C4 Cheat Sheet

Chapter Usual types of questions Tips What can go ugly

1 – Partial  Be able to split a fraction whose  The textbook provides two methods for dealing with top  Forgetting the extra term when the
Fractions denominator is a product of heavy fractions. The algebraic long division method is miles denominator’s factors are squared.
linear expressions, e.g.
2𝑥+3 easier!  Being sloppy at algebraic long division!
𝑥(𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 +2 𝑥 2 +2
e.g. 𝑥(𝑥+1) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥. Using long division we get a quotient of 1  Be careful with substitution of negative
 Be able to split a fraction where
values.
one (or more) of the factors in and a remainder of −𝑥 + 2, thus:
 You may have to spot that you need to
the denominator are squared, 𝑥2 + 2 −𝑥 + 2
2𝑥+3 =1+ factorise the denominator first before
e.g. 2 (𝑥+1) 2
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥
−𝑥+2
expressing as partial fractions.
 Deal with top-heavy fractions Then split the into partial fractions as normal.
𝑥(𝑥+1)  Not realising the fraction is top heavy and
where the highest power in the  Don’t forget that when you have a squared factor in the therefore trying to incorrectly do:
denominator is greater or equal denominator, you need two fractions in your partial fraction 2𝑥 2 𝐴 𝐵
to the highest power in the = +
sum: 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2 +2 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
denominator, e.g ≡ + 2+
𝑥(𝑥+1) 2
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1
 When you have three unknowns it’s generally easiest to use
substitution to get two of them (e.g. the 𝐴 and the 𝐵) then
compare the coefficients of 𝑥 2 to get the 𝐶. For the above
example:
2 ≡ 𝐴𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥 2
We can see immediately, without needing to write out the
expansion, that 0 = 𝐴 + 𝐶, by comparing 𝑥 2 terms.
2 – Parametric 𝑑𝑦 (
𝑑𝑦
)  Note: You will NOT be asked to sketch parametric equations.  Hitting a dead end converting parametric
 Know that = 𝑑𝑡
Equations 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
( )  To convert parametric equations involving trig functions to equations to Cartesian. See tips on left.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
(This makes sense as we have just divided Cartesian ones, the strategy is usually to make sin 𝑥 and  Forgetting to multiply by 𝑑𝑡 when
numerator and denominator by 𝑑𝑡) cos 𝑥 the subject before using the identity sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 ≡ integrating parametric equations.
 Be able to integrate parametric 1. Often squaring one of the parametric equations helps so
equations. Remember that the 𝑑𝑥 in ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 can be
that we have sin2 𝑥 and/or cos 2 𝑥: 𝑑𝑥
 Be able to convert parametric 𝑥 = √3 sin 2𝑡 𝑦 = 4 cos 2 𝑡
replaced with 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡, which is easy to
equations into a single Cartesian 𝑥 = 2√3 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 remember, as the 𝑑𝑡’s cancel if we think of
one. 𝑥 2 = 12 sin2 𝑡 cos 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑡 just as quantities.
𝑥 2 = 12(1 − cos 2 𝑡) cos 2 𝑡
𝑦 2 𝑦
𝑥 2 = 12 (1 − ( ) )
4 4
3 – Binomial  Expanding out an expression of  (1 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛(𝑘𝑥) +
𝑛(𝑛−1)
(𝑘𝑥)2 Many things!
Expansion the form (1 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is 2!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)  Lack of brackets when squaring/cubing
negative or fractional. + (𝑘𝑥)3 + ⋯ things, e.g. you need (2𝑥)3 = 8𝑥 3 not 2𝑥 3
3!
 Expanding out an expression of  Your expression may be a binomial expansion in disguise, e.g.  With say (3 + 4𝑥)−1, forgetting to raise the
the form (𝑎 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑎 1 3 3 you factor out to the power of -1.
1 1 1 − ×−
needs to be factorised out first. (1 −
= − 2𝑥) = 1 + (− )
2 (−2𝑥) + 2 2 (−2𝑥)2 + ⋯  Forgetting to put the factorial in the
√1 − 2𝑥 2 2!
 Finding the product of two denominators of the Binomial coefficients
 When the first term is not 1, you have to factorise this □ □
Binomial expansions, e.g. (a common error is instead of )
number out, raised to the power outside the brackets. e.g. 3 3!
√1 + 𝑥 1 1 1  Being careless in using your calculator when
→ (1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2 1 1 5 2
√1 − 𝑥 (4 + 5𝑥)2 = 42 (1 + 𝑥) simplifying coefficients.
