310 Welding Common Alloys Generally, the steels and alloys that are permitted by

the various codes and stan-dards that we use can be welded by following the proper welding procedures.
For the more frequently used materials. These data sheets summarize most of the important information
needed (e.g., preheat, PWHT, electrodes, etc.) for preparing welding procedures. They also list the ASTM
and ASME specifications, chemical composition, and mechanical properties of each alloy.

311Carbon Steels
Most carbon steels used by the Company are easily weldable because they contain less than about 0.30
percent carbon and 1.20 percent manganese. Above these values, additional precautions may be needed to
prevent cracking, excessive hardness and low toughness in the heat affected zone (HAZ). Welding
problems are more likely to occur in thicker sections (above 1.25 inches) and in higher strength grades.
Welding problems occur in thicker sections because of the increased restraint and the changes in
chemistry often required to maintain minimum strength. Chemistry is most often changed by increasing
carbon and manganese (sometimes with small additions of Cr, Mo, Ni and Cu) or microalloying with
elements such as Cb, V, Ti, Al, and B where permitted by specification.

Carbon Equivalent

CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15

(Eq. 300-1)

CE = C + Mn/6
(Eq. 300-2) The carbon equivalent (CE) of steel can be used as a general guide for determining
weldability. It is primarily used to select preheat temperatures to avoid delayed hydrogen cracking.
Research has shown that the risk of cracking is directly related to HAZ hardness, hydrogen in the weld
metal, and the amount of restraint. HAZ hardness depends on the level of alloying elements present in the
steel and the cooling rate during welding. The most widely used formula for determining CE is the
International Institute of Welding (IIW) formula, where CE in percent equals: Where detailed chemistry
is not available, a useful approximation for carbon steel is:
Steels with a CE less than about 0.50 percent can generally be welded without difficulty using
conventional procedures and moderate preheat. Other CE formulas (such as Pcm) may be more
appropriate for the lower carbon (below about 0.18 percent) micro alloyed steels, often called high
strength low alloy (HSLA) steels. Section 140 describes the use of the CE formula for selecting preheat
temperatures to avoid delayed hydrogen cracking.

Preheat

Low Hydrogen Processes In welding carbon steel, the actual composition is often unknown, so the
Company practice is to preheat thicknesses of 3/4 inch or greater. The need for preheat increases as the
thickness and restraint of weld joints increases. In addition to accel-erating the diffusion of hydrogen out
of the weld, preheat helps reduce residual stresses and soften the weld zone, which are contributing
factors in delayed hydrogen cracking.
111Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Over half of all welding in the U.S. is done with the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process.
SMAW is a manual arc welding process in which the heat for welding is generated by an electric arc
between a flux-covered consumable electrode and the work.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), heat is generated by creating an arc, in an inert shielding gas,
between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the work. GTAW melts the area of the work under
the arc without melting the tungsten electrode.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) uses a continuous solid or tubular electrode of the desired composition
on a spool or coil. This is fed continuously through a gun or torch while maintaining an arc between the
end of the electrode and the base metal.