ANATOMY OF THE SKIN

Body membranes, which cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form protective sheets
around organs, fall into two major groups.
There are (1) epithelial membranes,
which include the cutaneous, mucous,
and serous membranes and (2)
connective tissue membranes,
represented by synovial membranes.

The skin and its derivatives serve

a number of functions, mostly protective.
Together, these organs are called the
integumentary system.

Basic skin functions

Also called the integument, which simply means “covering,” the skin is much more than
an external body covering. It is absolutely essential because it keeps water and other precious
molecules in the body. It also keeps water (and other things) out. Structurally, the skin is marvel.
It is pliable yet tough, which allows it to take constant punishment from external agents. Without
our skin, we would quickly fall prey to bacteria and perish from water and heat loss.

The skin has many functions; most, but not all, are protective. It insulates and cushions
the deeper body organs and protects the entire body from mechanical damage (bumps and
cuts), chemical damage (such as from acids and bases), thermal damage (heat and cold),
ultraviolet radiation (in sunlight), and bacteria. The uppermost layer of the skin is full of keratin
and cornified, or hardened, in order to prevent water loss from the body surface.

The skin’s rich capillary network and sweat glands play an important role in regulating
heat loss from the body surface. The skin act as a mini-excretory system; urea, salts and water
are lost when we sweat. The skin also manufactures several proteins important to immunity and
synthesizes vitamin D. Finally, the cutaneous sensory receptors, which are actually part of the
nervous system, are located in the skin. These tiny sensors, which include touch, pressure,
temperature, and pain receptors, provide us with a great deal of information about our external
environment. They alert us to bumps and the presence of tissue-damaging factors as well as to
the feel of wind in our hair and a caress.
Classification of Body Membranes

The two major categories of body membranes- epithelial and connective tissue- are
classified in part according to their tissue make-up.

- Epithelial Membranes

The epithelial membranes include the cutaneous membrane (skin), the mucous
membrane, and the serous membranes. However, calling these membranes “epithelial”
is not only misleading but also inaccurate. Although they all do contain an epithelial
sheet, it is always combined with an underlying layer of connective tissue. Hence these
membranes are actually simple organs.

• Cutaneous Membranes

The cutaneous membranes is your skin. Its superficial epidermis is composed of

a keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium. The underlying dermis is mostly
dense connective tissue. Unlike the other epithelial membranes, the cutaneous
membrane is exposed to air and is a dry membrane.

• Mucous Membrane

A mucous membrane is composed of epithelium resting on a loose connective

tissue membrane called a latina propia. This membrane type lines all body
cavities that open to the exterior, such as those of the hollow organs of the
respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts. The epithelium of mucosae
is often adapted for absorption or secretion. Although many mucosae secretes
mucus, this is not requirement. The mucosae of the respiratory and digestive
tracts secrete large amounts of protective, lubricating mucus, that of the urinary
tract does not.

• Serous membranes

A serous membrane is composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium

resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue. In contrast to mucous
membranes, which line open body cavities, serous membranes line body cavities
that are closed to the exterior.
 - Connective Tissue

Synovial membranes are composed of connective tissue and contain no epithelial cells
at all. These membranes line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints, where they provide
a smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid. They also line small sacs of connective
tissue called bursae and the tubelike tendon sheaths. Both of these structures cushion
organs moving against each other during muscle activity.

Structure of the Skin

The skin is composed of two kinds of tissue. The outer epidermis is made up of stratified
squamous epithelium that is capable of keratinizing, or becoming hard and tough. The
underlying dermis is mostly made up of dense connective tissue. The epidermis and dermis are
firmly connected. However, a burn or friction fluid may cause them to separate, allowing
interstitial fluid to accumulate in the cavity between the layers, which results in a blister.

Deep to the dermis is the subcutaneous tissue, or hypodermis, which essentially is

adipose tissue. It is not considered part of the skin, but it does anchor the skin to underlying
organs. Subcutaneous tissue serves as a shock absorber and insulates the deeper tissues from
extreme temperature changes occurring the body. It is also responsible for the curves that are
more a part of a woman’s anatomy than a man’s.

- Epidermis

The epidermis is composed of up to five zones

ort layers called strata. From the inside out these are the
stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and
corneum.

