PRESSURE VESSEL SUBJECTED TO EXTERNAL PRESSURE

Wide variety of chemical and petrochemical industries require equipment

operating under partial vacuum (where inside pressure is less than outside pressure)
or due to high outside pressure. Main types of equipments are operating under the
vacuum or with jacket. Examples of such equipments are multiple effect
evaporators with last effect having vacuum condenser, vacuum distillation, vacuum
crystallizer & reactive chambers with jacket having steam, oil or dowtherms for
heat transfer purpose.
A cylindrical vessel under external pressure has an induced circumferential
compressive stress equal to twice the longitudinal stress. Due to this, vessel is apt to
collapse because of elastic instability. The collapsing strength of vessel can be
increased by the use of uniformally placed internal or external circumferential or
longitudinal stiffening rings. This reduces the effective length of vessels to center-
to-center distance between stiffening ring. L/Do is therefore, a significant parameter
in determining the safe pressure under external compressive stress.

Under external pressure equipment is subjected to two kinds of failures:

1. Elastic instability or buckling within proportional limit. This occurs when
cylinder having effective length larger than the critical length. The corresponding
critical pressure at which buckling takes place depends on t/Do and modulus of
elasticity E of the material at the design temperature. Geometrical irregularities
like lobes in the shell cause the buckling at a pressure less than critical pressure.
2. Vessel at moderate thickness collapse at stress above proportional limit but
pDo
below yield point. > Proportional limit. If the length of the shell with
2t

48
 closers, L or distance between circumferential stiffeners, L, is less than critical
length, then critical pressure at which collapse occurs is a function of the L/Do
ratio as well as of the t/Do ratio and modulus of elasticity, E. out of roundness
may cause failure at lower critical pressure.

Cylindrical vessel subjected to external pressure required to have sufficient

wall thickness and joint strength to avoid rupture due to collapse.
- Vessel designed to resist external pressure must resist collapse.
- Internal pressure vessels do not required factors such as: L/D, shell thickness,
t/D, irregularities in the fabrication such as out of roundness, dents, and
bumps.
- The above designing can be complicated if actual size, ratios of length to
diameters, fabricated thickness, physical properties are added.

Based on external pressure Cylindrical Vessels Recognized With Respect To

Linear Flexures.
1. Short vessels will yield when stresses are sufficiently high to overcome all the
circumferential length.
- Stress capacities in this dependent primarily on the material strength, shell
thickness and diameter.
- For this vessels effect of length is negligible provided that it is small.

Long vessels have apart ends

- stiffening effect at end is not noticeable at mid point of the cylinder.

49
- In designing, initial irregularities will induce bending and finally buckling which
is practically independent of the compressive or tensile strength of the material.
- Stress capacities are influenced by the wall thickness, vessel diameter and
minimum length.
- Such vessels will fail at stresses well below yield point.
- Flexure stress is due to the length factor.
3. Intermediate vessels are between short and long vessels.
- Both material strength and flexure stress are due to the length.

Theoretical analysis
1. Critical length
2. Bumping in a circumference at the line of collapse or number of lobes.
Both the factors are related to outer diameter, t and .
Critical length: Defined as the minimum unsupported length above which
resistance to the independent of the length. [Pc is independent of length]

0.75 2 1   
12
n4
  
L
D
2
t
D
-----[1]

Lc  kD D
t

where k  0.6424 1   2  -----[2]

Where, LC = critical length, inches

D = diameter of shell, inches
t = shell thickness, inches.
L = Length of vessel, inches

50
51
ELASTIC STABILITY OF LONG THIN CYLINDER UNDER EXTERNAL
PRESSURE

A cylindrical shell under external pressure tends to deform inward as a result

of the external pressure. The relationship between the radius of curvature, the
product EI and the bending produce is given by:
EI
M  -----[1]
r
Consider a cylindrical shell having an original radius of curvature of r o under
no load. A local section of this shell under external radial pressure will have a new
radius of curvature of r. The relationship between the bending moment, the two
radii and the product EI is given by:
 1 1
M  EI    ------[2]
 ro r 
Figure 8.1 is a diagram of a shell section before and after deformation under
the external pressure.
Where,
ro = radius of curvature before deformation
r = radius of curvature after deformation w, at the point of consideration.
w = radial difference between ro and r
a&b = limit of an elemental strip prior to deformation dS
a‟ & b‟ = limit of same element strip after deformation dS + dS.
d = the subtended angle before the deformation
d+d = the subtended angle after the deformation.

