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Physics
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The study of matter

Chapter 5:
1 End
Radioactivity
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Physics: Chapter 5
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Objectives:
(what you will learn)

< Back 1) understanding nucleus of atom

Next >
2) radioactive decay
3) uses of radioisotopes
4) nuclear energy
5) management of radioactive
2 End substances
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Nucleus of atom
An atom consists of a central nucleus where most of
the mass of the atom is concentrated.
Orbiting around nucleus are electrons.

A helium atom
< Back
4 He
Next > 2
n
+ n – + proton
+
n neutron
–
– electron

The nucleus is composed of protons that are

3 End positively charged, and neutrons that are neutral.
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Nucleons = protons + neutrons
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Nucleus of atom
proton number (Z) = the number of protons in nucleus
nucleon number (A) = the number of nucleons (protons & neutrons)
in nucleus
nuclide = a nucleus species with a certain proton number & certain
nucleon number

AX represents nucleus with proton number Z & nucleon A

< Back
Z
Next >
4 He represents nuclide with 2 protons & 4 nucleons
2 The number of neutrons is 4 – 2 = 2

Isotopes = nuclides with same proton number, different nucleon numbers

Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but
different physical properties, such as mass.

4 End Example
isotopes:
1H (hydrogen)
1
2H (deuterium)
1
3H (tritium)
1
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Nucleus of atom
Rutherford’s alpha-particle (α-particle) scattering experiment
Rutherford bombarded gold foil with α-particles.
• Most α-particles go through gold foil undeflected as the nucleus is
very tiny (occupies a small fraction of the volume of atom).
• Some α-particles are slightly deflected, others are deflected through
large angles. The positive α-particles are repelled by a massive,
positively charged nucleus.
< Back
vacuum
Next > Gold foil
α-particle
Fluorescent screen
source

α-particle Telescope
deflected
5 End
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Radioactive decay
Radioactivity = spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei
accompanied by emission of energetic particles or radiations
(photons).
Spontaneous disintegration = emissions of the particles or
photons are not planned in advance
< Back Radioactive decay is random because it is not possible to predict
Next > • which nuclei
• the number of nuclei that would decay at a particular instant

Radioactive decay is not affected by

• physical conditions such as temperature and pressure,
• chemical composition

The particles emitted in radioactive decays are α-particles and β-

particles, and the radiation emitted is gamma-ray (γ-ray).

6 End Apparatus used to detect radioactive emissions include cloud

chamber and Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube).
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Radioactive decay
The tracks of radioactive emissions can be
observed in a cloud chamber.

α-particles’ tracks:
• thick because of their high ionizing power
• straight because of the comparative large mass
< Back
• all of same length because they are emitted with the same speed
Next >

β-particles’ tracks:
• thin because of their weak ionizing power
• wavy because of the comparative small mass
• long because of its relative long range in air

γ-rays’ tracks:
7 End • identical to β-particles’ tracks but are short
• the tracks are those of electrons produced from ionisation of air
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Radioactive decay
Geiger-Muller tube
When connected to a counter, it will count the number
of β-particles or γ-ray photons that enters it.
When connected to a ratemeter, it will give the number
< Back of particles per seconds that enter the GM-tube.

Next > The GM-tube is unable to detect α-particles which

cannot penetrate the window of the tube.

doctronics

8 End
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Radioactive decay
Changes to structure of nucleus during radioactive decay.

Alpha-decay
A X A-4 Y + 4 He (α-particle)
Z Z-2 2

< Back Proton number decreases by 2.

Nucleon number decreases by 4.
Next >
Beta-decay
A X AY 0 e (β-particle)
+
Z Z+1 -1
Proton number increases by 1.
Nucleon number unchanged.

9 End Gamma ray

No changes in the proton number and nucleon number.
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Radioactive decay
The half-life, T½ of a radioisotope is the time taken for half
of the number of nuclei in a sample to decay.

T½ T½
N0 ½N0 ¼N0
< Back

Next >

It is also the time taken for the rate of decay of a sample to

become half.

T½ T½
A0 ½A0 ¼A0

10 End
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Radioactive decay
Radioisotope = an isotope that is radioactive
Uses in medicine
(a) γ-rays from cobalt-60:
- radiotherapy to destroy cancerous cells
- sterilization to destroy bacteria or germs
(b) Radioactive tracers:
< Back - iodine-131 to evaluate function of thyroid gland
Next > - sodium-24 to estimate volume of blood in patient
Uses in agriculture
(a) Radioactive tracers used in plant nutrient research.
(b) γ-rays used to sterilize insects, destroy
pests/bacteria in food/fruits.
Uses in archaeology
(a) Carbon-14 dating: Proportion of C-14 to C-12 in living
organism is the same as that of the atmosphere. When
11 End an organism dies, its proportion decreases. Its age is
estimated by measuring its proportion in sample.
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Radioactive decay
Uses in industry
(a) Gauge control
GM-tube connected to ratemeter measures thickness of
paper by its constant count rate.
(b) Leak tracer
< Back Sodium-24 used as tracer to locate damaged
underground pipes. GM-tube is used to detect high
Next > count rate from leaks in the pipe.
(c) Quality control
γ-rays (Cobalt-60) used to detect flaws in joints between
pipes carrying natural gas.
(d) Smoke detector
Americium-241 emits α-particles which ionizes air
particles, allowing current to flow between charged
plates. Smoke particles which reduces current flow by
12 End deflecting α-particles can then be detected.
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Nuclear Energy
The unit of mass used for measuring the mass of atoms,
Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.),
1
u= (mass of an atom of carbon-12)
12

< Back 1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Next >
Einstein’s energy-mass relation
The energy equivalent E of mass m is given by
Energy, E = mc2
where c = 3.0 x 108 m s-1

Nuclear fission = splitting of a nucleus into two nuclei

13 End Slow neutrons are used to split the nucleus.

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Management
2 negative effects of radioactive materials
- Somatic damage: near-term death of cells of sensitive
organs such as eyes.
- Genetic damage: long-term effect; mutation of cells in
subsequent generations

< Back α-particles:

Next > Quite harmless outside body due to short range and weak
penetration power. Inside body, they are the most damaging due to
their strong ionizing power.

β-particles:
Harmful both outside and inside body due to stronger penetration
power, but moderate ionizing power.

γ-rays:
14 End
Harmful outside body due to strong penetration power.
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Summary
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What you have learned:

1. understanding nucleus of atom
< Back 2. radioactive decay
3. uses of radioisotopes
4. nuclear energy
5. management of radioactive
substances
15 End
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