Like all epithelial tissues, tissues, the epidermis is

avascular; that is, it has no blood supply of its own. This
explains why a man can shave daily and not bleed even though he is cutting off many cell layers
each time he shaves.

Most cells of the epidermis are keratinocytes, which produce keratin, the fibrous protein
that makes the epidermis a tough protective layer. The deepest cell layer of the epidermis, the
stratum basale, lies closest to the dermis and contains epidermal cells that receive the most
adequate nourishment via diffusion of nutrients from the dermis. These cells are constantly
undergoing cell division, and millions of new cells are produced daily. The daughter cells are
pushed upward, away from the source of nutrition, to become part of the epidermal layers closer
to the skin surface. They move away from the dermis and become part of the more superficial
layers, the stratum spinosum, and then the stratum granulosum. Then they become flatter,
increasingly full of keratin, and finally die, forming the clear stratum lucidum. This latter
epidermal layer is not seen in all skin regions; it occurs only where the skin is hairless and extra
thick, that is, on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The combination of accumulating
keratin inside them, secreting a water-repellent glycoprotein into the extracellular space, and
their increasing distance from the blood supply effectively dooms the stratum lucidum cells and
the more superficial epidermal cells because they are unable to get adequate nutrients and
oxygen.

The outermost layer, the stratum corneum, is 20 to 30 cell layers thick. It accounts for
about three-quarters of the epidermal thickness. The shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely
filled with keratin, are referred to as cornified or horny cells. The common saying “beauty is only
skin deep” is especially interesting in light of the fact that nearly everything we see when we
look at someone is dead! Keratin is an exceptionally tough protein. Its abundance in stratum
corneum allows that layer to provide a durable “overcoat” for the body, which protects deeper
cells from the hostile external environment (air) and from water loss and helps the body resist
biological, chemical, and physical assaults. The stratum corneum rubs and flakes off slowly and
steadily and is replaced by cells produced by the division of the deeper stratum basale cells.
Indeed, we have a totally “new” epidermis every 25 to 45 days.

Melanin, a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to black, is produced by
special cells called melanocytes, found chiefly in the stratum basale. When the skin is exposed
to sunlight, which stimulates the melanocytes to produce more of the melanin pigment, tanning
colors. The stratum basale cells phagocytize the pigment, and as it accumulates within them,
the melanin forms a protective pigment umbrella over the superficial, or “sunny,” side of their
nuclei that shields their genetic material (DNA) from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation
in sunlight. Freckles and moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot.

- Dermis

The dermis is your “hide”. It is a strong, stretchy envelope that helps to hold body
together.

The dense (fibrous) connective tissue making up the dermis consists of two major
regions – the papillary and the reticular areas. Like the epidermis, the dermis varies in
thickness.

• The papillary layer is the upper dermal region. It is uneven and has fingerlike
projections from its superior surface, called dermal papillae, which indent the
epidermis above. Many of the dermal papillae contain capillary loops, which
furnish nutrients to the epidermis.

• The reticular layer is the deepest skin layer. It contains blood vessels, sweat and
oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called Pacinian corpuscles. Many
phagocytes are found here. They act to prevent bacteria that have managed to
get through the epidermis from penetrating any deeper into the body.

Skin Color

Three pigments contribute to skin color:

1. The amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown or black) of melanin in the epidermis.

2. The amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue.

3. The amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin in the dermal blood vessels.

Skin color is also influenced by emotional stimuli, and many alterations in skin color signal
certain disease states:
- Redness or erythema: reddened skin may indicate embarrassment, fever, hypertension,
inflammation or allergy.

- Pallor or blanching: under certain types of emotional stress (fear, anger and others),
some people become pale. Pale skin may also signify anemia, low blood pressure or
impaired blood flow into the area.

- Jaundice or a yellow cast: an abnormal yellow skin tone signifies a liver disorder in which
excess bile pigments are absorbed into the bile, circulated throughout the body and
deposited in the body tissues.