52
53
Now from the figure, small-angle relationship,
ab = dS = rod -----[3]
Therefore
1 d
 -----[3a]
ro dS

and after deformation

1 d  d
 -----[4]
r dS  dS
Neglecting small angle Δdθ and replacing r = ro-w
dS  dS
d  -----[5]
ro  w

d(ro – w) = dS + dS
Now subtracting 3 from 5,
dS
dS   wd   w -----[6]
ro
From figure we can say that difference between the angles β = (dw/dS) and α =
(dw/dS + (d2w/dS2dS)dS) is same as difference between angles d and (d + d),
or
 dw d 2 w   dw 
  2 dS      d  d   d -----[7]
 dS dS   dS 

Therefore
d 2w
d  dS -----[8]
dS 2
Substituting 6 and 8 into equation 4,

54
 d 2w
d  dS
1 dS 2

r  w
dS 1  
 ro  -----[9]
1 w  d d w dS 2
1    
r  ro  dS dS 2 dS

Substituting 1/ro for d/dS, by equation 3, gives

1 1 w d 2w
  
r ro rro dS 2
 w d w
2 -----[10]
1 1
 1   
r ro  r  dS 2

Substituting 10 into equation 2,

1 1  w d 2w M
      
 rro  dS
2
 r ro EI

Assuming rro = ro2, we find that

d 2w w M
   -----[11]
dS 2 ro2 EI
Multiplying by ro2 throughout and substituting for 2gives,

d 2w Mro2
w -----[12]
d 2 EI
Now form figure 8.2 a quadrant section is considered for cylindrical vessel
under external pressure.

55
The dotted line shows a possible deformation of shell under the influence of
external pressure p. In deformed condition, bending moment Mo and force F will
exist at point c. Consider a circumferential element of unit longitudinal width, we
find that the compressive force F will be equal to the pressure times the projected
area, or

56
 F = p(ac) = p(ro - wo) -----[13]

Taking a summation of moments about any arbitrary point e with respect to point c,
in deformed shell gives:
M = Mo + F(bc) – p(ce)(1/2ce) -----[14]

From the figure,

M = Mo + p[(ac)(bc) – ½(ce)2] -----[15]

Considering the two triangles abe and cbe we find that

(ae)2 = (ab)2 + (be)2
(ce)2 = (bc)2 + (be)2

Substitution gives:
(ae)2 = (ab)2 + (ce)2 - (bc)2
= (ce)2 + (ac – bc)2 - (bc)2
= (ce)2 + (ac)2 - 2(bc)(ac)
½(ae)2 = ½(ce)2 +½(ac)2 - (bc)(ac)

Therefore,
(bc)(ac) - ½(ce)2 = ½[(ac)2 - (ae)2] -----[16]

Substituting 16 into 15
M = Mo + ½ p [(ac)2 - (ae)2] -----[17]

But ac = ro – wo and ae = ro + (-w). Therefore substituting into 16 gives:

57
M  Mo 
1
2
  
p ro2  2ro wo  wo2  ro2  2ro w  w 2 
 wo2  wo 
M  M o  p ro w  ro wo  
 2 

Small quantity ½(wo2-wo) may be disregarded.