4  Be ridiculously careful with signs!
1 5
= 2 [1 + ( 𝑥) + ⋯ ]  Accidentally forgetting the minus in the
2 4 1
Ensure the outer brackets are maintained till the very end, power when expanding say (𝑥+1)2
when you expand them out.
 When finding the product of two expansions, then if you
needed up to the 𝑥 2 term, then you only need to find up to
the 𝑥 2 term in each of the two expansions. Only consider
things in the expansion which are up to 𝑥 2 . e.g.
1 + 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 1 1
√ = = (1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2
1 − 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥
1 1 1
(1 + 𝑥)2 ≈ 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2 8
−
1 1 3
(1 − 𝑥) 2 ≈ 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2 8
1 1 1 1 1 3
(1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2 ≈ (1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
2 8 2 8
1 3 1 1 1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥2
2 8 2 4 8
1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
2
4-  Appreciate that 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥  Example of implicit differentiation (which involves collecting  A classic is to accidentally treat 𝑥 or 𝑦 as
Differentiation represents ‘exponential growth’ 𝑑𝑦 constants rather than variables, when
the terms on one side and factorising it out):
𝑑𝑥
when 𝑎 > 1, and ‘exponential 𝑑𝑦 differentiating implicitly. Note that
decay’ when 0 < 𝑎 < 1 (and “Given that 𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , find .” 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑥) = 𝑎 if 𝑎 is a constant, but (𝑥𝑦) =
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
from C3, know the graphs for 𝑑𝑦
each). 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 by the product rule, and not just 𝑦.
𝑥 (2𝑦 ) + 𝑦2 + 2 = 2𝑥

𝑑
Know that 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥  When differentiating implicitly, you might
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
(2𝑥𝑦 + 2) = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 forget to put the 𝑑𝑥, e.g. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑦
(proof unlikely to be asked for) 𝑑𝑥
 Be able to differentiate 𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 rather than the correct 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥𝑦 + 2
implicitly, e.g. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥  Exponential functions do not behave like
They particularly love use of the product rule!
and subsequently be able to polynomials when differentiated. e.g.
𝑑𝑦
 A ‘differential equation’ is an equation involving both some 𝑑 𝑑
make 𝑑𝑥 the subject. variables and derivatives involving those variables, e.g. a mix (𝑥 3 ) = 3𝑥 2 , but (3𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 ln 3, and
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Be able to set up differential 𝑑𝑦
of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑑𝑥. ‘Solving’ this equation means to obtain an absolutely not 𝑥 ⋅ 3𝑥−1 !
equations, e.g. understand that  Many students often get their equation
equation only involving the variables, and not the derivatives.
“the temperature falls at a rate wrong when connecting rates of change,
 Whenever you see the word ‘rate’, think /𝑑𝑡.
proportional to its current often say dividing instead of multiplying, or
 “A circle’s radius increases at a rate of 2cm/s. Find the rate of
temperature” could be vice versa. If you use the ‘fill in the
increase of its area when the radius is 10cm.”
𝑑𝑇
represented as 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑘𝑇 diagonals’ tip on the left this will unlikely be
First note the variables involved: 𝐴, 𝑟 and because we’re
a problem.
 Connect different derivatives 𝑑𝐴
talking about rates, 𝑡. We need to find . Since derivatives
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
involving rates, e.g. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑑𝑥 behave pretty much like normal fractions, first write the
following product with the 𝑑𝐴 and 𝑑𝑡 copied into the
diagonals:
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 □
= ×
𝑑𝑡 □ 𝑑𝑡
Then fill the remaining diagonals with the remaining variable,
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟: = ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
One value, in this case 𝑑𝑡 = 2, is always given. The other we
need to form some formula, in this case 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (and often
using simple geometry to find an area of volume), and
differentiate:
𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐴
Thus when 𝑟 = 10, 𝑑𝑟 = 2 × 𝜋 × 10 = 20𝜋
𝑑𝐴
Thus: 𝑑𝑡 = 20𝜋 × 2 = 40𝜋
5 - Vectors (In rough descending order of how
frequently they appear in exams)
 Find the point of intersection of
two lines or prove that two lines
do not intersect.
 Find the angle between two
lines.
 Finding a missing 𝑥/𝑦/𝑧 value of
a point on a line.
 Find the length of a vector or the
distance between two points.
 Find the nearest point on a line
to a point not on the line (often
the origin) – note: not in your
textbook!
