Tools of quality control

(i) Fishbone diagrams:

“The fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram is a cause-and-effect diagram that helps
managers to track down the reasons for imperfections, variations, defects, or failures.”
The diagram looks just like a fish’s skeleton with the problem at its head and the causes for the
problem feeding into the spine. Once all the causes that underlie the problem have been
identified, managers can start looking for solutions to ensure that the problem doesn’t become
a recurring one. Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are product design and quality defect
prevention to identify potential factors causing an overall effect. Each cause or reason for
imperfection is a source of variation. Causes are usually grouped into major categories to
identify and classify these sources of variation.

The Fishbone Diagram

(ii) Check sheet:

“The check sheet is a form (document) used to collect data in real time at the location where
the data is generated.” The data it captures can be quantitative or qualitative. When the
information is quantitative, the check sheet is sometimes called a tally sheet.
Format:
The defining characteristic of a check sheet is that data are recorded by making marks
("checks") on it. A typical check sheet is divided into regions, and marks made in different
regions have different significance. Data are read by observing the location and number of
marks on the sheet.
Check sheets typically employ a heading that answers the Five Ws:

 Who filled out the check sheet

 What was collected (what each check represents, an identifying batch or lot number)
 Where the collection took place (facility, room, apparatus)
 When the collection took place (hour, shift, day of the week)
 Why the data were collected.
(iii) Control charts:
“Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts (after Walter A. Shewhart) or process-
behavior charts, are a statistical process control tool used to determine if
a manufacturing or business process is in a state of control.”
A control chart consists of:

 Points representing a statistic (e.g., a mean, range, proportion) of measurements of a

quality characteristic in samples taken from the process at different times (i.e., the data)
 The mean of this statistic using all the samples is calculated (e.g., the mean of the means,
mean of the ranges, mean of the proportions)
 A center line is drawn at the value of the mean of the statistic
 The standard deviation (e.g., sqrt(variance) of the mean) of the statistic is also calculated
using all the samples
 Upper and lower control limits (sometimes called "natural process limits") that indicate the
threshold at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely' and are drawn
typically at 3 standard deviations from the center line
(iv) Histogram:
“A histogram is an accurate representation of the distribution of numerical data. It is an
estimate of the probability distribution of a continuous variable (quantitative variable) and was
first introduced by Karl Pearson.”
 It differs from a bar graph, in the sense that a bar graph relates two variables, but a
histogram relates only one. To construct a histogram, the first step is to "bin" (or "bucket") the
range of values—that is, divide the entire range of values into a series of intervals—and then
count how many values fall into each interval. The bins are usually specified as consecutive,
non-overlapping intervals of a variable. The bins (intervals) must be adjacent and are often (but
are not required to be) of equal size.

Applications:

In hydrology the histogram and estimated density function of rainfall and river discharge data,
analyzed with a probability distribution, are used to gain insight in their behavior and frequency
of occurrence. i.e;

Histogram and density function for a Gumbel distribution

 (v) Pareto chart:
“A Pareto chart, named after Vilfredo Pareto, is a type of chart that contains
both bars and a line graph, where individual values are represented in descending order by
bars, and the cumulative total is represented by the line.”

The left vertical axis is the frequency of occurrence, but it can alternatively represent cost or
another important unit of measure. The right vertical axis is the cumulative percentage of the
total number of occurrences, total cost, or total of the particular-unit of measure. Because the
values are in decreasing order, the cumulative function is a concave function. To take the
example below, in order to lower the amount of late arrivals by 78%, it is sufficient to solve the
first three issues.
The purpose of the Pareto chart is to highlight the most important among a (typically large) set
of factors. In quality control, it often represents the most common sources of defects, the
highest occurring type of defect, or the most frequent reasons for customer complaints, and so
on. Wilkinson (2006) devised an algorithm for producing statistically based acceptance limits
(similar to confidence intervals) for each bar in the Pareto chart.
These charts can be generated by simple spreadsheet programs, such as Apache
OpenOffice/LibreOffice Calc and Microsoft Excel, visualization tools such
as ThoughtSpot or Tableau Software, specialized statistical software tools, and online quality
charts generators.

(vi) Scatter diagram:

“A scatter diagram (also called a scatterplot, scatter graph, scatter chart) is a type
of plot or mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates to display values for typically
two variables for a set of data. If the points are color-coded, one additional variable can be
displayed. The data are displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of one variable
determining the position on the horizontal axis and the value of the other variable determining
the position on the vertical axis”
Example: For example, to display a link between a person's lung capacity, and how long that
person could hold his/her breath, a researcher would choose a group of people to study, then
measure each one's lung capacity (first variable) and how long that person could hold his/her
breath (second variable). The researcher would then plot the data in a scatter plot, assigning
"lung capacity" to the horizontal axis, and "time holding breath" to the vertical axis.
A person with a lung capacity of 400 cl who held his/her breath for 21.7 seconds would be
represented by a single dot on the scatter plot at the point (400, 21.7) in the Cartesian
coordinates. The scatter plot of all the people in the study would enable the researcher to
obtain a visual comparison of the two variables in the data set and will help to determine what
kind of relationship there might be between the two variables.
(vii) Flowchart:
“A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process. The
flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting the boxes
with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given problem.
Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in
various fields.”
Sterneckert (2003) suggested that flowcharts can be modeled from the perspective of different
user groups (such as managers, system analysts and clerks), and that there are four general
types:

 Document flowcharts, showing controls over a document-flow through a system

 Data flowcharts, showing controls over a data-flow in a system
 System flowcharts, showing controls at a physical or resource level
 Program flowchart, showing the controls in a program within a system
Notice that every type of flowchart focuses on some kind of control, rather than on the
particular flow itself