M = Mo + pro (w – wo) -----[18]

Substituting 18 into 12 gives:

d 2w M o ro2 pro3 w pro3 wo

w  
d 2 EI EI EI
d 2w  pro3  pro3 wo  M o ro2 -----[19]
 w1   
d 2
 EI  EI
Let

 pro3 
1    q 2 -----[20]
 EI 
Therefore

d 2w pro3 wo  M o ro2
q w
2

d 2 EI -----[21]

The solution to this differential equation is:

pro3 wo  M o ro2
w  A sin q  B cos q  -----[22]
EI  pro3
Introducing conditions at c and g from figure 2, where deformed shell is
perpendicular to the axes, we find that
 dw   dw 
   0 and   0
 d  0  d   2

58
Equation 22 may be differentiated and set equal to zero for the conditions of  = 0:

 dw 
   A(cos q )  B sin q  0 therefore A  0
 d  0
For the conditions of  = /2 we have:
-Bsinq = 0
Therefore –Bsinq(/2) = 0  sin q(/2) = 0 -----[23]

These unique values of q define corresponding unique values of p in equation

20. The lowest of these values is q=2 and defines pcritical. Equation 23 will satisfy for
values of q = 2 or multiple of 2. Substituting these values of q in equation 20 and
solving for p gives:
3EI 24 EI
ptheoretical   -----[24]
ro3 d o3
Equation 24 expresses theoretical or critical load per unit circumferential
length of unit width of circumference. For a strip of unit width critical load is
pressure at which buckling theoretically takes place. If ring is a part of a long
cylinder shell, adjacent metal on either side of the ring will offer resistant to the
longitudinal deformation of strip. To allow for this restraint equation 24 may be
divided by (1-2). To express critical stress in terms of shell thickness ts,
substitution for „I‟ may be made for rectangular strip.

bt 3
I
12
Where b = 1 for a strip of unit width. Making these substitutions in equation 24 gives:
3
2E  t 
Pc  ptheoretical   
 
1 2  d 
-----[25]
59
Substitution for the metals  = 0.3, gives:
3
t
Pc  Ptheoretical  2.2 E   -----[26]
d 
Equation 26 gives the theoretical “critical” pressure at which a long
cylindrical vessel will buckle. This equation is generally accepted theoretical
formula of Bresse and Brayon for long tubes under external pressure.
Stewart in a number of tests using commercial tubing and pipe investigated
applicability of equation 26 and found that collapse occurred at a critical pressure of
27% less than theoretically predicted pressure. For design of long thin cylindrical
vessels operating under external pressure, a factor of safety of 4 may be applied to
26 giving:
3
t
p allowable  0.55E   -----[27]
d 

60
CRITICAL LENGTH BETWEEN STIFFENERS

Equations 27 is applied to long, thin cylinders under eternal pressure without

circumferential stiffening rings or with stiffening rings spaced at or beyond the
“critical length”. To make allowance for added restraint offered by stiffeners spaced
at less than the critical length, critical length may first be evaluated.
The expression for critical length was first developed by South well. The
relationship is given by:

LC 
4 6
27
 1    d
4 2 d
t


 ----[28]
 
Substitution of  = 0.3, gives:

LC  1.11d d ----[29]
t
Where, LC = critical length, inches
d = diameter of shell, inches
t = shell thickness, inches.

61
STABILITY OF VESSELS OF DIFFERENT TYPES UNDER
THE EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Long vessels: L > LC

Stability will depend upon:

– Dimension of vessel: length, thickness, diameter, Manner in which ends are
fixed, Modulus of elasticity, Poisson‟s ratio and Processing of manufacturing
(departure from cylindrical shape).
– Wall thickness t  0.023D and L  8D
– When critical stress value is below yield point under compression ƒ cr < ƒyc ,
f cr t
pcr  -----[30]
r
– With ƒcr > ƒyc , critical pressure of long cylinders must decided by:
t f yc
pcr 
r f yc  r  2 -----[31]
1 4  
E t
Permissible external pressure for long cylindrical vessels P all = Pcr/n where n =
factor of safety.
Pall  Pdesign
Factor of safety:
– Unfired pressure vessels n = 4 – 5
– Cylinder made of expensive metals carefully mfg in to absence of corrosion, n
= 3.5 – 4
– Vessels functioning with pres. of interior corrosion the reactive destruction: n
= 1.3 – 1.5

