LIFE PROCESSES

Life Processes-The basic function performed by living organism to maintain their life on earth are called life
processes, which include nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, reproduction, growth and movement,
control and coordination.

Nutrition-It is a process of taking in food and utilizing it to provide energy for performing various metabolic
activities. There are mainly two modes of nutrition

*Autotrophic Nutrition

*Heterotrophic Nutrition

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION-It is a mode of nutrition where organisms prepare their own food from simple
organic materials. Eg. Plants

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION-It is a mode of nutrition in which an organism depends on other organisms for
food Eg. Humans

NUTRITION IN PLANTS- Green Plants are autotrophic and they synthesize their food by the process of
Photosynthesis.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS- The process by which green plants prepare their own food in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll by using carbon dioxide and water

6CO₂ + 12H₂O Sunlight C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O

Chlorophyll

MAIN EVENTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS- The process of Photosynthesis occurs in the following phases:-

A. LIGHT REACTION- Photosynthesis starts only when light is available. The events that occur are:
1. Absorption of light energy by the chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules (Photolysis) into its
components hydrogen and oxygen.
B. DARK REACTION- This Phase is independent of light. During this phase reduction of carbon dioxide to
carbohydrates (glucose) occurs.

It is not essential that these steps should take place immediately one after the other. For Example desert plants
take carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate compound (malic acid) which is acted upon by the
energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the night time.

RAW MATERIALS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS-

 Sunlight
 Chlorophyll- Sunlight is absorbed by the chlorophyll
 Carbon Dioxide- Enters through the stomata
 Water- Water and minerals are absorbed by the roots from the soil.

STRUCTURE OF THE LEAF- A typical leaf has three main regions:-

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 1. Upper Epidermis- Protected by many article which allows sunlight to penetrate
2. Mesophyll tissue which is differentiated into two layers-
 Upper Palisade layer (Large number of chloroplast and less intercellular space)
 Spongy Mesophyll (Few number of chloroplast and large intercellular space)
3. Lower Epidermis- Same like upper epidermis but has many tiny pores called stomata.

SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS-
Chloroplast in the leaf which contains the pigment chlorophyll.

A: CHLOROPLAST B: DICOT STOMTA C: MONOCOT STOMATA

STRUCTURE OF STOMATA
It consist of bean shaped cells called guard cells which encloses the opening called stoma or stomatal pore or
stomatal aperture. The guard cells are surrounded by the epidermal cells called subsidiary cells.

END PRODUCTS OR BY PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

 Glucose (More molecules of glucose converts to starch)
 Oxygen

SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

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  Energy Flow- It is through this process the energy required by the living organism is made available to
them.
 Production of Food- Plants produces carbohydrates which get stored in their body and is then utilized by
the other animals.
 Production of Oxygen

Types of Heterotrophic mode of nutrition:

 Saprophytic nutrition: It is that nutrition in which organisms obtain their food from dead and decaying
organic matter. The organisms are called saprophytes. Example: Fungi, Mushroom

 Parasitic Nutrition: It is the mode of nutrition in which organism derives its food from the body of another
living organism (host) without killing. Example: Cuscuta

 Holozoic Nutrition: It is that nutrition in which an organism takes in complex organic food material into its
body by the process of ingestion. The ingested food is digested and then absorbed into the body cells of the
organism. Example: Human Being

 Nutrition in Animals: On the basis of their food habits all the animals are classified into: -
 Herbivores - Plant eating Animal
 Carnivores - Flesh eating animal
 Omnivores - Both flesh and plant eating

 Steps in Holozoic Nutrition:

 Ingestion
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Assimilation
 Egestion

 Nutrition in Amoeba: Amoeba is a small microscopic single celled organism which has no definite shape. Its
shape continuously keeps on changing because of the formation of pseudopodia (false feet). Amoeba feeds
on smaller organisms like protozoans, algae, etc. It possesses all five stages of nutrition.

