Chapter - 1. - Review - of - Thermodynamics - and (2) (001-092) .En - Es

AE 310 Fundamentos de calefacción, ventilación y aire acondicionado Capítulo 1
Capítulo 1. Revisión de Termodinámica y Transferencia de Calor
1.1 Introducción
1.2 Conceptos básicos de Transferencia de Calor
1.3 Primera ley de la termodinámica

1.4 Segunda Ley de la Termodinámica
1.5 gas ideal
lecturas:
• MJ Moran y HN Shapiro, Fundamentos de Ingeniería Termodinámica, 3 rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., o Otros
textos de la termodinámica
1.1 Introducción
1.1.1 Termodinámica
Termodinámica es la ciencia dedicada al estudio de la energía, sus transformaciones, y su relación con el estado de la
materia.
energía • la primera ley (conservación de la energía)

entropía • la segunda ley (calidad de la energía)
toda transformación natural de la energía se acompaña algún lugar de una pérdida de la
disponibilidad de energía para el rendimiento futuro del trabajo
1.1.2 Sistema y alrededores
Sistema: un objeto, cualquier cantidad de la materia, cualquier región del espacio, etc. seleccionado para el estudio
Alrededores: los tipos resto del sistema básico: sistema cerrado (masa de control) y Sistema abierto (volumen de control)
1.1.3 Propiedad, Estado, procesos y Equilibrium
UNA propiedad es la característica observable de un sistema tal como temperatura, presión y densidad.
UNA estado es la condición del sistema definido por las propiedades. UNA proceso es la
transformación del sistema de un estado a otro. Un termodinámico ciclo es un proceso que comienza y
termina en el mismo estado.
1
superficie de presión-volumen-temperatura para una sustancia que se expande en congelación
2
1.1.4 Relaciones pvT
Las propiedades termodinámicas: tablas, gráficos, ecuaciones y programas.
1.2 Conceptos básicos
La disciplina de la ingeniería de transferencia de calor tiene que ver con los métodos de cálculo de las tasas de transferencia de calor. Estos
métodos se utilizan por los ingenieros para diseñar componentes y sistemas en los que se produce la transferencia de calor.
(1) Temperatura: Grado de movimiento molecular
SI o C, K IP: o F,
o R
(2) Energía: E (Btu, J)
La capacidad para hacer el trabajo. Ejemplos:
• Térmico
• Ligero
• Mecánico
• Eléctrico
• Química 1
BTU = 1055 J
De trabajo (W) es una acción de una fuerza sobre un sistema en movimiento.
(3) El calor (energía térmica): Q (Btu, J)
El calor es la energía transferida a través de la frontera del sistema por diferencia de temperatura ( Δ T).
3
(4) Calor específico: do pag ( Btu / lb o F, J / kg K)
Calor necesario para la temperatura aumento de 1 lb de material (1 kg) durante 1 o F (1 o DO).
(5) Capacidad calorífica: ( Btu / ft 3 O F) y masa térmica ( Btu / o F)
Capacidad de almacenar energía
La capacidad calorífica = calor específico densidad x = ρ do pags
La masa térmica = densidad x volumen x calor específico = ρ VC pags
(6) cambio de energía ( transferencia de calor): Q (Btu)
Q = ρ VC pags Δ T
dónde ρ - densidad, V - volumen, Δ T - diferencia de temperatura.
(7) Flujo de calor ( calor tasa de transferencia o la tasa de variación de energía): y (Btu / h)
Q
La energía transferida por unidad de tiempo.
4
1.3 Primera ley de la termodinámica
los La primera ley de la termodinámica expresa principio de conservación de la energía. Formas de energia:
2
= Kinetic (movimiento del sistema) Potencial
2 1 KE mv
PE U== mgz
U (T) (posición del sistema)
Interna (almacenada en la materia)
la energía total del sistema (E) = suma de todas las formas de energía
mecanismos de transferencia de energía son el trabajo (W) y calor (Q), que no son propiedades del sistema. Convenios:
El trabajo realizado por un sistema es positivo. La
transferencia de calor a un sistema es positivo.
1.3.1 Primera Ley para el Sistema Cerrado
Calor (Q) - De trabajo (W) = cambio en la energía total ( Δ MI)
Sistema cerrado de un proceso entre los estados “1” y “2”:
• - vv -2 •
2
1 22 1 2 )
- = - u )+ + Zg (z 2g
1
- 121 - 2
(um WQ
• •
• do
soldo •
Ejemplo 1
calefacción volumen constante de un cilindro lleno de un gas.
1 S t Ley: 1- 2
= cm=Δum QV ? T
peso Q
V = const. p = const.
Q de
Ejemplo 1: calefacción volumen constante Ejemplo 2: calentamiento a presión constante
5
Ejemplo 2
calentamiento a presión constante de un cilindro lleno de un gas. 1 S t Ley:
donde i = u + pv es entalpía.
La entalpía es una propiedad que combina Δ uy trabajo pv que son únicas formas de cambio de energía en muchos
procesos.
= ccVP + R
donde R - constante específica gas ideal, y c P> do V porque de entrada constante funciona.
1.3.2 Primera Ley para el Sistema Abierto (Control de volumen de formulación)
Transferencia de calor (Q y) - Tasa neta de trabajo ( W & ) = Tasa neta del flujo de energía
(A través de la frontera del sistema)
dE CV
dt
mi en mi fuera
- +
+ -
Qy W&
• • •• • • ••
-CV && = Σ • &• + + • • -Σ • y • + + •• + CV
• vim WQ • • dE g gz •2g vim

2 2
CV
2g g gz dt
fuera • • CC • • en • • CC • •
6
Caso particular de la 1 S t la ley es para el flujo en estado estacionario que tiene un flujo constante a través de la frontera y no tiene
masa o energía cambio en CV.
Para un sistema de climatización típica dos supuestos son válidos:

y =CV0)
Delaware CV = 0, dt md fluir a través de la frontera del sistema
1) El estado de equilibrio (dt
2) KE y PE términos generalmente pequeños
Por lo tanto, para el sistema de climatización típica:
CV
- =&im& WQ
cabo
&
Σ⋅ - Σ & ⋅ soy
CV en
Ejemplo 3
Una casa / edificio es un sistema térmico y su dotación es el límite. Veamos algunas transferencia de energía en una
casa unifamiliar.
y la infiltración = 150 Btu / h

Q y conducción = 200 Btu / h
Q
Q y ocupante = 300 Btu / h

y = ac 350 Btu / h
Q
Qy = solares 500 Btu / h
y = tierra 100 Btu / h

Q
La masa térmica de la casa se supone que es 700 Btu / o F. (a) ¿Es el
sistema en equilibrio?
7
Ya que & Q en = & Q fuera, el sistema está en equilibrio. Los flujos de calor son el estado de equilibrio. La temperatura
no cambiará.
(B) ¿Qué sucederá si el A / C está apagado?
8
1.4 Segunda Ley de la Termodinámica
Todos los procesos obedecen al 1 S t Ley de la termodinámica. Sin embargo, algunos 1 S t Nunca se producen procesos de abogados.
Por ejemplo, la transferencia de calor desde el depósito frío para depósito caliente o flujo de baja presión a alta presión.
El 2 Dakota del Norte Ley de la termodinámica define:

• dirección del cambio para los procesos
• equilibrio final para procesos espontáneos

• criterio de rendimiento teórico limita de ciclos
• la calidad de la energía
Cambios de energía y la transferencia implica tanto principio de conservación y degradación de la calidad. Por lo tanto, la
eficiencia térmica de todos los motores de calor debe ser menor que 100% debido a
efectos disipativos . Procesos que ocurren en un sistema como el motor térmico son irreversible desde el sistema o sus
alrededores no pueden ser devueltos a sus estados iniciales. UNA reversible
proceso es una idealización.
Los motores térmicos (bombas de calor) son sistemas cerrados, que opera de forma continua, o de forma cíclica, y los productos (uso)
de trabajo mientras que el intercambio de calor a través de sus fronteras.
1.4.1 Motor Heat
Trabajo producido mientras que el calor extraído de alta temperatura (T H) depósito y rechazado a depósito de baja
temperatura (T L).
TH
Q yH
W&
Q yL
TL
9
Bomba de calor 1.4.2
El trabajo utilizado para calentar extracto de depósito a baja temperatura (T L) y rechazar a alta temperatura (T H) reservorio.
TH
Q yH
W&
Q yL
TL
1.4.3 Evaluación del desempeño de los ciclos
La evaluación del desempeño de los ciclos: las comparaciones con el ideal Máquina de Carnot que es un motor térmico totalmente
reversible o la bomba.
y
α TQde depósito (escala absoluta)
(1) “eficiencia” ( η) de un motor térmico
QQQW - η& LH
&
= && = = - , < η 0< 1
y &
1 Q QQ
H H HL
10
ciclo de Carnot: Carnot

