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1. Skin: Human skin possesses two glands, sweat glands and sebaceous glands
which are excretory in nature in addition to their usual function. The sebaceous
glands produce sebum which keeps skin and hair greasy and waterproof.
However waxes, sterols, fatty acids, traces of hydrocarbons etc., are excreted
with sebum. The sweat glands secrete sweat. Sodium chloride, lactic acid, small
amount of urea etc., are eliminated with sweat.
2. Lungs: These helps in removing Co2 and little amount of water in the form of
water vapor.
Urinary System
Urinary system is the main excretory system of human and it consists of:
B. A pair of ureters, which convey the urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder
D. Urethra, through which the urine is discharged from the urinary bladder to the
exterior
• Shape: Bean shaped. Outer surface of kidney is convex and inner surface is
concave surface called hilum or hilus.
• Weight: In adult males the average weight of kidney is about 150g and in adult
female 135g.
• Covering: Covered by tough fibrous structure called renal capsule. The renal
capsule is covered by a layer of adipose tissue called adipose capsule which,
in turn, is covered by a fibrous membrane called renal fascia.
• Position: The kidneys lie on the posterior abdominal wall, one on each side of
the vertebral column, behind the peritoneum and below the diaphragm. They
extend from the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra to the 3rd lumbar vertebra,
receiving some protection from the lower rib cage. The right kidney is usually
slightly lower than the left, because of the considerable space occupied by the
liver. These are retroperitoneal in position (peritoneum* lying only in front of
kidneys).
Urine formed in the nephrons passes through a papilla at the apex of a pyramid
into a minor calyx, then into a major calyx before passing through the pelvis into
the ureter. The walls of the pelvis contain smooth muscle and are lined with
transitional epithelium. Peristalsis of the smooth muscle originating in
pacemaker cells in the walls of the calyces propels urine through the pelvis and
ureters to the bladder. This is an intrinsic property of the smooth muscle, and is
not under nerve control.
*
Peritoneum: The membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most of the abdominal
organs. (From the Greek peri- meaning around + tonos meaning a stretching = a stretching
around).
The kidney is composed of about 1 million structural and functional units called
nephrons (uriniferous tubules) and a smaller number of collecting tubules.
b) Renal tubule: Bowman’s capsule leads into renal tubule. It consists of three
parts-
i. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): It is the first part of renal tubule which is
coiled in the cortex. It is lined by cuboidal epithelium.
ii. Loop of Henle: Proximal convoluted tubule extends into a ‘U’ shaped loop of
Henle. At first, it moves downward as descending limb of loop of Henle.
Then, it turns and moves upward as ascending limb of loop of Henle.
Descending limb and ascending limb are lined by squamous and cuboidal
epithelium respectively.
iii. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): It is the second coiled part of renal tubule in
the cortex that continuing from the ascending limb of loop of Henle. It is lined
by cuboidal epithelium.
d) Vasa rectae: These are capillaries which run parallel with the loop of Henle
and the collecting duct. These capillaries carry away the molecules that are
reabsorbed from the tubules.
B. Ureters: The pelvis of each kidney is directly continued into a narrow 25-30 cm
long, cylindrical tube called ureter. They run downward on the abdominal wall
and open into urinary bladder. These are lined by transitional epithelium.
Ureters pass urine from kidneys to urinary bladder.
2. Selective reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
=75-(30+10+10) mmHg
=25 mmHg
The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys each minute is called the
glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In a healthy adult the GFR is about 125
ml/min; i.e. 180 liters of dilute filtrate are formed each day by the two
kidneys.
Loop of Henle acts as counter current system. The overall function of counter current
mechanism is to concentrate the urine. In counter current mechanism, the ascending
limb of loop of Henle actively transports chloride and sodium ions out of the tubule
into the interstitial fluid of medulla. The high osmotic pressure created by NaCl in the
interstitial fluid causes the water to diffuse out through the descending limb into the
interstitial fluid and eventually to the blood of vasa recta. This process makes urine
hypertonic (i.e. more concentrated than blood) and helps in conserving water in the
body. It is called counter current as the fluid flows in the opposite direction in two
limbs of Henle.
Composition of urine
MICTURITION: The process of removal of urine from urinary bladder time to time is
called micturition.
A. Body and
B. Trigone
The body is a hollow muscular sac which temporarily stores urine collected through
two ureters. Trigone is triangular area forming at the openings of ureters and urethra.
Opening of urethra is guarded by two sphincters- internal and external sphincters.
Prepared by: Sudha Acharya
www.sudhaacharya.com.np
Process of micturition: Accumulation of urine about 300-400 ml in the bladder
raises its pressure and a micturition reflex is initiated. As a result detrusor muscle
contracts and there is reflex relaxation of the internal sphincter. Micturition occurs
when there is voluntary relaxation of the external sphincter. Therefore the control of
micturition is both voluntary and involuntary.
Functions of kidney
1. Osmoregulation
3. Maintenance of pH of blood
Opposite of that, when the level of water in the blood is high the osmoreceptor cells
inhibit the posterior pituitary gland for the release of ADH. As a result the DCT and CD
becomes impermeable and less water is reabsorbed from filtrate into the blood, hence
higher amount of dilute urine is excreted.
Kidney maintains a constant sodium level in blood under the control of aldosterone
hormone secreted by adrenal cortex. Decreased sodium level in blood brings about
the release of aldosterone which stimulates active uptake of Na+ from filtrate into the
blood plasma. Just reverse takes place if there is excess of Na+ in the blood.
Functions of liver
1. Carbohydrate metabolism:
2. Protein metabolism:
• Deamination: Excess amino acids are broken down into the liver by a process
called deamination. In this process, amino (NH2) group is converted into
ammonia (NH3).
3. Fat metabolism:
• If glucose is short supply, the liver converts fat into fatty acids and glycerol
which are used to obtain energy.
4. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes bile, plasma proteins and clotting factors
prothrombin and fibrinogen.
9. Production of heat: It is the main heat producing organ of the body. It has a
high metabolic rate and produces heat.
Functions of skin
• Hairs of the skin trap a layer of warm air in contact with the skin and preserve
our body temperature.
• Cutaneous vasoconstriction diverts the blood to the interior of the body and so
diminishes heat loss against cold environment, Vasodilation of the skin helps in
elimination of heat from the body.
2. Excretion and secretion: Through sweat salts and metabolic wastes are
excreted. Sebaceous glands secret sebum which is rich in cholesterol. It
prevents skin from drying.
1. Define Ultra-filtration?
5. Define excretion?
6. What is osmoregulation?
15.Define Homeostasis.
22.Write the name of hormones that controls blood sodium and calcium.
25.Define micturition.
29.What is trigone?
32.What is Glomerulus?
Short questions:
9. Describe the role of counter current systems in forming the hypertonic urine.
10.Describe the role of kidney in regulation of the osmotic pressure of body fluids.