- Bruises or black-and-blue marks: reveal sites where blood has escaped from the
circulation and has clotted in tissue spaces. Such clotted blood masses are called
hematomas.
ANATOMY OF THE BLOOD

Blood is a connective tissue composed of liquid extracellular liquid matrix called blood
plasma that dissolves and suspends various cells and fragments. Interstitial fluid is the fluid that
bathes the body cells. Blood transports oxygen from lungs and nutrients from the
gastrointestinal tract. The oxygen and nutrients subsequently diffuse from the blood into the
interstitial fluid and then into the body cells. Carbon dioxide and other waste move in the reverse
section, from body cells to interstitial fluid to the blood. Blood then transports the waste to
various organs- the lungs, the kidneys, and skin- for elimination from the body.

Functions of Blood:

1 - Transportation:

o oxygen & carbon dioxide

o nutrients
o waste products (metabolic wastes, excessive water, & ions)

2 - Regulation - hormones & heat (to regulate body temperature)

3 - Protection - clotting mechanism protects against blood loss & leucocytes provide
immunity against many disease-causing agents

Physical Characteristics and Volume

Blood is a sticky opaque liquid with a characteristic metallic taste. Depending on the
amount of oxygen it is carrying, the color of blood varies from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to a dull red
(oxygen-poor). Blood is heavier than water and is 5 times thicker, or more viscous, largely
because of its formed elements.

It is slightly alkaline, with a pH between 7.35 and 7.45. It’s temperature (38 degrees
Celsius or 100.4 Fahrenheit) is slightly higher than body temperature.

It accounts for approximately 8 percent of body weight, and its volume in healthy males
is 5 to 6 liters, or approximately 6 quarts.

The cells travel through the circulatory system suspended in a yellowish fluid called
plasma. Plasma is 90% water and contains nutrients, proteins, hormones, and waste products.
Whole blood is a mixture of blood cells and plasma.

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells (also called erythrocytes)

are shaped like slightly indented, flattened disks.
RBCs contain the iron-rich protein hemoglobin.
Blood gets its bright red color when hemoglobin
picks up oxygen in the lungs. Hemoglobin, an iron-
bearing protein, transports the bulk of the oxygen
that is carried in the blood. As the blood travels
through the body, the hemoglobin releases oxygen
to the tissues. The body contains more RBCs than
any other type of cell, and each has a life span of about 4 months. Each day, the body produces
new red blood cells to replace those that die or are lost from the body.

Erythrocytes are small cells shaped like biconcave discs- flattened discs with depressed
centers on both sides. Their small size and peculiar shape provide a large surface area that are
relative to their volume, making them ideally suited for gas exchange.

RBCs outnumber white blood cells by about 1000 to 1 are the major factor contributing
to blood viscosity. Although the number of RBCs in the circulation do vary, there are normally
about 5 million cells per cubic millimeter of blood. When the number of RBC cubic per millimeter
increases, blood viscosity increases. Similarly, as the number of RBCs decreases, blood thins
and flows more rapidly.
White Blood Cells

White blood cells (or leukocytes) are a key part of the body's system for defending itself
against infection. On average, there are 4000 to 11, 000 WBCs per cubic millimeter, and they
account for less than 1 % of total blood volume. WBCs are the only complete cells in the blood;
that is, they contain nuclei and the usual organelles. They can move in and out of the
bloodstream to reach affected tissues. The blood contains far fewer WBCs than red cells,
although the body can increase production of WBCs to fight infection. There are several types of
WBCs, and their life spans vary from a few days to months. New cells are constantly being
formed in the bone marrow.

Several different parts of blood are involved in fighting infection. White blood cells called
granulocytes and lymphocytes travel along the walls of blood vessels. They fight germs such as
bacteria and viruses and may also attempt to destroy cells that have become infected or have
changed into cancer cells.

Certain types of WBCs produce antibodies, special proteins that recognize foreign
materials and help the body destroy or neutralize them. The white cell count (the number of
cells in a given amount of blood) in someone with an infection often is higher than usual
because more WBCs are being produced or are entering the bloodstream to battle the infection.
After the body has been challenged by some infections, lymphocytes "remember" how to make
the specific antibodies that will quickly attack the same germ if it enters the body again.