= - , η
realproceso
< η Carnot
1η TTHL
η Proceso
Real
< 1
irreversibilidades reales:
• La fricción, resistencia eléctrica, la transferencia de calor a través de la diferencia de temperatura finita, ...
(2) “coeficiente de rendimiento” (COP) de una bomba de calor
condiciones de calentamiento (bomba de calor):
TH
ciclo de Carnot: POLICÍA calor,
Carnot
=
- TTLH
condiciones de enfriamiento (refrigeración):
TL
ciclo de Carnot: POLICÍA Carnot,
Enfriar
=
- TTLH
Para el intercambio de energía con las mismas dos depósitos térmicos:
Real
eficiencia de Carnot de una bomba de calor: =
bomba COP y
Q ηCarnot
11
1.5 gas ideal
u
=TMR pv
dónde pags
• la presión del gas, psi, Pa
v • volumen específico, ft 3 / lbm, m 3 / kg, v = 1 / ρ

METRO • masa molecular, lbm / mol, en kg / mol
Ru • constante universal de gas, R u = 1545.32 ft-lbf / (mol o R) = 8314 J / (mol-K)
T • temperatura, o R, K
Definir:
u
=
MRR
dónde R
• constante de los gases específica
aire: R a = 53,34 ft-lbf / (lbm- o R) = agua 287 J / (kg-K): R v = 85.76

ft-lbf / (lbm- o R) = 462 J / (kg-K)
Luego:
pv = RT
12
AE 310 Fundamentos de calefacción, ventilación y aire acondicionado Capitulo 2
Capitulo 2.
Los procesos húmedos propiedades del aire y Aire Acondicionado
2.1 Propiedades del aire y sus húmedas
2.2 Métodos de Medición y Análisis

2.3 Procesos típicos Aire acondicionado
2.4 Características de los sistemas de “real”
2.5 Análisis Psicrométrico de sistemas completos de Lecturas:
• McQuiston y Parker (M & P) Ch 3

• Textos sobre la humedad del aire en la mayoría de los libros de la termodinámica
2.1 Propiedades del aire y sus húmedas
2.1.1 Composición de aire (dos componentes)
la composición del aire seco (fracción de volumen):
Nitrógeno 78.084% los gases de menor importancia 0,003%

Oxígeno 20.948% Vapor de agua
Argón 0,934% El polvo, la niebla, Microbio
Dióxido de carbono 0,031%
2.1.2 Ley de los Gases Ideales
Para el aire seco
RR 1545 . 32
= = = 53.352 (ft - lbf) / (lbm - R) =
METRO
AUA
28 . 965
Para el vapor de agua
RR 1545 . 32
= = = 85.78ft - lbf / (lbm - R) =
METRO
VUV
18 . 02
Los siguientes datos para Atsmophere estándar de EE.UU. son de Handbook ASHARE de Fundamentos (Capítulo 6).
Varias hipótesis se introducen tales como:
La atmósfera se compone de aire seco que se comporta como un gas ideal. (Ver pg.50 en el libro de texto)
1
Referencia P y T son funciones de la altitud. Fórmula para p como función de la elevación Z:

p [psi] = 14.696 (1 a 6,8753 × 10- 6 Z [pies]) 5.2559
p [bar] = 1,013 (1-2,256 × 10- 6 Z [m]) 5.2559
2
Ejemplo
El nivel del mar: p = 14,696 psi, T = 59 o F
3.1.3 Parámetros Fundamentales (1) Presión
La capa de aire por encima de la tierra se forma la presión atmosférica. Presión atmosférica:
• el nivel del mar 14.692 psi
• elevación de 6600 ft, 11.513 psi
(Nota: la presión pulgadas de mercurio)
a, b --- Tabla 3-2 en M & P
presión parcial (Ley de Dalton)
Componente / presión parcial: PPP

= 1
+ 2
+ pags+
3 ...
Ley de Dalton de Gibbs para el aire húmedo:
pags una componente aéreo -dry (constante) p v -vapor componente (cambio con
contenido de humedad)
Nota: Al aplicar la ley de los gases ideales a cada componente de una mezcla (por ejemplo, aire húmedo), debe utilizar la presión parcial para
el componente. Para i componente:
PAGS yo v i = R yo T yo
donde P yo es la presión parcial para i componente.
Ejemplo
Una lbm H 2 O vapor en aire seco 100 lbm a presión normal.

(A) ¿Cuál es p v ¿presión de vapor? (B) ¿Cuál es la saturación T en esta p v?
3
(una) ,
(B) Saturación: estado de máxima concentración para los componentes de la mezcla.
(2) Temperatura
La temperatura es los resultados macro de la cinética molecular. 0 ª ley
de la termodinámica TT una
= si
TT =
si do
⇒ TT ≡
una do
Tabla 2.1 Relaciones entre las diferentes escalas de temperatura
Relación Kelvin (K) Celsius ( ° DO) Fahrenheit Rankine (R)

Entre ( ° F)
Kelvin (K) KC=
o
+ 27315
. 59
K = R
--
Celsius ( ° DO)
o CK
= - 27315
. 5 do 5
= F - 32 () = R - 27315
o o o
do .
-- 9 9
o F = R-459.67
Fahrenheit 9
= + 32
o o
F do
( ° F) 5 --
Rankine (R) 9
R = K
5 --
Ejemplo
temperatura en Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit Rankine
Agua hirviendo 100 ° do 373.15K 212 ° F 617.67 ° R
Ice Point 0°C 273.15K 32 ° F 491.67 ° R
Absolute Zero - 273.15 ° C 0K - 459.67 ° F 0°R
4
AE 310 Fundamentals of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Chapter2
(3) Humidity Ratio, W
v
Definition: W m = ( / drry air
)
m aKg Kg
i.e. 1 kg dry air + w kg water vapor = (1+W) kg moist air
where P is the atmospheric pressure. Because P , thus W p p∝ v << v
(4) Relative Humidity φ
Thermodynamic fluid states
P
P
P
vapor
liquid liquid liquid
T < T sat T = T sat T = T sat

subcooled saturated quality vapor
P
P P
vapor vapor vapor
T = T sat T > T sat T >> T at s

saturated vapor superheated vapor gas
5
p v
p v
φ = × 100% = × 100% p v s,
= ps
p v ,s
p s
p v = partial pressure of the water vapor in the air

p s = partial pressure of the water vapor in a saturated mixture under the same temperature
Dry air: φ= 0% Saturated air: φ= 100%

Difference between W and φ:
p vP
Moist air: W = 0 .622
p − v
p sP
Saturated air: W s
= 0 .622
p − s
W pv P p− P P p− P
= ⋅ =φ⋅
s s
∴
W s
p s
p − v
p − v
W P p− P
φ= v
× 100%
W s
p − s
Since P>> p v and P >>p s
Further
Example
Determine the humidity ratio of moist air at a temperature of 24 ° C and a relative humidity of 50% at a standard
pressure 1atm
Given : T, φ
Find : W
Solution :
(5) Dewpoint Temperature, T d
Td • the saturated temperature of a given mixture at the same pressure and humidity ratio.
6
Example
Find T d of the air in the above example.
Solution :
At the dew point temperature: air mixture φ= 100%
(6) Enthalpy
Enthalpy of the moist air = enthalpy of the dry air + enthalpy of the water vapor Enthalpy is energy
per unit mass.
i = ia+ W iv
i a = C p,a T i v = i g + C p,v T
where
C p,a = specific heat of dry air kJ/(kg o C), Btu/(lb o F)

C p,v = specific heat of water vapor kJ/(kg o C), Btu/(lb o F)
ig = the enthalpy of saturated water vapor at 0 o C or 0 o F.
i g = 2501.3 kJ/kg at 0 o C; i g = 1061.2 Btu/lb at 0 o F.
Therefore, we have
i = C p,a T + W(i g + C p,v T)
Example
Find the enthalpy of the air mixture in the above example.
Solution :
7
2.2 Methods of Measurement and Analysis
2.2.1 Measurement of air temperature
• Liquid-in-glass thermometers
• Thermocouples
2.2.2 Measurement of pressure
• Absolute pressure (vacuum tube with mercury)

