PROJECT

2019-20
TOPIC: - Magnetism
CLASS: - XII
SUBJECT: - physics
Roll NO:-
.

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO
PRAKHAR VERMA Anurag srivastava
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I want to express my sincere thanks to my respected

principal sir and physics
teacher………………………………………….for
giving me a chance to research on the topic
biomolecules and it has been my pleasure doing so.
This has added many points to my knowledge about
chemistry and its practical application. I also thank
them for their support and valuable guidance which has
seemed great contribution in completion of my
research work as a project.
 Certificate

This is certify Prakhar Verma a

student of class XII science has successfully
completed the research project on the topic
Magnetism under the guidance of
……………... During the academic year
2019-20

Teacher’s Signature

Examiner signature
 Introduction
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated
by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the magnetic
moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field,
which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most
familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials, which are
strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to
become permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields
themselves. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most
common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt and their alloys.

The magnetic state (or magnetic phase) of a material depends

on temperature and other variables such as pressure and the
applied magnetic field. A material may exhibit more than one
form of magnetism as these variables change.
 HISTORY
Magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world, when
people noticed that lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of
the mineral magnetite, could attract iron. The word magnet
comes from the Greek term for lodestone, "magnítis líthos",
which means a stone from the region of Magnesia. In ancient
Greece, Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a
scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher Thales of
Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC.
Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian
surgeonSushruta was the first to make use of the magnet for
surgical purposes.
In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism
lies in a 4th-century BC book named after its author, The
Master of Demon Valley. The 2nd-century BC annals, Lüshi
Chunqiu, also notes: "The lodestone makes iron approach, or it
attracts it." The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle
is in a 1st-century work Lunheng (Balanced Inquiries): "A
lodestone attracts a needle." The 11th-century Chinese
scientistShen Kuo was the first person to write – in the Dream
Pool Essays – of the magnetic needle compass and that it
improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the
astronomical concept of true north.
 Source of Magnetism

Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:

1. Electric current.
2. Spin magnetic moments of elementary particles. The
magnetic moments of the nuclei of atoms are typically
thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic
moments, so they are negligible in the context of the
magnetization of materials.
Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material is
arranged such that their magnetic moments (both orbital and
intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons
combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic
moments as a result of the Pauli exclusion principle (see
electron configuration), or combining into filled subshells with
zero net orbital motion.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure,
particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons
mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high
temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult
for the electrons to maintain alignment.
 Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a
material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to
be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with
paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance
an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior
dominatesIn a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired
electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot
produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization
arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be
understood classically as follows: “When a material is put in a
magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will
experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the
nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field.

Paramagnetism
In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e.
atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them.
While paired electrons are required by the Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments
pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields
to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic
moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is
applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves
in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.
 Ferromagnetism
A Ferro-magnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired
electrons. However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic
magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field,
there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic
moments to orient parallel to each other to maintain a
lowered-energy state. Thus, even in the absence of an applied
field, the magnetic moments of the electrons in the material
spontaneously line up parallel to one another.

Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual

temperature, called the Curie temperature, or Curie point,
above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is
because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the
energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.

Ferromagnetism only occurs in a few substances; the common

ones are iron, nickel, cobalt, their alloys, and some alloys of
rare earth metals
Magnetic Domains
The magnetic moments of atoms in a ferromagnetic material
cause them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets.
They stick together and align themselves into small regions of
more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or
Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed with a
magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain
boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are
many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic
fields.

When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes

unstable and divides into two domains aligned in opposite
directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at
the right.