Platelets

Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are tiny oval-shaped cells made in the bone marrow.
The platelets appear as darkly staining, irregularly shaped bodies scattered among other blood
cells. They help in the clotting process. When a blood vessel breaks, platelets gather in the area
and help seal off the leak. Platelets survive only about 9 days in the bloodstream and are
constantly being replaced by new cells.

Important proteins called clotting factors are critical to the clotting process. Although
platelets alone can plug small blood vessel leaks and temporarily stop or slow bleeding, the
action of clotting factors is needed to produce a strong, stable clot.
 Platelets and clotting factors work together to form solid lumps to seal leaks, wounds,
cuts, and scratches and to prevent bleeding inside and on the surfaces of our bodies. The
process of clotting is like a puzzle with interlocking parts. When the last part is in place, the clot
happens — but if even one piece is missing, the final pieces can't come together.

When large blood vessels are severed (or cut), the body may not be able to repair itself
through clotting alone. In these cases, dressings or stitches are used to help control bleeding.

The normal platelet count in blood is about 300, 000 cubic millimeter.

*Components of Blood - average adult has about 5 liters (about 5 qts):

1 - Formed elements:

o Red blood cells (or erythrocytes)

o White blood cells (or leucocytes)
o Platelets (or thrombocytes)

2 - Plasma = water and dissolved solutes

*Red Blood Cells (or erythrocytes):

- biconcave discs

- lack a nucleus & cannot reproduce (average lifespan = about 120 days)

- transport hemoglobin (each RBC has about 280 million hemoglobin molecules)

- Typical concentration is 4-6 million per cubic mm (or hematocrit [packed cell volume] of
about 42% for females & 45% for males)

- contain carbonic-anhydrase (critical for transport of carbon dioxide)

Determining the hematocrit

*Erythropoiesis = formation of erythrocytes

• the body must produce about 2.5 million new RBCs every second
• in adults, erythropoiesis occurs mainly in the marrow of the sternum, ribs, vertebral
processes, and skull bones
• begins with a cell called a hemocytoblast or stem cell (below)
• rate is regulated by oxygen levels:

o hypoxia (lower than normal oxygen levels) is detected by cells in the kidneys
o kidney cells release the hormone erythropoietin into the blood
o erythropoietin stimulates erythropoiesis by the bone marrow.
Three main classifications of blood cells derive from haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) (Katsura
2002).

• Myeloid cells. This includes macrophages (monocytes) and granular white blood cells
(or granulocytes; neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils). Macrophages have a role in
adaptive immunity, cooperating with T and B cells through antigen presentation and the
production of cytokines.

• Erythroid-megakaryocytes. Erythrocytes (red blood cells) carry oxygen through blood

vessels, whereas platelets derived from megakaryocytes work to prevent blood loss.

• Lymphoid cells. This includes T-cells and B-cells. Natural killer (NK) cells are thought
to be the prototype of T cells. Thymic, as well as pre-thymic, T-cell progenitors are able
to generate dendritic cells. B cells secrete antibodies.

*Hemoglobin

• composed of globin (made up of 4 highly folded polypeptide chains) + 4 heme groups

(with iron)
• each molecule can carry 4 molecules of oxygen
• called oxyhemoglobin when carrying oxygen & called reduced hemoglobin when not
carrying oxygen
• can also combine with carbon dioxide & helps transport carbon dioxide from the tissues
to the lungs

*White blood cells (or leucocytes or leukocytes):

• have nuclei & do not contain hemoglobin

• typical concentration is 5,000 - 9,000 per cubic millimeter
• types of WBCs:
o granular white blood cells include:
 neutrophils (50 - 70% of WBCs)
 eosinophils (1 - 4%)
 basophils (less than 1%)
o agranular (or non-granular) white blood cells include:
 lymphocytes (25 - 40%)
  monocytes (2 - 8%)

Granular
white blood cells
contains numerous
granules in the
cytoplasm, & their
nuclei are lobed.
Agranular white blood
cells have few or no granules in the cytoplasm & have a large spherical nucleus. Granular white
blood cells are produced in the bone marrow, while agranular white blood cells are produced in
lymph tissue, e.g., Lymph nodes (specialized dilations of lymphatic tissue which are supported
within by a meshwork of connective tissue called reticulin fibers and are populated by dense
aggregates of lymphocytes and macrophages).

