [is it revealed gradually], so that We may set firm your heart
with it, [O Prophet]; thus have We recited it [to you] in a measured recital. And never do they bring forth
for you any [false argument by way of example, but that We have brought forth for you the truth [of it]
and [its] best exposition. (Surat al-Furqan, 25:32-33)

Imam Razi has presented several reasons for the gradual revelation of the Quran in his exegesis of the
above verse. Below is a summary of his presentation of what he says:

1. The Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) was unlettered (ummi). He could not read or write,
hence if the entire Quran had been revealed at one time it would have been difficult to remember and
document. On the other hand, Sayyiduna Musa (upon him be peace) was well-lettered and so the Torah
was revealed to him as a complete scripture at one time.

2. If the entire Quran had been revealed all at once, immediate compliance of all its injunctions would
have become obligatory and this would have contradicted the wisdom of gradualness that is of the
objectives of the Shari‘ah.

3. The Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) was subject to torture on a daily basis. That Jibra’il (upon
him be peace) came, again and again, with the words of the Noble Quran, made his stand against these
tortures bearable and gave strength to his heart.

4. A large portion of the Quran is devoted to answers given to questions posed by the people, and other
portions deal with the details of particular events. Therefore, the revelation of those verses was
appropriate at the time when those questions were asked or when those events came to pass. This
increased the insight of Muslims, and when the Quran unfolded that which was unseen, its truth
became all the more manifest. (al-Tafsir al-Kabir 6:336)
 Causes of Revelation

Verses of the Quran are of two types. The first type of verses comprises those that Allah Almighty sent
down on His own and that were not caused by some particular event nor prompted by a question. The
second type comprises those verses that were revealed in reference to some incident or enquiry. These
events or enquiries are often termed the “background” or “causes” of these verses. In the terminology
of the commentators, this background or causes are called the asbab al-nuzul (lit. causes of revelation)
or the sha’n al-nuzul (lit. background of revelation). For instance, the following verse in Surat al-Baqarah:

Moreover, you shall not marry idolatrous women until they believe [in God alone]. For a believing
bondwoman is most surely better than an idolatrous woman – even if she should please you. (Surat al-
Baqarah, 2:221)

The verse was revealed in the wake of a particular event. During the Days of Ignorance, Sayyiduna
Marthad ibn Abi Marthad al-Ghanawi (may Allah be pleased with him) had a relationship with a woman
named ‘Anaq. After embracing Islam, he migrated to Madinah while ‘Anaq stayed behind in Makkah.
After some time, Sayyiduna Marthad (may Allah be pleased with him) visited Makkah for some business.
‘Anaq came to him with an invitation to sin. Sayyiduna Marthad (may Allah be pleased with him) flatly
refused, stating: “Islam has come between you and I.” However, he was willing to marry her if the
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) approved. Upon returning to Madinah, Marthad (may Allah be
pleased with him) sought permission to marry the woman. Thereupon, this verse was revealed, and
marriage to polytheistic women was thus prohibited. (Asbab al-Nuzul of Wahidi 38)