When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries

move so that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow
and dominate the structure (dotted yellow area) as shown at
the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains
may not return to an un-magnetized state. This result in the
ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a
permanent magnet.
 Anti-Ferromagnetism
In an Anti-Ferromagnet, unlike a Ferromagnet, there is a
tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring
valence electrons to point in opposite directions. When all
atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbour is
'anti-aligned', the substance is ant ferromagnetic. Anti-
Ferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning no
field is produced by them. Anti-Ferromagnets are less common
compared to the other types of behaviours, and are mostly
observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, anti-
Ferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and
ferromagnetic properties

Ferrimagnetism
Like ferromagnetism, Ferromagnets retain their magnetization
in the absence of a field. However, like anti-Ferromagnets,
neighboring pairs of electron spins tend to point in opposite
directions. These two properties are not contradictory,
because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more
magnetic moment from the sub-lattice of electrons that point
in one direction, than from the sub-lattice that point in the
opposite direction.
Most ferrites are ferromagnetic. The first discovered magnetic
substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to
be a Ferromagnet; Louis Neel disproved this, however, after
discovering ferrimagnetisms.
 Super-Magnetism
When a Ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it
acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian
motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar
to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.

ELECTROMAGNET
 An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which
the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. The
magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.
Electromagnets usually consist of a large number of
closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic field.
The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic
core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material
such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic
flux and makes a more powerful magnet.

 The main advantage of an electromagnet over

a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be
quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric
current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent
magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a
continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic
field.
 Magnetism, Electricity, and
Special Relativity
 As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity,
electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked.
Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity
without magnetism, are inconsistent with special
relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time
dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-
dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism
are taken into account, the resulting theory
(electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special
relativity.

 All observations on electromagnetism apply to what might

be considered to be primarily magnetism, e.g.
perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily
accompanied by a nonzero electric field, and propagate at
the speed of light.
 Magnetic Fields in a
Material

 When electric current is carried in a wire, a magnetic field

is formed around it. The magnetic field lines form
concentric circles around the wire. The magnetic field
direction depends on the direction of the current. It can be
determined using the "right hand rule", by pointing the
thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current.
The direction of the magnetic field lines is the direction of
your curled fingers. The magnitude of the magnetic field
depends on the amount of current, and the distance from
the charge-carrying wire. The formula includes the
constant . This is called the permeability of free space,
and has a value . The unit of magnetic
field is the Tesla, T.


 B = magnetic field magnitude (Tesla, T)
 μ0= permeability of free space ( )
 I = magnitude of the electric current (Amperes, A)
 r = distance (m)
 MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of electric

currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any
given point is specified by both a direction and
a magnitude (or strength); as such it is represented by a vector
field. The term is used for two distinct but closely related
fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in
units of amperes per meter (symbol: A⋅m−1 or A/m) in
the SI. B is measured in tesla (symbol: T)
and newton per meter per ampere (symbol: N⋅m−1⋅A−1 or N/
(m⋅A)) in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of
the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges.

Units
In SI units, B is measured in tesla (symbol: T) and
correspondingly ΦB (magnetic flux) is measured in weber
(symbol: Wb) so that a flux density of 1 Wb/m2 is 1 tesla. The
SI unit of tesla is equivalent to (newton·second)/
(coulomb·metre). In Gaussian-cgs units, B is measured
in gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) One
nano-tesla is also called a gamma (symbol: γ). The H-field is
measured in amperes per metre (A/m) in SI units, and
in oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.
 Magnetic Field Lines

Mapping the magnetic field of an object is simple in principle.

First, measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field
at a large number of locations (or at every point in space).
Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector)
pointing in the direction of the local magnetic field with its
magnitude proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
An alternative method to map the magnetic field is to
'connect' the arrows to form magnetic field lines. The
direction of the magnetic field at any point is parallel to the
direction of nearby field lines, and the local density of field
lines can be made proportional to its strength.

Magnetic Fields and Permanent

Magnets
The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite
complicated, especially near the magnet. The magnetic field of
a small straight magnet is proportional to the
magnet's strength (called its magnetic dipole moment m).
The equations are non-trivial and also depend on the distance
from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple
magnets, m points in the direction of a line drawn from the
south to the north pole of the magnet. Flipping a bar magnet is
equivalent to rotating its m by 180 degrees.
 Magnetic Field Model and H-Field

The H-field, therefore, is analogous to the electric field E,

which starts at a positive electric charge and ends at a negative
electric charge. Near the North Pole, therefore, all H-field
lines point away from the North Pole (whether inside the
magnet or out) while near
The South Pole (whether inside the magnet or out) all H-field
lines point toward the South Pole. A north pole, then, feels a
force in the direction of the H-field while the force on the
South Pole is opposite to the H-field.