The primary functions of the various white blood cells are:

• Neutrophils - phagocytosis (bacteria & cellular debris); very important in inflammation

• Eosinophils - help initiate and sustain inflammation and can activate T-cells (directly by
serving as antigen-presenting cells and indirectly by secreting a variety of cytokines.
Eosinophils can also kill bacteria by quickly releasing mitochondrial DNA and proteins
(described below).

• Basophils - along with mast cells, play a role in inflammation and allergic responses
• Monocytes - phagocytosis (typically as macrophages in tissues of the liver, spleen,
lungs, & lymph nodes) & also important antigen-presenting cells
• Lymphocytes - immune response (including production of antibodies)

Platelets

1 - formed in the bone marrow from cells called megakaryocytes

 Megakaryocytes. (A) & (B)
immature cells. (C) mature
cell producing platelets.

2 - have no nucleus, but can

secrete a variety of substances
& can also contract (because
they contain actin & myosin)

3 - normal concentration in the

blood is about 250,000 per
cubic millimeter

4 - remain functional for about 7 - 10 days (after which they are removed from the blood
by macrophages in the spleen & liver)

5- play an important role in hemostasis (preventing blood loss)

Plasma:

- Water - serves as transport medium; carries heat

- Proteins

• Albumins
o 60-80% of plasma proteins
o most important in maintenance of osmotic balance
o produced by liver
• Globulins
o alpha & beta
 some are important for transport of materials through the blood (e.g.,
thyroid hormone & iron)
 some are clotting factors
 produced by liver
o gamma globulins are immunoglobulins (antibodies) produced by lymphocytes
 • Fibrinogen
o important in clotting
o produced by liver

- Inorganic constituents (1% of plasma) - e.g., sodium, chloride, potassium, & calcium

- Nutrients - glucose, amino acids, lipids & vitamins

- Waste products - e.g., nitrogenous wastes like urea

- Dissolved gases - oxygen & carbon dioxide

- Hormones

Lymphatic System

Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system in vertebrates is a network of conduits that carry a clear fluid called
lymph. It also includes the lymphoid tissue through which the lymph travels. Lymphoid tissue is
found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated with
the digestive system such as the tonsils. The system also includes all the structures dedicated
to the circulation and production of lymphocytes, which includes the spleen, thymus, bone
marrow and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system.

The lymphatic system has three interrelated functions. 1. It is responsible for the removal
of interstitial fluid from tissues. 2. It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle to the
circulatory system. 3. The last function of the lymphatic system is the transport of immune cells
to and from the lymph nodes. The lymph transports antigen presenting cells (APCs), such as
dendritic cells, to the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated. The lymph also
carries lymphocytes from the efferent lymphatics exiting the lymph nodes.
 The blood does not directly come in contact with the parenchymal cells and tissues in
the body, but constituents of the blood first exit the microvascular exchange blood vessels to
become interstitial fluid, which comes into contact with the parenchymal cells of the body. - -
Lymph is the fluid that is formed when interstitial fluid enters the initial lymphatic vessels of the
lymphatic system. The lymph is then moved along the lymphatic vessel network by either
intrinsic contractions of the lymphatic vessels or by extrinsic compression of the lymphatic
vessels via external tissue forces (e.g. the contractions of skeletal muscles.)

Lymph nodes generally occur in groups along the larger lymphatic vessels. They are distributed
throughout the body, but they lack the tissues of the central nervous system. All lymph nodes
have the primary function of the production of lymphocytes, which help defend the body against
microorganisms and against harmful foreign particles and debris from lymph before it is returned
to the blood stream. The major locations are in six areas:

(1) the cervical region: nodes in this area are grouped along the lower border of the jaw, in front
of and behind the ears, and deep in the neck along the larger blood vessels. They drain the skin
of the scalp, face, tissues of the nasal cavity, and the pharynx

(2) the axillary region: these nodes are in the underarm region and receive lymph from vessels
that drain the arm, the walls of the thorax, the breast, and the upper walls of the abdomen;

(3) inguinal region: the nodes in this area receive lymph from the legs, the outer portion of the
genitalia and the lower abdominal wall;

(4) the pelvic cavity: the nodes here appear mostly along the paths of the blood vessels within
the pelvic cavity and receive lymph from the lymphatic vessels in the area;

(5) abdominal cavity: within this area, nodes occur in chains along the main branches of the
arteries of the intestine and the abdominal aorta;

(6) thoracic cavity: these nodes occur between the lungs and along the windpipe and bronchi,
and receive lymph from this area and from the internal wall of the thorax. The popliteal and
inguinal nodes are in the legs and groin, the lumbar nodes in the pelvic region, the axillary
nodes in the armpits, the cervical nodes in the chest.