• Differential pressure P P
Manometers Pressure
transducer
2.2.3 Measurement of other parameters of moist air
To determine state of moist air, one property in addition to the pressure and temperature must be known. It
can be v, I, φ, or W. However, none of them can be directly measured. As an alternative, we seek an indirect
measuring technique. In this section, the method used to determine air humidity will be introduced.
• Adiabatic saturation device
First we look at a special process:
i a,1 i a,2
W1 W2
i v,1 i v,2
T1 T2
water
Adiabatic saturation device
The equation that describes above process is: 1 st Law
The process is adiabatic, and only flow work is present.:
where 1
= &W&+
a
m m 1 m& a , 2
= &W&+
a
mm 2
m& a , and form mass balance
8
The equation that describe above process becomes:
+ + water air dry added= vapor water

dry + vapor water
vapor
air
( ) in ( in ) ( added ) ( ) out ( out )
so we have
where i fg is enthalpy difference between liquid water and saturated vapor at the temperature T 2
p vP, 2
W2 = 0 .622
p − v ,2
Then the state of moist are can be determined. T 2 is called wet-bulb
temperature.
Example
Find W and φ of the above adiabatic saturation device.
Given : P=1.01325 × 10 5 Pa, T 1= 30 ° C, T 2= 26 ° C
Find : W 1 , φ 1
Solution :
Since the state 2 is in saturation, from the Table A-1b (McQuiston & Paker, p587), we can find:
for T 2 = 26 ° C, p v,2 = p s = 0.03363 × 10 5 ( φ= 100%), i fg = 2439.1 kJ/kg, i w= 109.07 kJ/kg

for T 1 = 30 ° C, i v,1 = 2555.3 kJ/kg
1) Find W 1
9
2) Find φ 1
p v,
φ = × 100
%
p s1 1
p v,1 can be found via
From Table A-1b
• The Psychrometer
Psychrometer T WB used in place of T 2 for practical humidity measurement.
In wet-bulb, heat transfer from air → bulb
T dry ∆ T
p+T DB+ T WB => Moist air state
T WB
Key issues to measure T WB
• Wet bulb unshielded

• Wet bulb well ventilated (V>100 fpm) For
thermocouples V could be lower. Then the accuracy is in
order of 0.27 o C (0.5 o F).
10
2.2.4 The psychrometric chart
(1) Selection of the Coordinates
Horizontal coordinate • Enthalpy (155 °)

Vertical coordinate • Humidity Ratio (2) Dry Bulb
Temperature
= 1. T i + 01
W 2501 ( . +1 3. 86 T ) (SI Unit)
= ⇒ T ∝ Wi
const
Isothermal lines are not parallel.
(3) Relative Humidity
φ p , P W W− p v
W = 0. 622 φ = × 100
%
−Pφ p vsv
,s s
−
P p s
Under a certain P, W = ( ,
) p p, sf
vsv
= T( f)
From P587 Table A-1b. find W-T relationship

W
Approximately φ ≈ × 100% (equal division)
Ws
11
(4) Specific Volume

1 1
v = =
ρ ρa + ρv
ρa + ρ v = p a
R a T + pR
v v T
= R p T vp
v
+
aa R v
(5) Wet-Bulb Temperature
12
i = (C p,a + W C p,v) T wet + W x 2501 when T wet = const, linear relationship
i = (C p,a + W C p,v) T wet + W x 2501 + W i w when φ ≠ 100% (6) Sensible Heat
/Total Heat
Enthalpy/Humidity ratio
See figure: Primary moist air parameter on the psychrometric chart.
For specific pressure:
Repeat the previous problem

T DB by using the psychrometric chart. W, T DP
C ,T = 26 C
o
Given : T = 30
o
dry wet
Find : Primary moist air parameter on psychrometric chart Solution:
From the psychrometric chart (SI Unit)

i, T WB
φ W = 0.01971 φ ≈ 74%
v
i = 81 kJ / Kg v = 0.885 m 3 / Kg T dewpo int = 24.7 o C
13
Example
Repeat the previous problem by using the psychrometric chart.
C ,T = 26 C
o
Given : T = 30
o
dry wet
Find : Primary moist air parameter on psychrometric chart Solution:
14
2.3 Typical Air-Conditioning Process
Typical Air-Conditioning processes are:
• Sensible Heating / Cooling

• Cooling and dehumidification
• Heating and humidification
• Adiabatic Humidification
• Adiabatic Mixing of Air
Governing equations:
STATE is a point, and PROCESS (sequence of states) is a line on the Chart. Process may
involve:
• Sensible Heat (change T DB, constant W)
• Latent Heat (constant T DB, change W)
• Both
2.3.1 Sensible heating and cooling

Q&
m&a
W1
T1
i1
On the psychrometric chart
Energy conservation (1 st
∆i Law)
= −2 1
= C i ipq(
T −2 T 1 ) .
heating
W1= W2
cooling 1 2 1
15
Example
Determine the energy (heat flux) required for sensible heating of air at 15 ° C and 50% RH to 32 ° C. Also find φ 2.
Given : State 1: 15 ° C, RH=50%, State 2: 32 ° C

Find : q&, φ2
Solution :
Heat Flux:
Relative humidity:
From the psychrometric chart (the process is a horizontal line): Heat flux is
Relative humidity:
How to check if W is constant, i.e. no latent heat?
16
2.3.2 Cooling and dehumidification
Q&
m&a
W1
T1
i1
m&w
iw
Moisture is removed as saturated liquid.
A 1
cooling
2 B
where i w • water enthalpy
& ( 1 −m ) i
WW is normally small
a 2 W
Sensible heat:
&sensible = p
2 T( T C −
q 1
)
Latent heat
&latent = ( W W2q− 1
)i fg
17
Example
Air at 60% RH, T dry = 30 ° C, Cooled to 18 ° C. Determine φ new, q sensible, q latent
Solution :
φnew= 100%, from the psychrometric chart, we can find
By using the formula
Q&S
Sensible Heat Factor ( SHF) is Q
&
Defines process slope on the chart. Use protractor (semicircular scale) in the upper left hand corner to read the
sensible heat factor.
18
2.3.3 Heating and humidification

Q
m&a
W1
T1
i1
m w, i w
A
1
enthalpy
- > Look at the semicircular scale in the psychrometric chart. Defines the
humidity
ratio
process slope.
For adiabatic humidification, then
Q& = 0
i2- i1= ∆ W iw
W2- W1= ∆ W
Since i w of the water is rather small, i 2

≈ i1
19
Example
In Phoenix, it is possible to use evaporative cooling in summer. In a room of 50 m 3, the air temperature is 45 o C and
relative humidity is 20%. Comfort standard allows the relative humidity to be increased to 60% by evaporative cooling.
Determine the dry bulb temperature and water needed if there is no internal heat source and no air infiltration. Assume
local pressure is 101325 Pa.
Solution :
This is an adiabatic humidification process. The air process in a psychrometric chart is iso- enthalpy. For the
psychrometric chart, we can determine the starting humidity ratio and ending humidity ratio as
2.3.4 Other Humidity Process
Steam
Hot water
Super-heated steam
Adiabatic
20
∆
For humidification: =
i w ∆W i
Adiabatic humidification: i =i
w f
at T WB, process = const i .
Hot water: i <i

w g
at T DB, process T DB ↓
Saturated steam: i =i
w g
at T DB, process T DB
=
const .
Super-heated steam: i >i

w g
at T DB, process T DB ↑
21
2.3.5 Adiabatic Mixing of Air
m& 1 m& 3
i1 i3
W1 W3
m& 2 i 2 W 2
3
2
Eliminate m&3 , We obtain
& ( − ) m=i i m
32311
& ( − i i2 )
& ( − )W=m W& W( m
32311
−W ) 2
so
&mm −3 i i2 −3 W
1
= W i i= 2
&
2
−1 3
W− 1W 3
Example
Return air at 25 ° C, 50% relative humidity and flowing at a rate of 5 m 3/ s is mixed with outside air at 35 ° C and 60%
relative humidity and flowing at a rate of 1.25 m 3/ s. Determine the mixed air condition and flow rate.
Given : T 1, T 2, φ 1, φ 2, Q 1( V 1), Q 2( V 2)
Find : T 3, φ 3, W 3, m 3
22
Solution :
From the psychrometric chart ( ASHRAE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART NO.1[sea level], chart 1 b), we can determine the point 1 and
2
Return Air Outdoor Air

i1 ( kJ/kg) 50.8 90.5
W1 ( kg water/kg dry air) 0.010 0.0215
v1 ( m 3/ kg dry air) 0.858 0.902
then we find the mass flow rates:
and the enthalpy, etc.:
23
2.4 Characteristics of “Real” Systems
2.4.1 Design conditions
The processes described in the previous chapter are used to condition moist air in a real air- conditioning systems. The
AC system is used to remove both sensible and latent heat from a space. Relationship between sensible and latent heat
is defined as SHF ( sensible heat factor).
Sensible loads :
Latent loads:
Sensible and Latent loads:
Example
Dishwasher (100 dishes/h): sensible 167 W (570 Btu/h), and latent 65 W (220 Btu/h) Person (male, moderate office
work): sensible 70 W (250 Btu/h), and latent 30 W (105 Btu/h) Light bulb: sensible 100 W = 341 Btu/h
AC system provides airflow:

• at certain T to meet sensible loads
• at certain W to meet latent loads
where T supply
and W must
supply
give sensible and latent conditioning proportional to the loads.
Condition line represents line in the psychrometric chart through space conditions with the slope defined by SHF.
This line contains all feasible supply air states. Supply farther from space condition => Smaller mass flow required
Design condition is defined by:
• dry bulb temperature,

• humidity and
• pressure.
Design condition + SHF + T supply

=> Fix mass flow and supply air condition
Example
24
Space design condition is 72 o F and 50% RH. The total cooling load is 1,200,000 Btu/hr (100ton), and the sensible cooling
load is 720,000 Btu/hr (60 ton). Compare flow rates for (a) ∆ T
= 10 o F and (b) ∆ T = 20 o F. ∆ = ( space T T−T supply
)
1 ton= 12,000 Btu/h
Solution:
Construct condition line by using the protractor.
m&a T DB= 72 o F
φ = 50%
Q& sensible = 720 , 000

Btu/hr
2
Q& total = 1, 200 , 000
Btu/hr
m&a
25
2.4.2 Analysis of the single zone system
T DB= 72 o F
φ = 50%
RA
6
= 1. × Btu
10 2Q& / h
=
SHF . 8
0
Cooling
Coil
OA MA SA
Q&CC
Example
Cooling design conditions for OA are 16,262 cfm and 90 o F db/72 o F wb. Design space cooling load is 1,200,000 Btu/h
(80% sensible). Supply air temperature is 55 o F. Determine (a) supply airflow rate and (b) cooling coil load.
Solution:
Plot known state on psych chart: OA, SA, and RA.
Assumption of perfect mixing => RA is equal to room air conditions => i RA= 26.4 Btu/lbm
OA: i A= 35.6 Btu/lbm, v OA= 14.1 ft 3/ lbm SA: i SA= 21.2
Btu/lbm, v SA= 13.1 ft 3/ lbm
(a) Flow rate
26
(b) Cooling coil load
27
2.4.3 Component characteristics
Fan Heat Gain
Due to irreversibility, i.e. friction, fan contributes to sensible heat gain, and increases temperature of moist
air.
m&a
Fan
m&a
T out
T in
P Fan
where − & W ≡P , therefore = +

Fan
m aPFanT&inToutc
p
Example
A 1.5 kW fan moves 1m 3/ s of dry air entering at 15 o C. What is T out?
Solution:
Duct and Plenum Heat Gain
Plenum heat gains: lights; hot pipes.
Ducted supply/return: convection in hot spaces; “sweating” on cool duct surfaces.
28
Example
Space conditioning
(conditioning line)
Fan & supply duct Return plenum Return fan
Cooling Coils
Cooling coil are indirect contact heat exchangers. Different types:

• Air-to-Water
• Air-to-Refrigerants
Air is outside, and liquid is inside the tubes. Air-side --- fins promote heat
transfer (larger area) Water-side --- shape promotes heat transfer (higher
turbulence)
For an ideal coil: T DB = T coil, mean

φ = 100%
For a real coil: T DB > T coil, mean

φ < 100%
29
Approximate methods for rough estimate of cooling coil condition:

• fixed relative humidity (assume coil leaving RH, say 90%)
• bypass factor “ b” ( assume fraction of flow bypasses the coil, reminder in perfect contact with coil)
where LA-air leaving the coil, EA - air entering coil, ADP - coil (apparatus) dew point
Example:
A chilled water coil with 8 o C entering water conditions air from 26 o C db/ 19 o C wb to 15 o C db/ 14 o C wb. What are T ADP, b,
and leaving relative humidity?
Solution:
30
Evaporative Cooling
If sufficiently dry air is available, an evaporative process can be used to cool the air stream.
Direct evaporative coolers (see Figure) add moisture to air adiabatically. The evaporation uses air sensible heat => T air drops.
Direct Evaporative Cooler
Direct evaporative cooling effectives:
where ε e varies with air flow rate and media thickness. Range is 60-95%. Typical value is 80%.
Unassisted Direct Evaporative Cooling
Applicable if the wet bulb temperature is less than 24 o C (75 o F). Regional applicability is limited in U.S.:
• the western U.S.

• the north central states
• the northeastern U.S.
May require large supply airflow rates. May give high space humidity at times.
31
Indirect evaporative cooling is sensible process of cooling an outdoor air stream without humidifying (sensible
cooling).
Primary Indirect Cooler

Air Heat Exchanger Supply Air
Secondary
Air
Direct
Cooler
Indirect evaporative cooling effectives:
Range is 40-80%.
Benefits of evaporative cooling:

large savings possible, “environmentally friendly”, inexpensive for direct cooling.
Problems of evaporative cooling:
may not meat peak loads, may increase duct size, may allow wider variation of humidity, potential microbial
growth problems.
Example of a system that extends application of direct and indirect coolers. The system better control humidity by
combining evaporative and mechanical cooling, and increase energy efficiency by including an economizer.
Heating and Humidification Systems
32
Humidification types: wetted media, heated pan, atomizer and steam.
2.4.3 Off-Design Conditions
In operation, the cooling or heating loads are only a part of the design loads. HVAC system needs to respond to this
lower demand, and some of the strategies are:
• CAV-RH (Constant Air Volume)
• VAV-RH (Variable Air Volume)
• Face and bypass coil
• Economizer
• Variable T for the heat exchangers
Analyze these processes by the same methods as design conditions. Problems for cooling systems: thermostat
controls T DB, and therefore humidity correct only at design (in general). As a result, space humidity varies with loads,
and may need to iterate to space conditions. This is not a problem for heating conditions. CAV-RH
33
• same flow rate and W as design conditions, variable T DB

• good control at part loads
VAV-RH
• lower flow rate in proportion to the sensible loads
• same coil dewpoint temperature => less dehumidification Face and
bypass coil
• bypass fraction is proportional to sensible loads
• no dehumidification of bypassed air => supply humidity is proportional to bypass fract.
Face and Bypass Coil
Economizer
• used in spring or fall
• supplies outdoor air without operating a cooling coil; potential humidity problems
• limit is 100% outdoor air; control humidity rise with reheat
Return Air
Temperature
Economizer
Enthalpy
B
Economizer Room
D
enthalpy
RA C
line
A
C: RA Economizer is off => lost cooling opportunity D: RA

Economizer is on => energy penalty results
No reliable, durable and inexpensive enthalpy sensor for the enthalpy economizer.
2.5 Psychrometric Analysis of Complete Systems
34
Space Heating and Cooling Loads
Heating Load • the maximum probable net rate of heat loss from a conditioned space
which would have to be made up by addition of heat from the heating system to maintain some desired
temperature and humidity conditions in the space
Cooling Load • for cooling
Example:
Cooling and heating load of a classroom at PSU with 10 occupants are estimated as follows: Sensible
Cooling (W) Heating (W)

Walls 1000 2000
Window (conduction) 1000 2000
Window (radiation) 1000 -
People: 70 W/person 700 -
Lighting 300 -
Latent Cooling (W) Heating (W)

People 30 W/person 300 -
Plants 700
Outdoor Design Conditions

T 31 o C - 14 o C
T wet 23 o C -
Indoor Design Conditions

T 25 o C 22 o C
φ 50% 50%
Minimum Outdoor Air

Fresh air: 8 L/s person 80 L/s 80 L/s
Air Supply Temperatures

Maximum 60 o C
Minimum 15 o C
Design the air-conditioning system.
35
Solution (Summer cooling conditions):
50%
0.80
C
R
I
OM
15C 25C 31C
M C I
O Q- Q+
Determine the enthalpy at all the status. We use the psych chart in sea level, p = 101325 Pa. Outdoor (O): T o = 31 o C,
T o,wet = 23 o C
From Table A-1b, p s,wet = 2815 Pa W o,wet = 0.622
p s,wet/( p - p s,wet)
= 0.622 x 2815/(101325 - 2815) =0.0178 kg v/ kg a
CW ) +
( W, T T − ,
i fg
1. 31−23 ( )
01 + 0. × 2447
0178
wet o o wet o p o
= = =0.0144 kg v/ kg a
−o i iw − 96
2558
i o = 1.01T o + W o( 2501 + 1.86T o)

= 1.01 kJ/(kg a o C) x 31 o C
+ 0.0144 kg v/ kg a( 2501 kJ/kg v+ 1.86 kJ/(kg v o C) x 31 o C) = 68.15 kJ/kg a
Room (R): T R = 25 o C, φ =50%