 Ingestion: Amoeba gets attracted towards the food which is encircled with the help of pseudopodia and
engulfed in the cell. The ingested food along with some amount of water forms the food vacuole.

 Digestion: Digestion of food starts with the help of enzymes (intracellular digestion)

 Absorption & Assimilation: The digested food is absorbed by the protoplasm and it is assimilated there by
becoming a part of protoplasm.

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  Egestion: The undigested food is eliminated through the cell surface where food vacuole burst open and
disappears.

Nutrition in Paramecium: Paramecium uses its hair like structure called cilia to sweep the food particles from
water and put them into its mouth. It possesses all the five steps of nutrition.

 Nutrition in Human Beings: The Human digestive system comprises of alimentary canal and associated
digestive glands. The alimentary canal consists of the following parts:

1. Mouth and buccal cavity

2. Pharynx
3. Food pipe or Oesophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
6. Large Intestine

 Mouth: It leads to the buccal cavity, where the floor of it has a tongue bearing the taste buds. Men possess
teeth on both the jaws. There are 32 teeth of four different types: incisors, canines, molars & premolars.

 Pharynx: It is short conical region that lies after the buccal cavity. It has two parts, nasopharynx (behind
the nasal cavity), Oropharynx (behind the mouth).
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  Oesophagus: It is long narrow muscular tube which leads to the stomach.

 Stomach: It lies below the diaphragm on the left side of the abdominal cavity. The food is stored and partly
digested in the stomach.

 Small Intestine: It is convoluted tube which is differentiated into three regions- duodenum, Jejunum and
Ileum.

 Large Intestine: It is much shorter and wider than small intestine, having three regions- caecum, colon and
rectum.

 Caecum - Small round sack from which vermiform appendix arise.

 Colon – Inverted U shaped tube. The three regions are Ascending colon, transverse colon and
descending colon.
 Rectum – Opens to the exterior through anus.

Digestive Glands

 Salivary Glands: There are three pairs of salivary glands namely.

 Parotid
 Submaxillary
 Sublingual
These glands secrete the salvia which consists of enzyme called salivary Amylase / Ptyalin.

 Gastric Gland: Secretes gastric juice which contains HCl, enzymes and mucus.

 Liver- It is the largest gland in the body. It is situated in the upper part of the abdominal cavity. It secretes
bile juice which passes through bile duct to the gall bladder. Bile is a yellowish green liquid with an alkaline
pH of 8, which neutralizes the acid of the stomach.

 Pancreas: It is the second largest gland on the body which is situated behind the stomach in the U-Shape of
duodenum. The pancreatic juice secreted by the pancreas contains enzymes for the digestion of starch,
proteins, lipids and nucleic acid.

Process of Digestion: -

 Ingestion and Digestion of Food – ingestion is the process of taking food inside the body. The ingested food is
crushed and masticated with the help of teeth. Saliva lubricates the food and helps in mastication.

 Digestion – it is the process of conversion of large, complex and insoluble organic molecules into simpler,
smaller and soluble molecules. The process of digestion starts in the mouth and continues up to the intestine.

 In mouth or buccal cavity – Salivary glands secrete saliva which contains an enzyme salivary amylase or
ptyalin.
Starch Salivary Amylase/ Ptyalin Maltose

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The Semi solid paste of food from the buccal cavity passes to the pharynx and then to the tubular Oesophagus.

The semi-solid food mixed with the saliva passes down the Oesophagus into the stomach by a wave like
contraction and relaxation of circular muscles present on the wall of Oesophagus. These involuntary
movements are called Peristalsis

In the stomach the bolus is mixed with gastric juice secreted by the gastric gland which contains HCI, pepsin
and small amount of gastric lipase and mucus. The HCl creates an
a) Acidic medium which activates the enzyme pepsin.
b) It also kills bacteria and germs present in the food.