This event is the sha’n or sabab of revelation behind the verse mentioned above. The background of
revelation is, therefore, very important in the exegesis of the Quran. There are many verses the meaning
of which cannot be correctly understood unless the circumstances underlying their revelation are known
 The Preservation of the Quran
ERA OF HOLY PROPHET (PEACE BE UPON HIM)
Since the Quran was not revealed all at once but rather in piecemeal according to the needs and
circumstances of the time it was not possible to preserve it as a written book during the lifetime of the
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace). Allah, however, had granted the Quran a distinction amongst
all other divine scriptures. Its preservation would be accomplished more through memory than the pen.
According to a narration in Sahih Muslim, Allah assured the Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) that
He would “reveal to you a Book which water cannot wash.” Meaning thereby that other books in the
world would perish through worldly calamities, as happened in the case of the Torah and other divine
scriptures, but the Quran would be so preserved in the hearts (memory) of men that there would be no
danger of it getting perished. Hence, greater emphasis was placed on memory for Quranic preservation
in the early period of Islam. In the beginning, when the Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) received
revelation he would immediately repeat its words so that they would be retained in his heart.
Thereupon, Allah Almighty directed him through verses in Surat al-Qiyamah that he need not hurriedly
repeat the words as revelation came to him. The verse reads:[O Prophet], move not your tongue
therewith to make haste with it. Surely, upon us rests the collecting thereof, and the reciting thereof.
(Surat al-Qiyamah, 75:16-17) Allah Almighty would Himself endow him with a memory that would make
him incapable of forgetting the words of revelation even after hearing it once. So it was that the
moment the Quranic verses would come to him they would be instantaneously committed to his
memory. Thus the blessed chest of the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) was the most
protected repository of the Noble Quran wherein there was not the slightest chance of error or
alteration. As a matter of additional precaution, the Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) would
review the Quran with the angel Jibra’il once every year during the month of Ramadan and twice during
the final year of his life on this earth. Further, the Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) did not
restrict his instruction of the Companions to just the meanings of the Quran but also had them
memorize its words. The Companions were themselves so enamored with a desire to learn and
memorize the Quran that every one of them sought to surpass the other in their learning. In fact, one
female Companion claimed no mahr (dowry) from her husband except that he teach her the Quran.
Hundreds of Companions, freeing themselves from all other concerns, had devoted their lives to the
study of the Quran. Not only did they memorize it but they also repeated it in their nightly prayers.
According to Sayyiduna ‘Ubadah ibn Samit (May Allah be pleased with him), when someone migrated
from Makkah al-Mukarramah and arrived in Madinah, the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace)
would entrust him to one of the Ansar so that he could teach Quran to the newcomer. The Masjid of the
Prophet would reverberate so much with the voices of students and teachers of the Quran that the Holy
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) would have to ask them to lower their voices so that mistakes
could be avoided. Arabs were distinguished all over the world for their amazing power of retention and
after groping for centuries in the darkness of ignorance they had received the guidance of divine
revelation, a revelation so dear to them that they considered it the most cherished possession of their
lives. Anybody with an understanding of their character and bent of mind can imagine what pains they
must have taken to commit it to memory. Hence, within a fairly short time, a large group of the
Companions had flawlessly committed the Quran to memory. Included in this group were Abu Bakr,
‘Umar, ‘Uthman, ‘Ali, Talhah, Sa‘d, Ibn Ma ‘ud, Hudhayfah ibn Yaman, Salim Mawla Abi Hudhayfah, Abu
Hurayrah, ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Umar ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abbas, ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, Mu‘awiyah, ‘Abdullah ibn Zubayr,
‘Abdullah ibn al-Sa’ib, ‘A’ishah, Hafsah, and Umm Salamah (may Allah be pleased with them all). (al-
Nashr fi ’l-Qira’at al-‘Ashr 1:6, al-Itqan 1:73-74, Tarikh al-Qur’an 60) In short, the preservation of the
Quran in the early days of Islam was based on memory. This was the safest and most reliable method in
view of the circumstances of that time, since the number of literate persons in those days was extremely
small and the printing press (or other means of mass publication) did not yet exist. Had the preservation
of the Quran been reliant on writing it would have been neither possible to disseminate the Quran on an
extensive scale nor to protect it reliably. Instead, Allah Almighty blessed the denizens of Arabia with
such a prodigious memory that even many common Arabs were said to have been able to commit
thousands of poetic lines to memory and recite them at will. Their incredible power of recollection was
put to full use by Allah for the conservation and protection of the Noble Quran, and it was through such
extraordinary intellectual faculties that the Quran was able to reach the farthest corners of Arabia.

The Written Compilation of Revelation

Although the preservation of the Quran depended mainly on the memory of the Companions the
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) had made special arrangements to have the Quran committed
to writing as well. Sayyiduna Zayd ibn Thabit (May Allah be pleased with him) relates:

I used to write down the words of revelation for the Prophet. When revelation came to him, he would
feel intense heat and drops of perspiration would start rolling down his body like pearls. When this state
would cease, I would present him with a shoulder-bone or a piece of cloth and begin to write what he
would dictate to me. I would not finish writing before feeling that my leg was about to break from (the
weight) of copying down the Quran, to the extent that I would tell myself that I would never be able to
walk on my leg again. When I was finished, he would say: ‘Read’. I would read it back to him. If there
was a shortcoming, he would rectify it. Then he would present it to the people. Besides Zayd ibn Thabit
(May Allah be pleased with him), there were also numerous other Companions who carried out the duty
of committing wahi to writing. Some of them who deserved special mention are Abu Bakr, ‘Umar,
‘Uthman, ‘Ali, ‘Ubayy ibn Ka‘b, Zubayr ibn al-‘Awwam, Mu‘awiyah, Mughirah ibn Shu‘bah, Khalid ibn al-
Walid, Thabit ibn al-Qays, and Aban ibn Sa‘id. Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (May Allah be pleased with him)
reports that it was the blessed practice of the Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) that soon after
the revelation of a certain portion of the Quran he would pointedly instruct the scribe to write it in a
specific surah after a specific verse. (Ibid.) Since paper was a scarce commodity in Arabia, the Quranic
verses were primarily written down on stone slabs, parchments of leather, date branches, pieces of
bamboo, tree leaves, and animal bones. However, at times, pieces of paper were also used. During the
time of the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace), a copy of the Quran had been arranged to be
written under his supervision, although not in the form of a book but in separate parchments. It was
also the practice of some Companions to make copies of Quranic verses and keep them for personal
recollection. This practice was common from the very early prophetic period. For example, even before
Sayyiduna ‘Umar, an early Muslim, had embraced Islam, his sister and brother-in-law had in their
possession verses of the Quran which they had written and kept in manuscript form.

Preservation in the Era of Abu Bakr

The copies of Quran prepared during the time of the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) were
written on different kinds of materials. Some verses were written on leather, some on leaves of trees,
some on bones etc… Copies of the whole Quran were very few in number. Some Companions possessed
only one surah while some had five or ten surahs and some had only a few verses. Some had verses with
explanatory notes also written with them. It was for this reason that Sayyiduna Abu Bakr (may Allah be
pleased with him) thought it necessary during his period of caliphate that all the scattered portions of
the Holy Quran should be collected and preserved. The motives and methods behind the great task have
been described by Zayd ibn Thabit as such: One day, soon after the battle of Yamamah, Abu Bakr sent
for me. When I came to meet him, ‘Umar was present there. Abu Bakr said to me, “Umar has just
informed me that a large number of huffaz (those who had learnt the Quran by heart) have been
martyred in the Battle of Yamamah. If the huffaz continue to meet martyrdom in this manner I am afraid
a large portion of the Quran may become extinct. Hence, I propose that you undertake the task of the
collection of the Quran from different places. I told ‘Umar, ‘How can I do what the Prophet (upon him
blessings and peace) himself did not do?’ ‘Umar replied, ‘By Allah! It is for nothing but good,’ and he
continued to repeat this statement until the light of its truth dawned upon me as well, and now my
opinion is the same as ‘Umar’s.” After that Abu Bakr said to me, “You are young and sensible. We have
no lack of trust in you. You had also been a regular scribe of revelation during the time of the Holy
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace). So search then for all the verses of the Quran and collect them
together.” By Allah! Carrying a mountain on their orders would have been a lighter burden for me than
collecting the Quran. I asked him, “How is it that you have undertaken a task that was not done by the
Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) himself?” Abu Bakr said, “By Allah! It is but good,” and he kept
on repeating these words until Allah gave me insight to adopt the same opinion held by Abu Bakr and
‘Umar. Consequently, I started searching for the verses of the Quran and it was from the branches of
date-palms, slabs of stones, and the memory of the people that I finally collected the Quran.” At this
point, while we are dealing with the process of the collection of the Quran, we should have a clear
perception of the method used by Sayyiduna Zayd ibn Thabit (may Allah be pleased with him). As
mentioned earlier, he was himself a hafiz of the Quran. Therefore, he could have written down the
whole Quran from memory. Additionally, there were hundreds of huffaz present at that time. The Quran
could have still been inscribed by entrusting the duty to a select group from them. Also, the copies of
the Quran committed to writing during the times of the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace)
could have been used by Sayyiduna Zayd to make his copy of the Quran. But he, guided by his caution
and concern, did not limit himself to any one of these many methods. On the contrary, by using all these
methods simultaneously, he did not allow any verse to be included in his master copy of the Quran
unless he received written and verbal testimonies proving its uninterrupted succession. The verses that
the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) had arranged to be written under his supervision were
preserved by the Companions. Sayyiduna Zayd collected them together so that the new copy could be
made from them. Consequently, a public proclamation was made to the effect that anyone possessing
any number of written verses of the Quran should bring them over to him. When a written verse was
brought to him, he would verify its authenticity by first testing its reliability against his own memory.
Then, Sayyiduna ‘Umar who was also a hafiz of the Quran and is proven through reliable narrations to
have been assigned by Abu Bakr to work with Zayd on the project, would test it against his own
memory. No written verse was accepted until such time that two trustworthy witnesses had testified to
the fact that the particular verse was written in the presence of the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings
and peace). (al-Itqan 1:10) Lastly, the verses in writing were collated with collections that different
Companions had prepared for themselves. In this master copy, the Quranic verses were arranged in
accordance with the order fixed by the Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace). The surahs were
not arranged, however, and so every surah was written and kept separately. Additionally, all of the
seven valid recitations were incorporated in this copy. Only those verses were included whose recitation
was not abrogated. The purpose of this transcription was to prepare an organized document with the
collective endorsement of the entire Ummah so that reference could be made to it when required.
These folios, committed to writing on the orders of Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him), remained
with him during his lifetime. Then they remained with ‘Umar (may Allah be pleased with him). After the
martyrdom of ‘Umar they were transferred to the custody of Umm al-Mu’minin Sayyidah Hafsah (May
Allah be pleased with her). After the death of Hafsah, Marwan ibn al-Hakam had them burnt since the
copies of Quran ordered by Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (May Allah be pleased with him) were ready at that time
and a consensus of the Ummah had already been reached to the effect that following these ‘Uthmani
copies of the Quran, in script and arrangement of surahs, was now obligatory. Marwan ibn al-Hakam
thought it inadvisable to let any copy which was contrary to this script and arrangement to remain in
existence.