From Table A-1B, p s,R = 3174 Pa W R = 0.622
φ p s,R/( p - φ p s,R)
= 0.622 x 0.5 x 3174 /(101325 -3174) = 0.01 kg v/
kg a
i R = 1.01T R + W R( 2501 + 1.86T R)
= 1.01 kJ/(kg a o C) x 25 o C
+ 0.01 kg v/ kg a( 2501 kJ/kg v+ 1.86 kJ/(kg v o C) x 25 o C) = 50.72 kJ/kg a
36
4000 W
Mixture (M): m a = Q sensible
Cp( TR− TI)= 1.01 x 1000 3 J / kg a( 25 o C − 15 o C) = 0.396 kg / s
m o = 80 L/s = 80x10- 3 m 3/ s x 1.2 kg a/ m 3 = 0.096 kg a/ s m R = m a - m o = 0.396

- 0.096 = 0.3 kg a/ s
0.096 × 68.15 + 0.3 × 50.72
iM= moio+ mRiR = = 54.95 kJ / kg
mo+ mR 0.096 + 0.3
Supply air at the inlet (I): T I = 15 o C

∆ W = m a( W R - W I) = Q latent/ i fg
W I = W R - Q latent/( i fg m a )=
= 0.01kg v/ kg a - 1 kW /(2454 kJ/kg v x 0.396 kg a/ s ) = 0.009 kg v/ kg a
i I = 1.01T I + W I( 2501 + 1.86T I)
= 1.01 x 15 + 0.009(2501 + 1.86 x 15) = 37.91
kJ/kg a
Cooling coil (C): φ = 90% W c = W I = 0.009
kg v/ kg a
W C = 0.622 p C
p − pC
pC
0.009 = 0.622
101325 − p C
p C= 1447.5 Pa p s,C = p C / φ = 1447.5 / 0.9= 1608

Pa From Table A1-b, T C = 14 o C i C = 1.01T C + W C(
2501 + 1.86T C)
= 1.01 x 14 + 0.009 (2501 + 1.86 x 14) = 36.88

kJ/kg a
3/ kg = 0.332 m 3/ s = 1200 m 3/ hr
Fan: = m&a v = 0.396 kg/s x 0.84 m V&
Cooling coil: Q cooling = m&a (i M - i C) = 0.396 kg a/ s (54.95 kJ/kg a - 36.88 kJ/kg a)

= 7.156 kW
Heating coil: Q heating = m&a (i I - i C) = 0.396 kg a/ s (37.91 kJ/kg a - 36.88 kJ/kg a)

= 0.4 kW
The capacity of the heating coil will be larger in winter. Therefore, the final size of the equipment should be the
greater of the summer and winter capacities. In many cases, economizers are used to recover energy. Then
re-heat in the present design becomes unnecessary.
37
Chapter 3 Design Conditions
3.1 Outdoor design conditions

3.2 Indoor design conditions
Readings: Chapter 4 and pp. 191-192 of the text

Chapters 7, 8, 9, 12, 13 & 26 of ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals, 1997 ASHRAE
62-1999: IAQ Standard ASHRAE 55-1992: Thermal Comfort Standard
3.1 Outdoor Design Conditions
3.1.1 Winter design conditions
Use Table B-1 in the textbook or Table 1A of ASHRAE Fundamental Handbook Chapter26.
The 99.6% and 99% indicate the risk level desired. When 99% is selected, it means the outdoor temperatures
have been equaled or exceeded by 99% of the total number of hours in a year (8760 hrs).
99.6% (0.4%) ~ 35 hrs

99.0% (1.0%) ~ 88 hrs
98.0 (2.0%) ~ 175 hrs
95.0 (5.0%) ~ 438 hrs Design
conditions - Column 2 Wind - Column
3
Peak load for infiltration - Columns 4 and 5
ASHRAE Handbook 1997 and the textbook use annual percentiles of 99.6% and 99%. Design rule of
thumb: design outdoor relative humidity in winter 60%
3.1.2 Summer design conditions
Use Table B-1 in the textbook or Table 1B in ASHRAE Fundamental Handbook Chapter26.
DB is dry-bulb temperature and MWB is the mean-coincident-wet-bulb temperature. The

0.4%, 1% and 2% mean the percentile of the total hours may not meet indoor design conditions. Design conditions -
Column 2 Cooling towers - Column 3 Peak moisture load - Column 4
1
2
3.2 Indoor Design Conditions
Indoor air quality (IAQ):
defines safety and comfort effect of contaminants on indoor environment.
Thermal Comfort:
defines effects of temperature, humidity, air motion on perceived quality of surrounding
Noise level:
Space type Noise Criteria (NC)

Radio and TV broadcasting rooms NC 20-30
Theaters, concert halls, meeting rooms NC 20-30
Private offices NC 35
Gymnasiums NC 40-50
Workshops NC 45-70
Pressure:
p room - p environment = 5-10 Pa
3
3.2.1 Indoor air quality
Good IAQ: a clean, healthy, and odor-free indoor environment. “Sick Building Syndrome”
(SBS) is discomfort/illness caused by indoor air. SBS is often comparable to a cold or
influenza
A few facts about poor IAQ:
Health problems: 30 – 70 million people (U.S. EPA) Health complaints: 30% new
and remodeled buildings (U.S. EPA) Occupational illness: 439,000 cases in 1996
(NIOSH) Economic loss: $40 – 120 billion/year ($200-600/person.year)
Causes of sickness:
• COx, NOx and other common gases (human, combustion)

• Environmental tobacco smoke ETS (smoking)
• Volatile organic compounds VOC
(building materials: construction materials, furnishings, finishes)
• Particulate matters (outdoor air, activities, ETS)
• Biohazards (molds, bacteria, etc.)
• Radon (soil)
Contaminants Sources Permitted level Health effects

CO 2 Human, combustion 1000 ppm 15 Stuffing Body
CO Combustion, ETS ppm 100 µ g/m chemistry Irritation,
SO x Combustion Combustion asthma Not very clear
3
NO x Soil Lung cancer
Ra 4 picocuries/l
VOCs Combustion, pesticides, 0.1 ppm Eyes and mucous
(Formaldehyde) building materials, etc. membrane irritation
Particulate Lung diseases

(0.01 micro-insects) Outdoor air,
activities, ETS, Cancer (ETS)
furnishings, pets, etc
The following diagram illustrates the buildup of indoor carbon dioxide (due to occupant exhalation) throughout
a normal day:
4
Carbon Dioxide Concentration Results

(ppm)
250-350 normal outdoor ambient air
600 minimal air quality complaints
600-1000 effect on indoor air quality is less clearly interpreted
1000 indicates inadequate ventilation; indoor air quality complaints
are more widespread
Common Causes of Poor Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
Tight buildings (Energy conservation)=>

=>Less outdoor air (Infiltration) =>
=>High contaminant concentrations (New building materials release VOCs)
Numerous indoor air quality investigations over the last decade by the National Institute for Occupational Safety &
Health (NIOSH) have found the primary source of indoor air quality problems are:
• Inadequate ventilation 52%

• Contaminant from inside the building 16%
• Contaminant from outside the building 10%
• Microbial contamination 5%
• Contamination from building fabric 4%
• Unknown Sources 13%
Control of contaminants
New parameters
• Supply air - Total air supplied to a space

• Fresh air - Outdoor air
• Infiltration - Uncontrolled air entered to a space
• Exfiltration - Uncontrolled air left a space
5
For mechanical ventilated space, infiltration should be zero because of positive pressure in the conditioned space.
Ventilation
Most common method for contaminant control is ventilation. Ventilation can be either natural or forced. Ventilation
dilutes contaminants with outdoor air, and requirements are defined by state/local codes and referenced standards.
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999:
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
Defines:
• Acceptable outdoor air quality
• Procedure for acceptable ventilation
1. Ventilation Rate Procedure
Fixed OA requirements:
• Per person/per m 2
• Varies with occupancy type
The standard prescribes the rate at which outdoor air must be delivered to a space. Example: Office
space 8 l/(s person) (15 cfm/person). Basis:
• Presumed CO 2 concentration < 1000 ppm

• Sufficient outdoor air to remove odors The standard uses CO 2 as indicator of IAQ since CO 2 is “marker”
for human contaminants. Typical quantities 8-10 l/(s person) (15-20 cfm/person)
2. Indoor Air Quality Procedure
This procedure limits measured contaminant concentrations. Must sense
specific contaminants. Ventilation rate procedure predominates. Pros:
Cons:
• Prescriptive • May fail off-design with VAV
• Low capital cost • Energy cost
6
Perfect dilution (Steady State Ventilation Conditions)
“Well-Mixed Spaces”:
• Perfect mixing of supply/space
• Exhaust at mixed condition
• Constant contaminant generation rate
• Fixed supply flow rate and conditions Mass
balance for contaminants: Mass IN + Generation = Mass OUT
VC - Supply air flow rate (m a3/ s)