62
 Longer cylinders: P cr = n*Pall, take n = 6,
3
2.2  t 
Pall = Pcr/6 = E 
6  d o 

6 p 3
t3 = do
2.2 E

p
t  1.4d o 3 -----[32]
E
Short cylinder: L < LC
– L  8D;
– Critical pressure is affected by the conditions at ends, and depends upon L/d o,
t/do and E.
- With external pressure acting on cylindrical surface,

t  3 2n 2  1   
3
E t E
Pcr      m  1 
 
1   2 N 2  r  12 1   2  r    N 
 -----[33]

2
 nL 
where N  1    where n  number of lobes; n  2
 r 
Equation 33 is called as the Von Misc equation.
If pressure is not only acting on the cylindrical surface then
2
2.42 E  t  t
Pcr   d o do
3  L  t  -----[34]
4
 
1   2    0.45 
  d o  d o 
and Pall = Pcr/4
Pall > Pdesign

63
 Equation 34 is called as the Model Brown equation applicable to the short thin
cylinder under external pressure.
- General equation:

 
1  n 2  1 2 E  t 
3

Pcr    

3  1   2  d o  
3
2E  t 
for n  2, Pcr   
1  2    do  -----[35]
3
for   0.3, Pcr  2.2 E  t 
 do 

Intermediate cylinder:
- Material terns lobes
- Wave forms lobes due to buckling of surface:
d o circular length
z 
L axial length
 
   
  t   3 -----[36]
2   2  2 2n 2  1     t 
Pcr  E       n  1   
 2  2 2 d
  o   31 
2
    2n 2   d o 
 n 
 1 

 
1 
2n 
   


 Z 
  1 

  Z   

Now calculating the allowable pressure;

Pall = Pcr/3
Pall > Pdesign
Equation 36 is Windberg and Trilling equation to calculate the critical pressure
for the thin cylindrical pressure vessels subjected to the external pressure.

64
- For given t/do ratio a group of curve is plotted, one curve for each integral value
of n=2 or over with do/L as ordinate and P all as the abscissa.
- The curve of its group giving the least value for P all is selected to find P corresponding to the
given value of d o/L ratio.

AMERICAN CODE (ASME 31.3)

Equation to calculate the value of allowable pressure for ferrous metal giving
μ = 0.3
m
 t 
Pall  KE   -----[37]
 do 
Where K and m are function of do/L ratio.
Do /L 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
K 0.733 0.185 0.224 0.229 0.246 0.576 0.660 0.879 1.572 2.364 5.144 9.037 10.539
m, 3.0 2.60 2.54 2.47 2.43 2.49 2.49 2.49 2.52 2.54 2.61 2.62 2.58

To avoid external pressure plastic deformation k  2.2

2 f ct
Pc = 5Pall =
1.05d o

2 f allt  t 
Pc =  2 f all   -----[38]
do  do 

For do/L > 5 so L < 0.2do

All above equations contains two unknowns: P all and t. Trial and error
procedure is adopted with t assumed allowable pressure is calculated. When
calculating stability of short cylindrical vessel if wall is too thick, some normal
thickness is assumed then its rigidity can be increased by means of stiffening rings.

65
OUT OF ROUNDNESS: (OVALITY)

Out-of-roundness in any form is very much detrimental to the vessel strength after
fabrication, will significantly reduces the ability of vessel to resist external pressure.
It does not cause so much worry under the internal pressure application but these
results in increased stress concentration under external pressure. As a result, a shell
of elliptical shape, or a circular shell, either dented or with flat spots, is less strong
under external pressure than a vessel having a true cylinder shape. A deviation from
a true circular cross-section equal to the shell thickness will reduces the critical
buckling strength by about 50%. The ovality of elliptical shape in cylindrical vessel
is measured by:
2d max  d min 
Ovality (U) =   100%
d max  d min  -----[43]

4a
For a flat plate it is given by the equation: ovality =  100% where a is depth of spot or dents.
do

Nominal diameter, mm Permissible deviation, mm

Class I Class II
200 to 400 ±3 -
Over 400 to 600 ±3 +6 – 3
Over 600 to 800 ±4 +7 – 4
Over 800 to 1000 ±5 +8 – 5
Over 1000 ±6 +8 – 6