Preservation in the Era of ‘Uthman

When Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) became the Khalifah, Islam had already
spread to the far-flung lands of Byzantine and Iran. People embracing Islam in the new areas would
learn the Quran from Muslim soldiers or from traders from whom they had found the blessing of Islam.
Also, the Quran was revealed with “Seven Recitations” and different Companions had learnt it from the
Holy Prophet (upon him blessings and peace) according to different modes of recitation. Hence, every
Companion taught the Quran to his disciples in accordance with the particular reading he had learnt
from the Prophet (upon him blessings and peace). In this manner, variations in recitation reached
distant countries. As long as the people were aware that the Quran was revealed with “Seven
Recitations” these variations caused no harm. But when these variations reached far-out countries and
the fact that the Quran was revealed with “Seven Recitations” could not gain due publicity, disputes
among people started to occur. Some people insisted that their own reading was correct and that of
others incorrect. These disputes gave rise to the danger on one hand that people might fall into the
grave error of declaring recitations of the Quran that had been transmitted through uninterrupted
succession as incorrect. On the other hand, there was no standard copy of the Quran anywhere in the
world that could be the rallying authority for the entire Muslim nation except the one in Madinah that
had been transcribed by Zayd ibn Thabit (may Allah be pleased with him). Since other copies were
written individually and there was no provision to incorporate all the seven versions of recitation in
them, the only reliable method to resolve these disputes was to disseminate transcripts incorporating all
the valid recitations throughout the Islamic world. Through them, Muslims could then gauge the
authenticity and validity of each recitation. Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him)
accomplished this remarkable feat during the period of his caliphate. The details of this achievement
have been transmitted to us through the account of Hudhayfah ibn Yaman (may Allah be pleased with
him) who was engaged in a military campaign on the Armenian-Azerbaijan front. He noticed that
differences were arising among people about the correct recitation of the Quran. So, upon his return to
Madinah he went straight to ‘Uthman (May Allah be pleased with him) and said: “O Leader of the
Believers! Before this nation falls prey to dissension about the Book of Allah, like the Jews and
Christians, you must do something.” ‘Uthman asked, “What is the matter?” He replied, “I was on a
military mission on the Armenian front where I saw that the recitation of the people of Syria, who follow
that of Ubayy ibn Ka‘ab, was not known to the people of Iraq. Similarly, the people of Iraq, who follow
the recitation of ‘Abdullah ibn Mas‘ud, had not heard of the recitation made by the people of Syria. As a
result, they call each other unbelievers.” Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) had
himself sensed this danger much earlier. He was informed that even in Madinah such incidents had
occurred wherein someone taught the Quran according to one recitation while another teacher taught it
according to a second. When the students of different teachers met together, differences would arise
amongst them and sometimes it embroiled the teachers as well to the extent that they too declared
each other’s readings to be incorrect. When Huzayfah ibn Yaman (May Allah be pleased with him) drew
his attention to this danger, ‘Uthman convened a meeting of esteemed Companions and consulted with
them. He said, “I have been informed that there are people who say to each other: ‘My recitation is
better than yours,’ and this may be carried to the limits of blasphemy (disbelief). What is your opinion
on this matter?” The Companions first asked ‘Uthman as to his thoughts. He said, “My opinion is that we
should unite every one on one transcription so that no difference or division may occur.” The
Companions approved and supported his view. Consequently, Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (may Allah be pleased
with him) gathered the people together and addressed them by saying, You all live so close to me in
Madinah and yet repudiate each other and differ with one another in respect of the recitations of the
Quran. It is obvious, therefore, that those who are far away from me must be falsifying and disapproving