Other Lymphoid Organs

 1. Spleen

The spleen is a blood-rich organ that filters blood.

It is located in the left side of the abdominal cavity and
extends to curl around the anterior aspect of the stomach.
Instead of filtering lymph, the spleen filters and cleanses
blood of bacteria, viruses and other debris. Its most
important is to destroy worn-out red blood cells and return
some of their breakdown products to the liver. Other
functions of the spleen include storing platelets and
acting as a blood reservoir. During hemorrhage, both the
spleen and the liver contract and empty their contained blood into the circulation to help bring
the blood volume back to normal levels.

2. Thymus

The thymus, which functions at peak levels only during youth, is a lymphatic mass
found low in the throat overlying the heart. It produces hormones, thymosin and
others, that function in the programming of certain lymphocytes so they can carry out
their protective roles in the body.

Body Defenses

The body defenders against these tiny but mighty enemies are two systems, simply called the
nonspecific and the specific defense systems.

- Nonspecific defense system

Responds immediately to protect the body from all foreign substances, whatever a\they
are. The nonspecific defenses are provided by intact skin and mucous membranes, the
inflammatory response, and a number of proteins produced by body cells.

- Specific defense system

More commonly called the immune system, mounts the attack against particular foreign
substances. Although certain body organs are intimately involved with the immune
response, the immune system is a functional system rather than an organ system in an
 anatomical sense. The most important of the immune cells are the lymphocytes and
macrophages.

Nonspecific body defenses

- Surface membrane barriers

The body’s first line of defense against the invasion of disease-causing microorganisms
is the skin and mucous membrane. As long is the skin is unbroken, its keratinized
epidermis is a strong physical barrier to most microorganisms that swarm on the skin.

- Cells and chemicals

The body uses an enormous number of cells and chemicals to protect itself. The
defenses rely on the destructive powers of phagocytes and natural killer cells, the
inflammatory response, and a variety of chemical substances that kill pathogens and
help repair tissue.

Phagocytes

Pathogens that make it through the mechanical barriers are confronted by phagocytes in
nearly every body organ. A phagocyte, such as a macrophage or neutrophil, engulfs a
foreign particle.

Natural Killer Cells

Nk cells, which “police” the body in blood and

lymph, are a unique group of defensive cells that
can lyse and kill cancer cells and virus-infected
body cells well before the immune system is
enlisted in the fight. Unlike lymphocytes of the
immune system, which can recognize and react
only against specific virus-infected or tumor cells,
natural killer cells can act spontaneously against
any such target by recognixing certain sugars on
the “intruder’s” surface.

Inflammatory response

The inflammatory response, the body’s second line of defense, is a nonspecific

response that is triggered whenever body tissues are injured. The four cardinal signs of
acute inflammation are redness, heat, swelling and pain.

The inflammatory process begins with a chemical “alarm”. When cells are injured, they
release inflammatory chemicals, including histamine and kinins, that cause blood
 vessels in the involved area to dilate and capillaries to become leaky, activate pain
receptors and attract phagocytes and WBC to the area. Dilation of the blood vessels
increases the blood flow to the area, accounting for the redness and heat observed.
Increased permeability of the capillaries allows plasma to leak from the bloodstream into
the tissue spaces, causing local edema that also activates pain receptors in the area.

Antimicrobial Chemicals

- Complement

The term complement refers to a group of at least 20 plasma proteins that circulate in
the blood in an inactive state. However, when complement becomes attached, or fixed,
to foreign cells such as bacteria, fungi or mismatched red blood cells, it is activated and
becomes a major factor in the fight against the foreign cells. This complement fixation
occurs when complement proteins bind to certain sugars or proteins on the foreign cell’s
surface.