 Show lines are perpendicular.
 Show a point lies on a line.
 Show 3 points are collinear (i.e.
lie on the same straight line)
 Find the area of a rectangle,
parallelogram or triangle formed
by vectors.
 Find the equation of a line.
 Find the reflection of a point in a
line.
 When you see the 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 unit vectors used in an exam  When finding the angle between two lines,
question, never actually use this notation yourself: always accidentally using the full vector
just write all vectors in conventional column vector form. representation of the line (in your dot
 Almost always draw a suitable diagram. This will be product), and not just the direction
particularly helpful when you need to find the area of some 1−𝑡
shape (typically the last part of a question). component, e.g. using ( 2 ) instead of
 When finding the area of a shape, you can almost always use 3 + 2𝑡
−1
your answers from previous parts of the questions, including just the correct ( 0 ).
lengths of vectors and angles between two vectors. 𝑡
1
Remember that area of non-right angled triangle = 2 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶  Making sign errors when subtracting
where the angle 𝐶 appears between the two sides 𝑎 and 𝑏. A vectors, particularly when subtracting an
parallelogram can be cut in half to form two congruent non- expression involving a negative. Correctly:
right angled triangles (i.e. multiply by 2). 1 1−𝑡 𝑡
(2) − ( −2 ) = ( 4 )
 To show 3 points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are collinear, just show that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is a 7 − 2𝑡
3 2𝑡 − 4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
multiple of 𝐵𝐶 (i.e. vectors are parallel).  Once finding out 𝑠 and 𝑡 (or 𝜇 and 𝜆) when
 “Show 3𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 2𝒌 lies on the line with vector equation 𝑟 = solving simultaneous equation to find the
𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 4𝒌 + 𝑡(𝒊 − 𝒌)” intersection of two lines, forgetting to show
3 1+𝑡
that these satisfy the remaining equation.
i.e. Show (3) lies on ( 3 ). Equating 3 = 1 + 𝑡 to 𝑡 = 2.  Forgetting the square root when finding the
2 4−𝑡
magnitude of a vector.
Then 4 − 𝑡 = 4 − 2 = 2, so 𝑦 and 𝑧 components are same.
 “Let 𝑙1 : 𝒓 = (9𝒊 + 13𝒋 − 3𝒌) + 𝜆(𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 2𝒌)
Given point 𝐴 has positive vector 4𝑖 + 16𝑗 − 3𝑘 and 𝑃 lies on
𝑙1 such that 𝐴𝑃 is perpendicular to 𝑙1 , find 𝑃.”
9+𝜆
𝑙1 : ( 13 + 4𝜆 )
−3 − 2𝜆
Note that the direction vector of the line, and the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐴
are perpendicular. 𝑃 is just a point on the line so can be
9+𝜆
represented as ( 13 + 4𝜆 ) for some specific 𝜆 we need to
−3 − 2𝜆
find.
1
Direction vector of 𝑙1 is ( 4 )
−2
 4 9+𝜆 −5 − 𝜆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐴 = ( 16 ) − ( 13 + 4𝜆 ) = ( 3 − 4𝜆 )
−3 −3 − 2𝜆 2𝜆
−5 − 𝜆 1
Thus: ( 3 − 4𝜆 ) ⋅ ( 4 ) = 0
2𝜆 −2
−5 − 𝜆 + 12 − 16𝜆 − 4𝜆 = 0
1
𝜆=
3
1 1
9+ 9
3 3
Thus: 𝑃 = 13 + 4(13) = 14 13
1 2
−3 − 2( ) −3
( 3 ) ( 3)
6 - Integration  Integrate a large variety of  One often forgotten integration is exponential functions such Where to start!
expressions. See the ‘integration as 2𝑥 . Differentiating has effect of multiplying by 𝑙𝑛 of the  One big problem is just not knowing what
cheat sheet’ overleaf. But by base, and thus integrating divides by it. i.e. method to use to integrate a particular
category: 𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥 expression. The cheat sheet overleaf should
(2 ) = ln 2 ⋅ 2𝑥 ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 +𝐶
o Integrating trig 𝑑𝑥 ln 2 help, as should lots of practice of a variety
functions, including  Know the two double angle formulae for 𝑐𝑜𝑠 like the back of of expressions!
reciprocal functions and your hand, for use when integrating sin2 𝑥 or cos 2 𝑥  Similarly getting stuck on integration by
squared functions  In general, know your integrals of all the ‘trig squares’, i.e. substitution, because you can’t get the
sin2 𝑥, cos2 𝑥 , sec 2 2𝑥, sin2 𝑥 , cos2 𝑥 , tan2 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥, sec 2 𝑥 , cot 2 𝑥 whole original expression only in terms of
etc.  For integration by ‘reverse chain rule’, always ‘consider’ the new variable (𝑡 or otherwise).
o Integrating by ‘reverse some sensible expression to differentiate, then adjust for the  Perhaps the all-time biggest mistake is
chain rule’ (also known factor difference. e.g. forgetting to consider the effects of chain
as ‘integration by ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥 rule. e.g. Accidentally doing
inspection’).