Magnetic Field and Electric

Currents

All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields.

Moving point charges, such as electrons, produce complicated
but well known magnetic fields that depend on the charge,
velocity, and acceleration of the particles.
Magnetic field lines form in concentric circles around
a cylindrical current-carrying conductor, such as a length of
wire. The direction of such a magnetic field can be determined
by using the "right hand grip rule" The strength of the
magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire
The Biot-Savart Law: relates magnetic fields to the
currents which are their sources. In a similar manner,
Coulomb's law relates electric fields to the point charges
which are their sources. Finding the magnetic field resulting
from a current distribution involves the vector product, and is
inherently a calculus problem when the distance from the
current to the field point is continuously changing.

Force on Moving Charges and

Current
A charged particle moving in a B-field experiences
a sideways force that is proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field, the component of the velocity that is
perpendicular to the magnetic field and the charge of the
particle. This force is known as the Lorentz force, and is given
by:
F = qE + qV x B
Where F is the force, q is the electric charge of the
particle, v is the instantaneous velocity of the particle, and B is
the magnetic field (in tesla).
 Force on a Current Carrying Wire
The force on a current carrying wire is similar to that of a
moving charge as expected since a charge carrying wire is a
collection of moving charges. A current-carrying wire feels a
force in the presence of a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on
a macroscopic current is often referred to as the Laplace force.
Consider a conductor of length ℓ, cross section A, and charge q
due to electric current i. If this conductor is placed in a
magnetic field of magnitude B that makes an angle θ with the
velocity of charges in the conductor, the force exerted on a
single charge q is
F = qvBsinφ

Direction of Force
The direction of force on a charge or a current can be
determined by a mnemonic known as the right-hand rule.
Using the right hand and pointing the thumb in the direction
of the moving positive charge or positive current and the
fingers in the direction of the magnetic field the resulting
force on the charge points outwards from the palm. The force
on a negatively charged particle is in the opposite direction. If
both the speed and the charge are reversed then the direction
of the force remains the same. For that reason a magnetic field
measurement (by itself) cannot distinguish whether there is a
positive charge moving to the right or a negative charge
moving to the left.
 Relation between H and B

The formulas derived for the magnetic field above are correct
when dealing with the entire current. A magnetic material
placed inside a magnetic field, though, generates its
own bound current, which can be a challenge to calculate.
(This bound current is due to the sum of atomic sized current
loops and the spin of the subatomic particles such as electrons
that make up the material.) The H-field as defined above helps
factor out this bound current; but to see how, it helps to
introduce the concept of magnetization first.

Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields

Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work

against the electric field that a changing magnetic field creates
and to change the magnetization of any material within the
magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials this same energy
is released when the magnetic field is destroyed so that this
energy can be modelled as being stored in the magnetic field.
For linear, non-dispersive, materials (such that B = μH
where μ is frequency-independent), the energy density is:
𝑩.𝑯 𝑩.𝑩 𝛍𝐇.𝐇
u= = =
𝟐 𝟐𝛍 𝟐
 MAGNETIC DIPOLES
A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is
a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole", terms dating
back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with
the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on
the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the
north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another
magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the
Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it
attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field
contains energy, and physical systems move toward
configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material
is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align
itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the
net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed
within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the
applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic
domains.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ncert text book

2. Wikipedia
3. Medicalnet.com
4. YouTube
 CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. History
3. Source of magnetism
4. Diamagnetism Paramagnetism
5. Ferromagnetism
6. Magnetic domains
7. Anti-ferromagnetism
8. Super-magnetism
9. Electromagnet
10. Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity
11. Magnetic fields in a material
12. Magnetic field
13. Units
14. Magnetic field lines
15. Magnetic fields and permanent magnets
16. Magnetic field model and h-field
17. Magnetic field and electric currents
18. Force on moving charges and current
19. Force on a current carrying wire
20. Direction of force
21. Relation between h and b
22. Energy stored in magnetic fields
23. Magnetic dipoles
24. Bibliography