Unit One

Research:-research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed
phenomenon.
Research methods vs. Research methodology:
Research methods include all the techniques and methods which have been taken for conducting
research whereas
Research methodology is the approach in which research troubles are solved thoroughly. It is a
science of studying how research is conducted systematically. In this field, the researcher explains
himself with the different steps generally taken to study research problem. Hence, the scientific
approach which is adopted for conducting a research is called methodology.
Meaning of Research:-
The term research is related to seek out the information and knowledge on a particular topic or
subject. In other words, research is an art of systematic investigation.
Someone says that necessity is mother of all invention and the mother matter of this scientific
investigation can be termed as research.
Research is pedagogic action the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford
woody research comprise defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusion and
at last carefully teaching the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Objective of Research:-
The major aim of any type of research is to find out the reality and facts which is unknown and which
has not been improved. Although each research activity has its own particular reason.
The objectives of research can be grouped into the following categories.
1. To achieve willfulness with a trend or to get novel opinion in to it (research with this objective can be
termed as exploratory or formulative).
2. To find out the characteristics of a particular character, condition or a grouping (research with this
objective can be termed as descriptive research).
3. To establish the relationship with which something occur or with which it is related with something
else (research with this objective are known as diagnostic research).
4. To test a hypothesis of a reasonable liaison between different variable(this type of research can be
grouped in to hypothesis testing research)
Type of Research
1. Descriptive vs Analytical Research
Descriptive research consists of survey and fault finding investigations of different kinds. The main
purpose of descriptive research is explanation of the set of circumstances as it is present as such.
The main feature is that scientifically does not have direct control over the variables, he can only
report what is happening or what has happened. The technique used in descriptive research are
can be of all kinds like survey method, comparative and correlational methods etc.
On the other hand, in analytical research, the researcher used the information, facts, data which is
already available and analyzes these sources to make a hypothesis for evaluation of material.
2. Applied vs Fundamentals: - the main aim of the applied research is to find out a solution for some
critical problem practically faced by individual, society, industry or some organization.
Fundamental research is handling towards finding information that has a wide sense of
applications to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
3. Quantitative vs Qualitative Research:-
Quantitative research involves systematic experimental analyses of observable phenomenon via
statistical, mathematical or computational techniques in numerical from such as statistics,
percentages etc.
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon that relating to quality or variety
such type of research is typically descriptive and harder to analyze than quantitative data.
Qualitative research involves in depth study by non-numerical data.
4. Conceptual vs Empirical Research:-
Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas or theory. It focuses on the concept and
theory that explain the concerned theory being studied. It is generally used by logicians,
philosopher and theorist to develop new concepts or to again understand the existing ones.
Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone. It is a way of gaining knowledge by
means of direct or indirect observation or experience.
Fundamental of Research
Research methods:- it includes all techniques and methods for conducting research.
Research methodology:- the scientific approach which is adopted for conducting research.
Meaning of research: - to seek out the information and knowledge on a particular topic or subject.
Research is an art of systematic investigation.
 Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggest solutions,
collecting, organizing and evaluating data , making decisions and reaching conclusions and at
last validating the conclusions whether they fit or not.
Objective of Research:-
1. To get novel opinions into it (exploratory or formulative)
2. To find out the characteristics of a particular character( descriptive research)
3. To establish the relationship with which something occur( diagnostic research)
4. To test a hypothesis of a reasonable liaison between different variables( hypothesis testing
research)
Research process:-
1. Identify research problem
2. Broad literature survey
3. Hypothesis formulation
4. Research design and sample design
5. Data collection through carrying out research
6. Data analysis and hypothesis testing
7. Generalization, interpret and report
Basic Statistical Concept:-
Each observation in experiment is called run. There may be difference in individual runs during
experiment. So it may be called as fluctuation or noise in the results. This noise is usually called
experimental error or simply error. It is a statistical error, meaning that it arise from variation that
is uncontrolled and generally unavailable.
The presence of error or noise implies that the response variable is a random variable.
A random variable may be either discrete or continuous. If the set of all possible values of the random
variable is either finite or count ably infinite, then the random variable is discrete, where as if the set
of all possible values of the random variable is an interval, then the random variable is continuous.
Probability Distribution:-
The probability structure of a random variable, say, y is described by its probability distribution. If y is
discrete, we often call the probability distribution of y as p(y). It is also called probability function of
y. if y is continuous; the probability distribution of y, f(y) is also called the probability density
function of y.
 The properties of probability distributions may be summarized quantitatively as follows:

Sampling:- the process of testing a group of data or a group of product items from a population of
data or population of product is called sampling.
The sample data or sample product represents the property of whole population. Since it is very
difficult to conduct test for each and every product, therefore sampling is done to determine the
property of whole population.
There are several ways of conducting sampling
Random sampling is one of the simplest ways of sampling method. In random sampling, the chance of
selection of each and every product items is equal. There is no biasness.
Mean, Variance, and Expected Values
The mean, µ, of a probability distribution is a measure of its central tendency or location.
Mathematically, we define the mean as
Where E denotes the expected value operator.
The variability or dispersion of a probability distribution can be measured by the variance, defined as

Finally, the variance is used so extensively that it is convenient to define a variance operator V such
that

σ- Is standard deviation.
For example, suppose that y1, y2, . . . , yn represents a sample.
Then the sample mean

and the sample variance

The sample mean and sample variance are measures of the central tendency and dispersion of
the sample, respectively.

