10 1 Ultrasonic Waves in Free Space

t--- - A. - - --1

---+~-~+---+--2
Fig. 1.6. Standing longitudinal wave. Instan-
-- --1, - ----+-----+_-~ J taneous pictures at different moments 1-5,
corresponding to Fig. 1.5. The nodes of the mo-
-~>_1----~----+_-- ~
tion are located in planes spaced AI2
----~----·~--------~---5

Fig. 1.7. Standing wave produced by ref-

lection at a free wall. Plotted is the am-
plitude of the particles. At the free wall
it has an antinode

therefore simultaneously the antinodes of the sound pressure and vice versa, as is
readily seen in Fig. 1.6. The nodes of motion and pressure are thus located a quarter
wave length from each other.
In practical ultrasonics, standing waves occur if the material is no longer infi-
nite. At a free surface, i.e. the boundary with empty space, the wave is reflected. In
the case of a plane boundary and perpendicular incidence the nature of the inci-
dent wave is not changed, but incident and reflected wave have opposite directions,
as described in Fig. 1.7 which shows the reflection of a short wave train from a wall,
resulting in a brief formation of a standing wave over a distance of a few wave-
lengths. Figure 1.7 shows the reflection of a wave at a free wall, i.e. at the interface
between a given substance and vacuum or air, where the wave is totally reflected.
According to the boundary conditions the motion of the particles has at that point a
maximum, viz. an antinode and the pressure or shear has a node. In Fig. 1.7 is plot-
ted the amplitude of the motion which can be regarded both as longitudinal motion
in the case of a pressure wave and as a transverse motion in the case of a shear
wave.
Standing ultrasonic pressure waves are produced intentionally when measuring
wall thicknesses by the resonance method. In other cases they may cause consider-
able confusion and should be avoided.
The standing wave is a special case of the superposition of different waves of the
same frequency , which is generally called interference. This is also the basis of a very
vivid method for describing commonly occurring wave forms and wave fields, viz.
Huygens' principle which will render us good service when explaining the radiation
of ultrasonic waves.
Briefly expressed, this principle states that any arbitrary wave form can be con-
structed from a large number of simple spherical waves of the same frequency, i.e.
the so-called elementary waves, which must, however, be chosen correctly regarding
origin, phase and amplitude. Every wave surface can be visualised as an envelope of
such elementary waves whose origin is located on a preceding wave surface. Fi-
gure 1.8 makes this clear. It shows in cross-section a piston-shaped sound generator