The out-of-roundness results in increased stress concentration and effect of

external pressure is to aggravate conditions. Thus an elliptical shell or a circular

66
shell, either dented or with flat plate, is less strong under the external pressure than
a vessel having a true cylindrical shape. According to ASME code,

Pall d o  8wo 
f max    1
2t s  t s -----[44]

w0 = permissible maximum deviation in vessel shell
According to ADMERAK code

 
 t  1 
Pall  2 f    
 d o   1.5U 1  0.2d o L   1 -----[45]

 100t d o  

Where U is the ovality in percentage. For the new vessels it can be taken as 1.5%
(min).
The above equation can be applicable to the do  0.2m, do  1.2di, L  0.2do, t =
pdo/2J.

0.6 pd o
 For piping under external pressure: t 
fJ
0.5 pd o
 For piping under internal pressure:
t
fJ

67
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF VESSEL WITH CIRCUMFERENTIAL
STIFFENERS:
For vessel in which circumferential stiffeners are placed at less than critical
length, the coefficient of equation 37 must be modified to the proportions of the
vessels:
3
 t 
Ptheoretical  KE   ----[46]
 do 
Applying the factor of safety 4,
3
K  t 
Pall  E   -----[47]
4  do 

Where K = coefficient according to the proportions of the vessel, as indicated in

figure below: (note: K  2.2)

Fig 1
68
Now substituting equation 46 into the equation of circumferential stress equation t =
pd/2.
3
P d dKE  t 
f  theoretical   
2t 2t  d o 
----[48]

2
f K t 
     -----[49]
E 2  do 
 Equation 26 and 49 may be plotted for convenience of solution as shown in the
3
t
figure 2 shown below. Pc  Ptheoretical  2.2 E   -----[26]
d 

Fig.2
 Inflection point represents the critical length by equation 29.

69
 Below inflection point stiffeners have effect and above inflection L > Lc ,
stiffeners are ineffective since they are beyond the limit of critical length.
 Equation 26 is applied in straight region of Do/t and equation 46 is applied in
region below inflation point.
 Diagram is independent of MOC.
 To use the chart, predict the ratio of l/d at which collapse occurs, it is necessary
to know the values of (/E) for the material at the temperature under consideration.
Figure 3 shows a group of stress-strain curves for several materials

Fig.3
70
 Above diagram is stress-strain curve for various ferrous metals at room
temperature.
 For mild steel, it can be easily shown by two straight lines.
 At high temperature stress-strain curves are non-linear.
 Strength of material decreases with increase in temperature, and because
modulus of elasticity will vary (most of the cases it decreases) and no definite yield
point of MOC available at high temperature.

 Figure 4 shows the variations of the modulus of elasticity, E, for plain carbon
steel and austenite steel as a function of temperature.
 The error caused by using a constant modulus of elasticity for materials having
nonlinear stress-strain curves may be avoided by using a “tangent” modulus of
elasticity.
 For convenience, to avoid the necessity of measuring the tangent modulus of
elasticity, the simultaneous value of /E is can be plotted versus stress in terms of
pressure and dimensions of the vessel.
 In designing a vessel for a given value of /E based upon the material of
construction and operating temperature, designing is done based upon the strain at
which collapse occurs rather than upon an allowable stress.

Fig.4

71
Using a design factor of safety of 4, in which the allowable pressure is considered
to be the theoretical pressure at which collapse occurs, we obtain:
2 ft
Ptheoretical   4 Pallow -----[50]
do
where Ptheoretical = theoretical external pressure at which collapse occurs, psi.
Pallow = allowable external pressure, psi.
Rearranging the above equation;

d  d f
Pallow    Ptheoretical     B
t  4t  2
t -----[51]
Pallow  B 
d 
Using equation 51 and appropriate stress-strain diagrams, we can determine
simulations values of (/E) and (/2) and can plot them as in figure 5 shown below.

Fig.5
Figures 2 and 5 can be used to determine the safe value of external working
pressure of an existing vessel under external pressure.