CS - Contaminant concentration of the supplied air (m c3/ m a3)
NC - Contaminant sources generated within the space (m c3/ s)
CR - Average contaminant concentration in the room (m c3/ m a3), ( ppm = 10- 6 × m c3/ m a3)
V C , CS
Room
CR
N V C , CR
Example
In a French home, the CO 2 concentration in a bedroom was 4000 ppm. The bedroom size is 12 m 2 and room height 2.5
m. Find the air change rate if two occupants were in the bedroom. Suppose that the outdoor CO 2 level was 300 ppm and
a person breathes out 0.30 L/min. CO 2.
Solution:
Air change rate - ACH (Air Change rate per Hour):
ACH = V C / ( Room volume) = 9.72 m 3/ hr / ( 12 m 2 x 2.5 m ) = 0.324 ACH
7
Ventilation with Recalculation (Single Space)
If outdoor air is mixed with the return air, the supply contaminant concentration has to be determined form the
contaminant balance for the mixing process.
VCR
Room
RV C R CR
V C O, C O VCS
Steady state: V C S = V C R, RV C S = RV C R, V C O = ( 1-R) V C S
Mass balance: V C S C R = V C O C O + RV C R C R + N C = ( 1-R) V C S C O + RV C S C R + N C
Space concentration:
For a single space: R=>0 minimum concentration R=>1

concentration => ∞
System Serving Multiple Spaces
HVAC systems are usually serving multiple spaces that have different requirements for airflow rate of fresh air. The
airflow rate requirements for the fresh (outdoor) air V are
O, i
determined
from Table 2 (Standard 62) that is presented as Table 4-5 in the textbook (M&P).
A total supply flow rate for each space VD

S, i
is defined from heating/cooling load.
VD O,
Fraction of outdoor air OA in supply is defined as:
VD S, ii
A Critical Space has outdoor air fraction “ Z ”:

V O,
Z ≡
V S, ii
MAX
Z is the maximum fraction of OA required.
8
VCR
RV C R Space 1 Space 2 Space n
V O,1 V O,2 V O, n
V S,1 V S,2 V S, n
VCO VCS
An average fraction of OA for all spaces “ X ” is:
Supply OA fraction X => Some spaces under-ventilated
Supply OA fraction Z => No space under-ventilated

Most spaces over-ventilated Energy
wasted
For over-ventilated space:

• Airflow rate of fresh air is higher than required
• “Unused” fresh air returns to AHU
Define “corrected” OA fraction “ Y ” as:
V OC
Y ≡
VS
Y is OA fraction that accounts for “unused” fresh air. Fresh air
balance:
• Return and supply flows are equal
• Recirculated fraction is R
9
Critical space is satisfied if:
Required OA fraction = Z (critical space)
“Unused” OA in return = (Z-X) VS
Recirculated fraction of return:
V - V
OC V
S
R =≡ 1 − Y
S
Recirculated OA = Z(R X ) S
V −1= − Y ( ) Z−
( X )VS
Critical space is satisfied if:
OC
V+ 1 Y( ) Z (− −X ) S
=V Z VS
+ (1 ) (X Z−Y−Y ) = Z
“Multiple Spaces Equation”:
The equation is used to calculate the corrected fraction of outdoor air that takes into account fraction of the
recirculated fresh air. In some cases, the saving are significant if we compare Y and Z.
Example
Four spaces are air-conditioned from a central AHU. The following table gives airflow rates for supply air and fresh air:
Spaces 1 2 3 4 Total
Supply air [cfm] 500 400 600 500 2000
Fresh air [cfm] 200 80 80 75 435
Fresh/Supply 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.15 0.22
Calculate the required OA fraction?
10
Solution:
Average fraction of OA:

OA fraction for the critical space 1:
Corrected fraction of OA: The required flow
rate of OA is Notice:
X < Y <Z 435 cfm < 540

cfm < 800 cfm
Standard 62-1999 recognizes transients, i.e. high occupancy/low use spaces such as conference rooms. If the peak
occupancy is used to determine required flow rate of OA, calculated Y is unnecessary high.
To compensate, may:
• Ventilate based on average occupancy
• Lag ventilation start
• Control OA with CO 2 concentration
Removal of Contaminants
Air Cleaner can take place in ducts or in spaces.
Gas and odor removal
Absorption (solid/liquid absorbers, air washer) Adsorption

(activated charcoal filters) Chemisorption (by chemical
reaction)
e.g.: UV+TiO 2 photocatalytic oxidization of VOCs
Particulate removal by filtering
Particles:
Size and shape Specific
gravity Concentration
Electrical properties
11
Air cleaners
Types: Fibrous media unit filter
Renewable media filter
Electronic air cleaners
Combination air cleaners Filter
Efficiency
ε
CO CS
Air-flow resistance (loss of total P at a given flow rate) –operating costs

∆ P ~ V2
Filtration can reduce OA (outdoor air) requirement. System with

recirculation should use filters.
Media Filtration HEPA Filters Activated Carbon UV Photocatalytic

Adsorption Oxidation
Odors ×
×× ×
××
VOCs ×
×× ×
××
Bio-Aerosols ×
×× ×
××
Dust ×
×× ×
××
12
Example
GivenN , C 0, V 0, V R
Find C R
ε
V 0+ V R,
V 0, C 0 CM
CR
V 0+ V R, N
CS
V 0, C R V 0+ V R, C R
Solution:
For the room (mass conservation):
(1)
For the filter:
(2)
For the mixing:
(3)
(2)+(3):
V CR 0V C+ C
= 0S
R
− ε) (4)
(1 V V
+0 R
(1)+(4):
ε) (1 C V−C + N
= (5)
00R +V V ε R0
13
3.2.2 Thermal comfort
“That condition of mind in which satisfaction is expressed with the thermal environment.” ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 55-1992:
Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
The following gives a few facts about human beings:
• Heat generated from a human body:
• Human body temperature:
• One would wake up from sleep if this person loses 24 W or more. In this case, the skin temperature decreases
2.8 o C.
• One would feel uncomfortable or sick, if the person’s body temperature is 1 K higher.
Human body energy equation
Human body obeys the first law of thermodynamics. Energy balance for human body: Heat production –
Mechanical work = Heat losses
M - Rate of metabolic heat production (W/m 2 body surface area) (Table 4-1, textbook) W - Rate of
mechanical work Q - Heat losses
C - Convective heat losses R -

Radiative heat losses E -
Evaporative heat losses sk - Skin
res - Respiration
Heat production: measured in metabolic or met units.

1 met = 58.2 W/m 2 = 18.4 Btu/(h ⋅ ft 2) body surface area
14
15
Environmental and personal comfort variables
Environmental factors
Air temperature ~
Relative humidity ~
Air velocity near a human body, V ~
Surface temperature of the enclosure and other objects ~
Personal factors
Activity (rate of metabolic)

Clothing (insulation)
1 clo = 0.88 F-ft2-hr/Btu
Determination of individual heat loss/gain
W = Active work and shivering (involuntary work) (W/m 2 body area)
M = Rate of metabolic heat production (W/m 2)

(M is given in Table 4-1 of the textbook. 1 met = 58.2 W/m 2 body area) C sk
= h c ( T cloth - T air) A cloth/ A body (W/m 2 body area)
h c = 2.38 (T cloth - T air)0.25 when 2.38 (T cloth - T air)0.25 > 12.1 V 0.5
h c = 12.1 V 0.5 when 2.38 (T cloth - T air)0.25 < 12.1 V 0.5
T cloth = 35.7 - 0.0275 (M - W) - R cloth {( M - W)

- 3.05 [ 5.73 - 0.007 (M - W) - p v]
- 0.42 [ (M - W) - 58.15] - 0.0173 M (5.87 - p v)
- 0.0014 M (34 - T air)}
A body = 0.202 m 0.425 l 0.725 (m 2)

m - Body weight (kg) l - Height (m) A cloth/ A body = f(Garment
insulation value) = 1.0 + 0.3 I cl
R cloth = Cloth thermal resistance (m 2 K/ W) R cloth = 0.155

I cl
1 clo = 0.155 m 2 K/W I cl can be found in Table 8, Chapter 8 of ASHRAE Fundamentals,
1997.
16
R sk = σ ε cloth ε enclosure [ ( T cloth + 273 ) 4 - ( T enclosure + 273 ) 4] A cloth/ A body
σ - Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x10- 8 W/m 2 K 4)

ε - Emittance (a value between 0 and 1) R sk = 3.96x10- 8 [ ( T cloth + 273 ) 4 - ( T enclosure + 273
) 4] A cloth/ A body
(W/m 2)
E sk = m sk i fg
= 3.05 [ 5.73 - 0.007 (M - W) - p v]
+ 0.42 [ (M - W) - 58.15] (W/m 2)
p v - Vapor pressure (kPa) C res
= m res C p,a ( T res - T air)