Then your working might be: ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 2𝑥
o Integrating by a given
substitution. “Consider 𝑦 = (4 − 3𝑥)6 . Then  Sign errors when integrating/differentiating
𝑑𝑦
o Integration by parts. = 6(4 − 3𝑥)5 × (−3) = −18(4 − 3𝑥)5 trig functions. Other than sin and cos, be
𝑑𝑥
o Integrating by use of 1 careful about cot/cosec:
partial fractions. ∴ ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥 = − (4 − 3𝑥)6 + 𝐶 𝑑
18 (cot 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
o Integrating top heavy  For integration by substitution, the official specification says 𝑑𝑥
fractions by algebraic “Except in the simplest of cases, the substitution will be thus ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
division. given.”  A common one: Forgetting about the chain
 Remember that starting with the substitution, say 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + rule when integrating expressions of the
1, it helps to make 𝑥 the subject, except in some cases where form (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑐 , see ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥
there’s a trigonometric substitution, e.g. if 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 + 1, but example.
sin 𝑥 appears in the expression to integrate, then we might
 Be able to differentiate make sin 𝑥 the subject instead.  Remember that constants differentiate to
parametric equations: Differentiate and make 𝑑𝑥 the subject also, then ensure 𝑑
nothing, i.e. (𝜋 2 ) = 0 not 2𝜋!
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
original expression is only in terms of new variable.
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑡  Similarly ln 𝑐 is a constant. 𝑥 ln 2 would
𝑑𝑡  Don’t feel as if you need to memorise a separate formula for
differentiate to ln 2.
 Calculate volumes of revolution 𝑑𝑥
parametric volumes of revolution, since 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 clearly by
𝑑𝑡  If 𝑢2 = 𝑥 + 1 is the substitution, you’re
both for normal and parametric
the fact that the 𝑑𝑡’s cancel. doing unnecessary work if you then square
equations:
 You have to change the limits whenever you do either of: (a) root. Differentiating implicitly:
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 parametric integration or (b) integration by substitution, 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 2𝑢 =1
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦2 𝑑𝑡 because you’re integrating in terms of a new variable. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
 This is more use for STEP, but remember that ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
 Solve differential equations. This is much much tidier!
𝑏
𝑑𝑦 − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥), useful when the limits are the wrong way round.
e.g. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥  Forgetting to change your limits for either
 Trapezium Rule as per C2, but  You can tidy things up sometimes using − ∫ −𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = parametric integration or integration by
now with C3/C4 expressions to + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, since the -1 can be factored out the integral. substitution!
integrate. You will frequently be  For integration by parts, if you ever have to IBP twice, write But note that in integration by substitution,
asked to compare the actual the second integral as a separate result first before once you’ve changed back to the original
error and the estimated area substituting it in after. This is to avoid sign errors and keep variable (probably 𝑥), you should use the
using the rule, and the things tidy. e.g. Workings might be: original limits.
percentage error. ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥  Don’t try and use integration by parts if you
𝑑𝑣 can use ‘integration by inspection’.
𝑢 = 𝑥2 = cos 𝑥 2
e.g. For ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 , then integration by parts
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 would lead to a dead end.
= 2𝑥 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥  For differential equations, ensure the
2 2
∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑□
variable at the top of the 𝑑□ matches what
“For ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥:” you’ve moved to the LHS. e.g. If
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑢 = 2𝑥 = sin 𝑥 = 𝑟2𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑢
= 2 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥 then it’s the 𝑡 you want on the LHS.
𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ −2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
∴ ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − (−2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥)
2

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

 Note the nice double negative tidying up trick towards the
end.