Is the corrected sum of squares

Degrees of Freedom. ( ) The number of degrees of freedom of a sum of squares is equal to

the number of independent elements in that sum of squares.

or
Hypothesis Testing:-
A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about population being sampled. There are two type of
hypothesis.
1. Null hypothesis (H0)
2. Alternative hypothesis (H1)

A test of hypothesis is simply a rule by which a hypothesis is either accepted or rejected. Such a
rule is usually based on sample statistics called test statistics. Since it is based on sample
statistics computed from n observations, the decision is subject to two types of errors.
t-test
It is a method of testing hypothesis about the mean of small sample drawn from a normally
distributed population when the standard deviation for the sample is unknown.
Assumptions:-
i. Dependent variables are interval or ratio.
ii. The population from which samples are drawn is normally distributed
iii. Samples are randomly selected
iv. The groups have equal variance
v. The t-statistic is robust
Application of t-test

1. The calculation of confidence interval for sample mean

2. To test whether a sample mean is different from a hypothesized value
3. To compare mean of two samples

Type of t-test:-

i. Single sample t-test:- in this ,we have only 1 group ; want to test against a hypothetical mean
ii. Independent samples t-test:- in this we have 2 mean 2group; no relation between groups
iii. Paired t-test:- it consists of samples of matched pairs of similar units or one group of units
tested twice . eg. Difference of mean pre and post during intersection
One sample t-test
It is used in measuring whether a sample value significantly differs from a hypothesized value.
For e.g. A research scholar might hypothesize that on an average it takes 3 minutes for people to
drink a standard cup of coffee. He conducts an experiment and measures how long it takes his
subjects to drink a standard cup of coffee.
The one sample t-test measures whether the mean amount of time it took the experimental group to
complete the task varies significantly from the hypothesized 3minutes value.
Equation for a one –sample t-test

Example; 10 individuals had taken an exam and we want to test whether their scores, all
together are significantly different from score of 100.

There for degree of freedom= n-1=9

Referee to t table to determine the critical t value for 9 degree of freedom at the 0.05 level of
significance.
Therefore t|9,0.05= 2.26
Since 4.61>2.26
Therefore we can say that the scores of our sample of 10 individuals differ significantly from
score of 100.
Independent t-test
-The independent sample t-test consists of tests that compare mean values of continuous level
in a normally distributed data.
-The independent sample t-test compares two means
-The independent sample t-test is also called unpaired t-test or two sample t-test
-The t-test should be used when two separate independent and identically distributed
variables are measured.
Assumptions
i. A random sample of each population is used
ii. The random samples are each made up of independent observation
 iii. Each sample is independent of one another
To test the null hypothesis that two population means,µ1 and µ2 are equal:
1. Calculate the difference between the two sample mean

2. Calculate the pooled standard deviation Sp

3. Calculate the standard error of the difference between the means.
4. Calculate the T-statistics

5. Use table of t-test distribution to compare your value for T to the tn1+n2-2 distributions
This will give P-value.

SS= sum of squares

Example: test the following hypothesis table
case Group 1 Group 2
1 78 57
2 82 92
3 87 86
4 65 95
5 75 73
6 82
7 71

t=-0.44
Therefore t|0.05, 10= 2.26
Since |-0.44<2.28
Results are not significant at 0.05 probability level
Paired t-test: - it is used to compare two population means where you have two samples in
which observation in one sample can be paired with observation in other sample.
Steps:-
1. Calculate the difference di=yi-xi between two observation on each pair
2. Calculate the mean difference d
3. Calculate standard error of the mean difference
 4. T= d/S.E
5. DOF= n-1
Find the p Value

Example: In the construction industry a study was undertaken to find out whether male workers
are paid more than the female workers. From a sample of 25 male workers, it was found that
their average wages was £ 115.70 with a standard deviation of £13.40. Whereas the average
wages of female workers were £106.0 with a standard deviation of £10.20 from a sample of 20.
Assume that the wages follow normal distribution with equal but unknown population standard
deviations. Using 5% significance level, test whether the wages of male workers is same as that
of female workers.

Example: test the following hypothesis table

Patient Diastolic Bp Before Diastolic Bp after Change(di)
1 100 92 -3
2 89 84 -5
3 83 80 -3
4 98 93 -5
5 108 98 -10
6 95 90 -5