= 0.0014 M (34 - T air) (W/m 2)
E res = m res i fg
= 0.0173 M (5.87 - p v) (W/m 2)
Note: Body energy balance ≠ Always thermally comfort

Thermal comfort = Always body energy balance
Only in a limited range of environmental parameters, thermal comfort can be achieved.
Prediction of thermal comfort
• Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)
+3 hot
+ 2 warm
+1 slightly warm
PMV = 0 neutral
-1 slightly cool
-2 cool
-3 cold
L - Thermal load on the body

L = Internal heat production - heat loss to the actual environment
17
• Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) PPD = 100 - 95 exp [ -
(0.03353 PMV 4 + 0.2179 PMV 2)]
PMV PPD
0 5%
± 0.5 10%
± 1.0 25%
Example:
The environmental parameters in an office are: T air = 25 o C

T wall = 25 o C
p v = 2500 Pa h c = 3 W/m 2 K
m person = 70 kg l person = 1.86 m
I cl, person = 1.0 clo (Business suit) Determine the
comfort level in the office. Solution:
From Table 4-1 of the textbook (or handouts), M = 60 W/m 2

Since T air is 25 o C and person does not do physical work, W = 0. R cloth = 0.155 I =
0.155 x 1.0 = 0.155 m 2 K/W A body = 0.202 m 0.425 l 0.725
= 0.202 x 70 0.425 x 1.86 0.725 = 1.927 m 2
A cloth/ A body = 1.0 + 0.3 I = 1.0 + 0.3 x 1.0 = 1.3 T cloth = 35.7 -
0.0275 (M - W) - R cloth {( M - W)
- 3.05 [ 5.73 - 0.007 (M - W) - p v]
- 0.42 [ (M - W) - 58.15] - 0.0173 M (5.87 - p v)
- 0.0014 M (34 - T air)}
= 35.7 - 0.0275 x (60 -0) - 0.155{(60 - 0)
- 3.05 [ 5.73 - 0.007 (60 - 0) - 2.5]
- 0.42 [ (60 - 0) - 58.15] - 0.0173 x 60 (5.87 - 2.5)
- 0.0014 x 60 (34 - 25)} =
26.86 o C C sk
= h c ( T cloth - T air) A cloth/ A body

= 3 x (26.85 - 25) x 1.3 =
7.254 W/m 2
18
R sk = 3.96x10- 8 [ ( T cloth + 273 ) 4 - ( T enclosure + 273 ) 4] A cloth/ A body

= 3.96x10- 8 [( 26.86 + 273) 4 - ( 25+273) 4] x 1.3 = 10.23 W/m 2
E sk = 3.05 [ 5.73 - 0.007 (M - W) - p v]

+ 0.42 [ (M - W) - 58.15] = 3.05 [ 5.73 -
0.007 (60 - 0) - 2.5]
+ 0.42 [ (60 - 0) - 58.15] =
9.348 W/m 2
C res = 0.0014 M (34 - T air)

= 0.0014 x 60 (34 - 25) =
0.756 W/m 2
E res = 0.0173 M (5.87 - p v)

= 0.173 x 60 ( 5.87 - 2.5 ) = 3.50
W/m 2
L = M - W - [( C sk + R sk + E sk ) + ( C res + E res )]
= 60 - 0 - [( 7.254 + 10.23 + 9.348) + (0.756 + 3.5)] = 29 W/m 2
PMV = [0.303 exp ( -0.036 M ) + 0.028 ] L

= [0.303 exp ( -0.036 x 60 ) + 0.028 ] x 29 = 1.825
=> Warm
PPD = 100 - 95 exp [ - (0.03353 PMV 4 + 0.2179 PMV 2)]

= 100 - 95 exp [ - (0.03353 x 1.825 4 + 0.2179 x 1.825 2)]
= 68%
19
20
ASHRAE comfort zone
• Operative temperature (T o)
• Effective temperature (ET*)
• ASHRAE comfort zone
Operative temperature (T o):
T mrt - Mean radiant temperature T mrt = Σ A i T
i/ Σ Ai
T i - Surface temperature of enclosure i A i - Area of

surface i
Effective temperature (ET*):
The temperature of an environment at 50% relative humidity that results in the same total (sensible + latent)
heat loss from the skin as in the actual environment. It combines operative temperature and humidity into a single index.
ASHRAE comfort zone (Fig. 4-2):
The “comfort zone” represents combinations of air temperature and relative humidity that most often produce comfort for
a seated North American adult in shirtsleeves, in the shade.
Winter: T o = 20-23.5 o C (68-74 o F) at 60% relative humidity and T o = 20.5-24.5 o C (69- 76 o F) at 2 o C (36 o F) dew
point. Slanting side boundaries correspond to ET* of 20 o C (68 o F) and
23.5 o C (74 o F).
Summer: To = 22.5-26 o C (73-79 o F) at 60% relative humidity and T o = 23.5-27 o C (74- 80 o F) at 2 o C (36 o F) dew
point. Slanting side boundaries correspond to ET* of 23 o C (73 o F) and 26 o C (79 o F).
Conditions: Typical summer and winter clothing

Light and primarily sedentary activity (<=1.2 met) 10%
dissatisfaction
21
Adjustment of the comfort zone
(1). Clothing (e.g., minimum clothing such as briefs T o = 26-29 o C (79-84 o F) (Table 4-3) (2). Air
speed V ↑ -> To ↑ ( Fig. 4-3) (3). Activity (met) ↑ -> To ↓ ( Fig. 4-4) (4) Adaptation
Draft
Draft is related to air temperature, air velocity, and turbulence intensity. Percentage
dissatisfied people due to draft can be expressed as: PD = 3.143 (34 - T air) ( V - 0.05) 0.622
+ 0.3696 (34 - T air) ( V - 0.05) 0.622 V Tu When V <
0.05 m/s, use V = 0.05. When PD > 100%, insert PD =
100%.
22
PD - Percentage dissatisfied people due to draft (%) V

- Air velocity (m/s) T air
- Air temperature ( o C)
Tu - Turbulence intensity (%) Tu =
100 V standard deviation / V (%)
Asymmetry of thermal radiation
Asymmetry Warm
ceiling (----) Cool wall
(---) Cool ceiling (--)
Warm wall (-)
23
Thermal stratification
Temperature difference < 3-4 K between head and feet.
For large temperature gradients, local warm discomfort can occur at the head, and/or cold discomfort can occur at
the feet, although the body as a whole is thermally neutral.
Warm or cold floors
24
25
AE 310 Fundamentals of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Chapter 4
Chapter 4. Air-Conditioning Systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Automatic control systems
4.3 All-air systems
4.4 Air-water systems
4.5 All-water systems
4.6 Unitary and hybrid systems
4.7 Summary of different air-conditioning systems Reading:
Chapter 2 of the text book (M&P)

ASHRAE Systems & Equipment Handbook, ASHRAE Applications Handbook Kreider J.F, and Rabl A.
“Heating and Cooling of Buildings – Design for Efficiency”
4.1 Introduction
Purpose of an air-conditioning system is to control indoor air parameters within required thermal comfort and indoor air
quality. To achieve required indoor air parameters, the system: heat, cool, humidify, dehumidify and filter outdoor air.
HVAC Subsystems
See Figure on the next page:
End Use
Consumes capacity to condition space air or air stream supplying space.