- Interferon

Viruses lack the cellular machinery required to generate ATP or make proteins. They do
their “dirty work” or damage in the body by entering tissue cells and taking over the
cellular machinery needed to reproduce themselves. Although the virus-infected cells
can do little to save themselves, they help defend cells that have not yet been infected
by secreting small proteins called interferons.

Specific Body Defenses: The Immune System

The immune system’s response to a threat, called the immune response,

tremendously increases the inflammatory response, and it provides protection that is
carefully targeted against specific antigens. Furthermore, the body to react more
vigorously to later meetings with the same antigen.

Sometimes referred to as the body’s third line of defense, the immune system is
a functional system that recognizes foreign molecules and acts to inactivate or destroy
them.

Humoral or Antibody-mediated immunity is provided by antibodies present in the

body’s fluids.when lymphocytes themselves defend the body, the immunity is called
cellular or cell-mediated immunity because the protective factor is living cells. The
cellular arm also has cellular targets-virus-infected tissue cells, cancer cells and cells of
foreign grafts. The lymphocytes act against such targets either directly, by lysing the
foreign cells, or indirectly, by releasing chemicals that enhance the inflammatory
response or activate other immune cells.
 B lymphocytes are the cells that produce antibodies and they provide humoral
immunity. This type of immunity is particularly effective against circulating bacterial and
viral infections. The B cells produce the circulating antibodies that attack the invading
agent. B lymphocytes that enter tissues become specialized cells called plasma cells.

T lymphocytes are responsible for providing cellular immunity. These cells come
from the thymus gland, where immunologic competence is conferred on the T
lymphocytes around birth. This type of immunity is particularly effective against fungi,
parasites, intracellular viral infections, cancer cells and foreign tissue implants.

Antigens

An antigen is any substance capable of exciting our immune system and

provoking an immune response. Consequently, as far as our immune system is
concerned, they are foreign intruders, or nonself. It is also important to remember that
our own cells are richly studded with a variety of protein molecules (self-antigen).
Somehow, as our immune system develops, it takes an inventory of all these proteins so
that, thereafter, they are recognized as self. Although these self-antigens do not trigger
an immune response in us, they are strongly antigenic to other people.

Five types of antibodies:

- Immunoglobulin G is found in tissue fluids and

plasma. It attacks viruses, bacteria and toxins.
It also activates complement, a set of enzymes
that attack foreign antigens.

- Immunoglobulin A is found in exocrine gland

secretions, nasal fluid, tears, gastric and
intestinal juice, bile, breast milk and urine.

- Immunoglobulin D is found on the surface of B

lymphocytes and is important in B cell
activation.

- Immunoglobulin E is also found in exocrine gland secretions and is associated with

allergic reactions, attacking allergy-causing antigens.

- Immunoglobulin M is a basic antibody that is produced by B cells. It is the primary

antibody against A and B antigens onred blood cells. IgM is by far the physically largest
antibody in the human circulatory system. It is the first antibody to appear in response to
initial exposure to antigen.
 Active Immunity – it can be acquired naturally, as when we are exposed to a bacterial or
viral infection, or it can be acquired artificially, as when we receive a vaccine.

Passive Immunity – can be conferred naturally when a fetus receives its mother’s
antibodies through the placenta and they become part of the fetal circulatory route.

Cells of the immune response and other defenses

- B cells are lymphocytes found in the lymph nodes, spleen and other lymphoid tissue
where they replicate, induced by antigen-binding activities,

- Plasma cells are formed by replicating B cells, and produce huge numbers of the same
antibody or immunoglobulin.

- Helper T cells are T cells that bind with specific antigens presented by macrophages.
They stimulate the production of killer T cells and more B cells to fight the invading
pathogen. They release lymphokines.

- Killer T cells kill virus-invaded body cells and cancerous body cells. They are involved in
graft rejections.

- Suppressor T cells slow down the activities of B and T cells once the infection is
controlled.

- Memory cells are descendents of activated t and B cells produced during an initial
immune response. They will exist in the body fro years, enabling it to respond quickly to
any future infections by the same pathogen.

- Macrophages engulf and digest antigens. They then present parts of these antigens in
their cells membranes for recognition by T cells.