each other much more vehemently. Therefore, let everyone join together to prepare a copy of the
Quran to follow which should be obligatory for all. For this purpose, ‘Uthman (may Allah be pleased with
him) sent a message to Sayyidah Hafsah (May Allah be pleased with her) requesting her for the
manuscripts of the Quranic text prepared during the time of Abu Bakr (May Allah be pleased with him)
and which she had in her custody. He promised that they would be returned to her after they had been
copied down. She agreed and sent them to him. He then formed a group of four Companions comprising
of Zayd ibn Thabit, ‘Abdullah ibn Zubayr, Sa‘id ibn al-‘Aas, and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Harith ibn Hisham.
The group was entrusted with the task of making several transcripts from the original copy compiled by
Sayyiduna Abu Bakr with the surahs also arranged in sequence. Of the four, Zayd was from the Ansar
while the other three were from Quraysh. Therefore, Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (may Allah be pleased with
him) said to them: If you and Zayd differ anywhere in the Quran (that is, differ as to how a certain letter
should be written) write it in the language of the Quraysh because the Quran has been revealed in their
language. This task was essentially entrusted to the abovementioned four distinguished persons, but
subsequently other Companions also were called upon to assist them so that, according to Ibn Abi
Dawud, their number rose to twelve. These included Ubayy ibn Ka‘b, Kathir ibn Aflah, Malik ibn Abi
‘Amir, Sayyiduna Anas ibn Malik and ‘Abdullah ibn Abbas (May Allah be pleased with them all). This
group of Companions performed the following functions in connection with the transcription of Holy
Quran: First, in the transcript prepared during the period of Abu Bakr the surahs were not arranged in
sequence. Rather, each surah was compiled separately. This group of Companions proceeded to arrange
them in their proper sequence as part of a single transcript. Second, the verses of the Quran were
written to accommodate all the successive un-interrupted recitations in the script. Therefore, no dots or
diacritical marks were placed on them so that they could be read in accordance with all the valid
recitations. For instance, they wrote ‫ ننسرها‬so that it could be read as both ‫( ننشرها‬nanshuruha) and ‫ننشزها‬
(nunshizuha) because both the recitations are correct. Third, until that time only one copy of the Holy
Quran existed that was complete, authentic, standard, and collectively attested-to by the entire
Ummah. They prepared several transcripts of this newly-written copy of the Quran. It is generally
believed that Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (May Allah be pleased with him) had five transcripts prepared, but Abu
Hatim al-Sijistani has stated that a total of seven transcripts were prepared. Of those, one was sent to
Makkah and one each to Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, Basra and Kufah, while one was preserved in Madinah.
Fourth, in order for them to accomplish the task cited above, these eminent Companions kept the
transcripts that were written during the time of Sayyiduna Abu Bakr (May Allah be pleased with him)
before them. But, as an added precaution, they adopted the same method of preservation that was
employed during the time of Sayyiduna Abu Bakr (may Allah be pleased with him). Consequently,
individual transcripts preserved by different Companions were once again brought together and through
a collation with these individual manuscripts that the new transcripts were prepared.

After having several of these standard transcripts of the Holy Quran prepared, Sayyiduna ‘Uthman (may
Allah be pleased with him) had all the other manuscripts that were individually prepared by Companions
burnt so that all transcripts of the Quran could become uniform in terms of script, incorporation of
accepted recitations, and the sequence of surahs and leave no room for differences. The entire Ummah
acknowledged this achievement of ‘Uthman (may Allah be pleased with him) with great admiration and
all the Companions extended their full support for the venture. Sayyiduna ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (May Allah
be pleased with him) once remarked: Say nothing about ‘Uthman except good. By Allah! Whatever he
did in connection with the transcription of the Quran was done in the presence of all of us and with our
advice and counsel.