Air-conditioning systems = air handling systems + ducts + air distribution devices How to select an
air-conditioning system?
• Performance requirements (loads, process)
• Capacity requirements (building types, loads)
• Spatial requirements (building types)
• First costs (location, size of HVAC, investment)
• Operating costs
• Reliability
• Flexibility
• Maintainability
1
Classification in terms of system:
Classification in terms of air supplied
Classification in terms of load carried:
2
- Q,-W
Q Q Q W - Q,-W QQW Q Q W - Q,-W
- Q,-W
QW
All-air All-water Air-water Refrigerant
Production
Convert primary energy for heating/cooling. Energy sources:

• Coal
• Natural gas
• Fuel oil
• Biomass
Produce steam and electricity.
Heating production equipment:
A packed fire-tube boiler. ( Courtesy of Federal Corp., Oklahoma City, OK)
Cooling production equipment:
3
Vapor compressor:
• Refrigerant
• Compressor
• Drive (usually electric motor)
Centrifugal chiller cutaway drawing ( Courtesy United Technology / Carrier)
4
Heat rejection:
• Disposes of heat from cooling process
• Cooling tower, evaporative condenser, air-cooled condenser
• “Sink” for waste heat: ambient dry bulb, ambient wet bulb, ground, surface water
• Trades offs between cost and COP
Forced-draft cooling tower ( Courtesy Marley Co.)
5
Distribution
Moves capacity from production to use. Water and

steam distribution:
Air distribution:
A
centrifugal fan ( Courtesy of the Train Company,
LaCrosse, WI)
Packed equipment
Air-handling unit:
4.2 Automatic Control Systems
HVAC systems are dynamic:

Sized for extreme conditions Most operation is
part load / off-design
Deviation from design => imbalance since Capacity > Load
Without control system, HVAC would overheat or overcool spaces.
Automatic control system

“A system that reacts to a change or imbalance in the variable it controls by adjusting other variables to restore the
desired balance.”
Modern computer-based systems manage system resources (“supervisory”):

• Reduce energy use
• Identify maintenance problems
6
Essential components of a control system:
Controlled variable is a characteristic of system to be regulated.
“set point” is desired value “control

point” is actual value
“set point”- “control point” ≡ “error” or “offset”
Sensor measures actual value of controlled variable.
Controller modifies action of controlled device in response to error.
Controlled device acts to modify controlled variable as directed by controller.
Example: Water tank level control
7
Example: Steam heating coil.
4.2.1 Control System Types
• Closed loop (feedback) control

• Open loop (feedforward) control Does sensor measure controlled variable? If yes
the control system is closed loop , if no the system is open loop .
In the closed system, controller responds to error in controlled variable. Previous example of the steam heating coil is a
closed loop. In general, HVAC control systems are primarily closed loops. In the open loop system, there is an indirect
link between controller and controlled variable. The system action is based on external variable. The relationship
between external variable and controlled variable is assumed. An example of open loop is electric blanket.
4.2.2 Control Action
• Two-position (on-off) control

• Modulating control
8
Two-position control systems are always at full capacity or off. Best for systems with slow rate of change for controlled
variable. This control is common in low cost systems, and it is relatively imprecise.
Example: Two-position control for steam valve in the steam heating coil.
Control differential is difference between “on” and “off” values of controlled variable. Operating differential
is difference between extreme values of controlled variable.
Operating differential > Control differential
9
Modulating control systems produce continuously variable output over a range. This is finer control system than
two-position system, and it is typical in large HVAC systems.
Throttling range (TR) is a range of input variable over which output varies through its full range. Gain is ∆ output per ∆ input,
and it is usually adjustable.
Proportional control is the simplest modulating action for which the controller output is a linear function of input:
where O P is the proportional controller output, A is the controller output at zero offset, e is the error (offset), and K P is the
proportional gain constant.
10
Smaller TR (larger gain) =>smaller offset. Smaller TR may cause stability problems. Stability is tendency
of a system to find a steady control point after an upset. Instability is tendency for oscillations to grow.
Proportional plus integral (PI) control is designed to eliminate offset.
Proportional + Factor ∝ integral of offset
where O PI is the PI controller output, and K i is the integral gain constant. Integral term
drives offset to zero.
Examples of PI control in buildings include mixed-air control, duct static pressure control, and coil controls.
11
Proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID) control further speeds up action of PI control May not be suitable for
HVAC that usually do not require rapid control response.
Additional control ∝ rate of change of error
where O PID is the PID controller output, and K d is the derivative gain constant. Example of PID
application in buildings is duct static pressure control.
Example: Comparison of P, PI, and PID controller response to input step change
12
4.2.3 Computers in Control
Software is replacing “mechanical” logic. More sophisticated schemes are possible. Simulation and optimization are
possible in real time.
Example: Graphical interface for HVAC system control.
13
HVAC Systems
Air-handling unit ( AHU) usually consists of: coil(s), fan(s), filter(s), air-mixing controls, humidifier, and heat
recovery. The following figure represents AHU for a single zone all-air system.
14
4.3 All-Air Systems
4.3.1 Constant-air-volume systems
Use in new systems discouraged by code.
+Q +P -Q +W +Q
O
H1
M1 C H2 M2 I
15
M1
M H2 R
C I
R
I(M2) C'
O
H1 M
Summer cooling Winter heating
Summer:
Single mixing with room air:
O + R => M (cooling + dehumidification) => C (re-heat) => I (Q + W ) => R Double mixing with
room air:
O + R => M1 (cooling + dehumidification) => C’ + R => M2 or I (Q + W ) => R
Winter:
O (pre-heat) => H1 + R => M (humidification) => H2 (re-heat) => I (Q + W) => R
4.3.2 Variable-air-volume systems
Example:
You turn the fan speed up or down in your car. Q D = m D ( i R - i I)
I I’
AHU fan varies power to match loads. Less load => lower fan power.
Pressure in supply ducts is maintained to a fixed value. Design
cooling:
• box is 100% open
• no reheat Off-design
cooling:
• zone temperature drops since cooling load decreases
• box throttles until minimum flow is reached
16
Dead band:
• no control action
• start reheat at lower limit
Off-design heating:
• minimum primary air
• thermostat increases reheat as space temperature falls Design
heating:
• fully energized
VAV terminals:
• Single-blade dumper (pressure dependent or independent)
• Air valve
• Induction
Primary flow induces secondary flow from plenum.
17
18

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AE 310 Fundamentos de calefacción, ventilación y aire acondicionado Capítulo 1

Capítulo 1. Revisión de Termodinámica y Transferencia de Calor

1.3 Primera ley de la termodinámica

energía • la primera ley (conservación de la energía)

1.1.2 Sistema y alrededores

1.1.3 Propiedad, Estado, procesos y Equilibrium

termina en el mismo estado.

superficie de presión-volumen-temperatura para una sustancia que se expande en congelación

1.1.4 Relaciones pvT

Las propiedades termodinámicas: tablas, gráficos, ecuaciones y programas.

1.2 Conceptos básicos

(1) Temperatura: Grado de movimiento molecular

(2) Energía: E (Btu, J)

La capacidad para hacer el trabajo. Ejemplos:

De trabajo (W) es una acción de una fuerza sobre un sistema en movimiento.

(3) El calor (energía térmica): Q (Btu, J)

(4) Calor específico: do pag ( Btu / lb o F, J / kg K)

Calor necesario para la temperatura aumento de 1 lb de material (1 kg) durante 1 o F (1 o DO).

(5) Capacidad calorífica: ( Btu / ft 3 O F) y masa térmica ( Btu / o F)

Capacidad de almacenar energía

La capacidad calorífica = calor específico densidad x = ρ do pags

La masa térmica = densidad x volumen x calor específico = ρ VC pags

(6) cambio de energía ( transferencia de calor): Q (Btu)

dónde ρ - densidad, V - volumen, Δ T - diferencia de temperatura.

La energía transferida por unidad de tiempo.

1.3 Primera ley de la termodinámica

Interna (almacenada en la materia)

1.3.1 Primera Ley para el Sistema Cerrado

Calor (Q) - De trabajo (W) = cambio en la energía total ( Δ MI)

Sistema cerrado de un proceso entre los estados “1” y “2”:

calefacción volumen constante de un cilindro lleno de un gas.

Ejemplo 1: calefacción volumen constante Ejemplo 2: calentamiento a presión constante

calentamiento a presión constante de un cilindro lleno de un gas. 1 S t Ley:

1.3.2 Primera Ley para el Sistema Abierto (Control de volumen de formulación)

(A través de la frontera del sistema)

• vim WQ • • dE g gz •2g vim

Para un sistema de climatización típica dos supuestos son válidos:

2) KE y PE términos generalmente pequeños

Por lo tanto, para el sistema de climatización típica:

y la infiltración = 150 Btu / h

Q y ocupante = 300 Btu / h

Qy = solares 500 Btu / h

y = tierra 100 Btu / h

La masa térmica de la casa se supone que es 700 Btu / o F. (a) ¿Es el

(B) ¿Qué sucederá si el A / C está apagado?

1.4 Segunda Ley de la Termodinámica

El 2 Dakota del Norte Ley de la termodinámica define:

• equilibrio final para procesos espontáneos

1.4.1 Motor Heat

Bomba de calor 1.4.2

1.4.3 Evaluación del desempeño de los ciclos

(1) “eficiencia” ( η) de un motor térmico

ciclo de Carnot: Carnot

(2) “coeficiente de rendimiento” (COP) de una bomba de calor

condiciones de calentamiento (bomba de calor):

condiciones de enfriamiento (refrigeración):

Para el intercambio de energía con las mismas dos depósitos térmicos:

1.5 gas ideal

• la presión del gas, psi, Pa

v • volumen específico, ft 3 / lbm, m 3 / kg, v = 1 / ρ

aire: R a = 53,34 ft-lbf / (lbm- o R) = agua 287 J / (kg-K): R v = 85.76

2.1 Propiedades del aire y sus húmedas

2.2 Métodos de Medición y Análisis