72
Fig.6

73
The dimensional ratio l/d and d/t are first computed and the corresponding value of
/E is determined from figure 2. This value is used with figure 5 to calculate the
value of Pall(d/t) from which the value of P all is directly calculated. In designing the
vessel the dimensional ratio l/d is usually known, but the value of d/t is unknown as
t is to be determined. The value of t must be assumed and the calculated safe value
of allowable pressure is checked with that desired working pressure as indicated
above.
As both of the curves 2 and 5 have a common abscissa of /E they may be
conveniently superimposed as indicated in the figures 6 shown above. (for plain
carbons steel below 900 0F)

DESIGNING OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL STIFFENERS

 Circumferential stiffeners improve the rigidity of the shell against collapsing.

To get the strength, stiffeners should be rigid enough. That based on Moment of
Inertia of stiffener material.
 Capacity of stiffener material is given in terms of distance L/2 on both side of
the ring.
 Thus the load per unit circumferential length of the ring at collapse is equal to L*
(Pc ).
24 EI
P  L * PC  -----[52]
d o3

74
Where P = load on combined shell and stiffener in pounds per unit circumferential
length. So

Pc d o3 L
I -----[53]
24 E
Multiplying t/t and rearranging

 d o2 lt  Pc d o   d o2 lt  d o2 lt f d o2 lt d o2 lt
I   
    f 
    factor A
 12E  2t   12E  12 E 12 12 -----[54]

where,
ƒ = allowable stress
t = corroded thickness
L = distance between two stiffeners
E= modulus of elasticity
do = outside diameter of the vessel
I = moment of inertia

 The moments of inertia of the stiffening ring and shell act together to resist
collapse of the vessel under external pressure.
 Timoshenko has shown that, combined moments of inertia of the shell and
stiffener may be considered as equivalent to that of a thicker shell or,
A
y
ty  t  -----[55]
s L
Where, ty = equivalent thickness of shell
Ay = cross-section area of one circumferential stiffener  3ts2

75
 L = dy = Distance between circumferential stiffeners, inches.
Substituting equation 55 into 54, gives:

d 2l  Ay  d 2l  A 
I  t s   f   t s  y  -----[56]
12 E  l  12  l 

I = required moment of inertia of stiffening ring  3t4

To calculate the moment of inertia of stiffeners alone

 Total Moment of inertia of equation 56 is 30 to 70% larger than the stiffener

alone

 Introducing additional safety of 10% in the design.

I
1.1d 2l  Ay 
 t s   
d 2l  A 
 t s  y 
121.3  l  14  l  -----[57]

In order to utilize figure 6 in the design of stiffening rings, it is necessary to produce

in the opposite direction, entering the figure with the value of B. If B is expressed in
terms of the equivalent shell thickness, t eq, (including the contribution of the
stiffening ring), then by equation 51,
f Pc d o Pall d o
B  
2 4t eq A -----[58]
ts  y
l
If gaps are placed in the stiffening rings, they should be staggered between alternate
rings. In this case the distance between stiffening rings should be taken as twice the
ring spacing to allow for the lack of continuous supports of the shell at the gaps in
the stiffening rings. Permissible gaps in the stiffening rings of external pressure
vessels are specified by the ASME code.

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ELASTIC STABILITY OF HEMISHPERICAL AND TORISPHERICAL HEAD:
For hemispherical heads and torispherical heads theoretical pressure at which, collapse occur
because of elastic instability.