𝑑𝑦
 If you’re solving 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦, then you need the 𝑦 (or
𝑑𝑦
whatever variable appears at the top of ) on the LHS. This
𝑑𝑥
is always achieved by a division or multiplication, which may
require factorisation first:
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦(𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 ln|𝑦| = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑦 2
1 2 1 2
𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑥+𝐶 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑥
 Note in the above example, we let some new constant 𝐴 =
𝑒 𝐶 to help tidy things up. If we had ln 𝑥 + 𝐶 on the right-
hand-side, we’d make 𝐶 = ln 𝐴 so that ln 𝑥 + ln 𝐴 = ln(𝐴𝑥).
Similarly if we had ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝐶, and hence 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝐶 =
𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝐶 , we could make 𝐴 = 𝑒 𝐶 .
 In differential equations, ensure you separate the RHS into
the form 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦) first so that you are able to divide by
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
𝑔(𝑦), e.g. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥(1 + 𝑦) → 1+𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 In differential equations, if you’re given initial conditions
(note, often 𝑡 = 0 is often implied for the initial condition),
then it’s generally easier to plug them in to work out your
constant of integration sooner rather than later.
 C4 Integration Cheat Sheet
𝒇(𝒙) How to deal with it ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 (+constant) FormBk? 𝒇(𝒙) How to deal with it ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 (+constant) FB?
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 Standard result − cos 𝑥 No 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 For any product of sin and cos 1 No
− cos 4𝑥
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 Standard result sin 𝑥 No with same coefficient of 𝑥, use 8
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 In formula booklet, but use ln|sec 𝑥| Yes double angle.
sin 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 which is of the form sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 ≡ sin 4𝑥
2
cos 𝑥
𝑘𝑓 ′(𝑥) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 Of form 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑒 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 𝒙 Use algebraic division. 𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 1|
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 For both sin2 𝑥 and cos 2 𝑥 use 1 1 No 𝑥 1
𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 𝒙+𝟏 ≡1−
identities for cos 2𝑥 2 4 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 𝟏 Use partial fractions. ln|𝑥| − ln|𝑥 + 1|
1 1 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)
sin2 𝑥 = − cos 2𝑥
2 2 𝟒𝒙 Reverse chain rule. Of form 2 ln|𝑥 2 + 1|
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 1 1 No 𝟐
𝒙 +𝟏 𝑘𝑓 ′(𝑥)
1 1 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 ∫
2 4 𝑓(𝑥)
cos 2 𝑥 = + cos 2𝑥 𝒙 Power around denominator so 1
2 2 − (𝑥 2 + 1)−1
𝑘𝑓′ (𝑥)
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒙 1 + tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 No (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐
𝟐
NOT of form ∫ . Rewrite as 2
𝑓(𝑥)
tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥 − 1 product.
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 Would use substitution 𝑢 = −ln|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥| Yes 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)−2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥, but too hard Reverse chain rule (i.e. “Consider
for exam. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 1)−1 " and differentiate.
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 Would use substitution 𝑢 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| Yes 𝟖𝒙𝟐 Fraction top heavy so do algebraic 1
2𝑥 + ln|1 − 2𝑥|
sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥, but too hard for division first. Then split into 2
𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 1
algebraic fractions as − ln |2𝑥 + 1|
exam.
cos 𝑥 4𝑥 2 − 1 = (2𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1) 2
𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 which is of the form ln|𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥| Yes 𝟐𝒙+𝟏 1 2𝑥+1
sin 𝑥 𝒆 For any function where ‘inner 𝑒
𝑓 ′(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝟏 function’ is linear expression, 2
𝑓(𝑥) 1
𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙 divide by coefficient of 𝑥 − ln|1 − 3𝑥|
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 By observation. − cot 𝑥 No! 3
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 By observation. tan 𝑥 Yes (but 𝒙√𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 Use sensible substitution. 𝑢 = 1 3
(2𝑥 + 1)2 (3𝑥 − 1)
memorise) 2𝑥 + 1 or even better, 𝑢2 = 15
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒙 1 + cot 2 𝑥 ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥 No 2𝑥 + 1.
𝒆𝒙 Standard result 𝑒𝑥 No 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟓 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 Reverse chain rule. 1 6
sin 𝑥
𝒂𝒙 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 → ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎 1 No 6
𝑎𝑥 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 Use identities in C3 formula 1 Sort of
Then differentiate implicitly. ln(𝑎) − cos 5𝑥
𝟏 Standard result ln 𝑥 No booklet, 10
1
sin 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥 = (sin 5𝑥 + cos 3𝑥) 1
𝒙 2 + sin 3𝑥
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝑑𝑣
Use IBP, where 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 1 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 No Note: has never come up in an exam. 6