2 Et 2
Pc 

r2 31  2  -----[59]

or


tc  r 4 3 1   2  p 2E -----[60]
Applying an approximate design factor of safety of 4.4, that is, using a thickness 4.4
times as great as that at which buckling theoretically occurs, we obtain:

t h  4.4t c  4.4r  p 2E  4 31   2   c -----[61]

For the steel construction where  = 0.3,

 1.28 
t h  4.4r   p E  C  4r p E  C -----[62]
 1.41 
Where, th = thickness of head, inches.
p = maximum external pressure,
C = corrosion allowance
E = modulus of elasticity
r = radius of dish for hemisphere and torispherical dished heads,
The dished lined labeled “sphere line” in figure 6 is shown. To use the same chart, the
scale for the sphere line is modified in that the vertical axis is now equal to r/100t h where r is
the radius of curvature (outside of head) and th is the head thickness. Figure 6 is used to
determine B, the same procedure being used as for the shell design. The maximum allowable
pressure, P all, is then determined by the equation below:

B
Pall  -----[63]
r th

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DESIGNING OF ELLIPTICAL DISHED CLOSURES UNDER THE EXTERNAL PRESSURE:

 The radius of curvature of elliptical dished closures changes about the meridional of the head .

 An equivalent radius of curvature must be used.

 The radius of curvature of the elliptical dished head is maximum at the center of the head
and at this point is equal to twice the radius of shell for the head having ratio of major to minor
axis is 2:1.
 Radius of curvature decreases as the point under consideration moved away from the center

toward the junction with the shell.

 This decrease in the radius results in increase in rigidity and greater elastic stability. Thus the
elliptical dished head has greater elastic stability than the torispherical dished head having the
same diameter, thickness and radius of curvature at the center of the head.
 As the radius of curvature of the elliptical dished head varies along the meridian, an average
radius may be used.
Major to minor axis 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0
ratio, a/b
avg rad of 1.36 1.27 1.18 1.08 0.99 0.90 0.81 0.73 0.65 0.57 0.50
curvature/vessel
diameter, rc/d

DESIGNING OF CONICAL CLOSURES UNDER THE EXTERNAL PRESSURE:

Conical closures under the external pressure can be classed in three groups.
Group 1:
0
 The apex angle is small (45 or small)

 The conical closure is considered to behave as a cylindrical shell having the same diameter
as the large end of the cone and length equal to the axial length of the cone, provided cone has
no stiffening rings.
 If circumferential stiffeners are used, the metal thickness may be decreased in each
successive section as the apex is approached.
 In this case, each section is designed by using the greatest diameter of section as the
equivalent shell diameter, D, and the axial length between stiffeners (center to center) as the
equivalent shell length between stiffeners L.

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Group 2
 Intermediate apex angle (450 to 1200)
 Same procedure is followed except that the diameter at the large end of the cone is taken as
the length of the equivalent cylinder if no circumferential stiffeners are used.
 If circumferential stiffeners are used, the procedure is the same as for stiffened cones with
apex angle less than 450, described above.
Group 3
 Flat cones having apex angle greater than 1200
 The conical head is designed as flat plate having a diameter equal to the largest diameter of
the cone.

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PIPES AND TUBING UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE:

 Tubing and pipe usually have (t/d o) ratios greater than 0.02

 Failure by elastic-plastic buckling

Stewart developed the following empirical equations for the collapsing pressures of a steel pipe
having a yield strength of 37,000psi at room temperature:
t
p  86,670  1386 -----[64]
do
The ASME code committee revised this equation to include the effect of material having a yield
point other than 37,000psi:
1
 t   fy  2
p  2.344 f y    1.064 f y   -----[65]
 do   E 
where, p = collapsing pressure, psi
t = tube thickness, inches
d = tube diameter, inches
f y = yield strength at operating temperature, psi
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
On this basis the allowable pressure for tubes having ratios greater than 0.3 was calculated upon
a modified hoop-stress relation as given by:
4 fy  t 
p  
1.05  do 
-----[66]

For the intermediate range between 0.14 to 0.3 a gradual transition will takes. By selecting
allowable working stress equal to 40% of the yield strength for the steel and allowable working
pressure equal to one fifth that of collapsing pressures.

80
A storage tank tested crushed after hydrotest when a plastic sheet blocked the top vent during
draining

Vacuum failure of a barometric condenser (vacuum vessel) after the internal support rings failed
81
A storage tank tested to destruction with an internal vacuum (external pressure)

Unexpected internal pressure failure during hydrotest (caused by pressure stress and helped by
unacceptable material properties) - contrast this with the mechanisms shown during external
pressure failure

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