In Stomach-

a) Pepsinogen (Inactive) HCl Pepsin (Active)

b) Protein Pepsin Peptones and Proteoses

c) Milk casein Renin Paracasein

d) Fats lipase Triglyceride

In the small intestine, food is mixed with bile juice and pancreatic juice

 Fat Bile Emulsified fat (emulsification – conversion of large fat molecules to smaller
globules) Bile consist of bile pigments and bile salts but no enzymes. It makes the medium alkaline for the
pancreatic juice to act. Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes- Pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase
(steapsin)

a. Starch amylase Maltose

b. Peptones +proteoses trypsin Dipeptides

c. Emulsified fat Lipase Fatty acid + Glycerol

The final digestion of food is done by the enzymes secreted by the wall of the intestine i.e, intestinal juice.

a. Dipeptides Dipeptidase Amino Acid

b. Maltose Maltase Glucose

c. Triglycerides Lipase Fatty acid and Glycerol

d. Sucrose Sucrase Glucose & Fructose

e. Lactose Lactase Glucose + Galactose

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ABSORPTION OF FOOD

It is the process of mixing of digested food in the body fluid. The digested food is absorbed by the internal
membrane of the ileum. To increase the surface area of absorption the lining of the intestine is thrown into finger
like projection called villi.

IN LARGE INTESTINE- Intestinal glands present in it secretes mucus (has no enzymes). Excess of water is
absorbed in the large intestine through the mucus membrane. The mucus also helps in the lubrication of faecal
matter.
ASSIMILATION OF FOOD
It is the process of utilization of absorbed food for various body functions. The absorbed nutrients are utilized to
resynthesize complex molecules like carbohydrates, proteins and fats inside the cells.
1. Glucose is the main source of energy. Excess amount of it is converted to glycogen and is stored as fat.
2. The amino acids are used for the synthesis of structural and functional protein (the breakdown of amino
acids produces ammonia which is converted into urea in the liver and excreted out with urine).
3. The Glycerol and fatty acids may provide energy if needed or reconvert into fats which gets deposited into
adipose tissue.
EGESTION
It is the process of elimination of undigested food formed in the cells, or in the lumen of large intestine. The
undigested food is passed from the large intestine and egested out through the anus.

DENTAL CARIES
It is tooth decay which involves the destruction of the enamel layer of the tooth by the acids produced by the action
of bacteria on sugar. If dental caries is not treated then it can spread to the dentine and pulp of the tooth causing
inflammation and infection of the tooth.

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 RESPIRATION
Higher animals have special respiratory for exchange of gases because they have thick blood vessels that make
diffusion impossible and their energy requirement is higher.
 Respiration in Humans- It is a catabolic process in which food is broken down to carbon dioxide, water and
energy in the presence of oxygen.
C₆H₁₂O₆ Oxygen 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

 It occurs in the presence of oxygen  It occurs in the absence of oxygen

 It occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria  It occurs in cytoplasm

 It always releases CO₂ and water  The end products may vary

 It involves exchange of gasses between the  Exchange of gases is absent

organism and the environment

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
CO2+H2O+ENERGY (38 ATP)

Glucose In the absence of O₂ (anaerobic) C₂H5OH+CO2+2ATP

(Ethyl Alcohol)

Lactic Acid + 2ATP

Q. Explain the structure of human respiratory system with the help of a diagram.

Ans. The Human respiratory system is a system of tubes consisting of:-

1. Nostrils- The two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner lining of the nostrils is lined by
hairs which help in filtering the air we breathe.

2. Pharynx- It is a tube like structure which continues after the nasal passage.

3. Larynx - This part comes after the pharynx and is also called the voice box.

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 4. Trachea- This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of trachea in the absence
of air.

5. Bronchi- A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea; with one bronchus going to each lung.

6. Bronchioles- A bronchus divides into branches and sub branches inside the lung.

7. Alveoli- These are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. Alveolus is composed of very thin membrane and it is the
place where blood capillaries open. It is in the alveolus; where oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide
exit the blood. The exchange of gases takes place due to pressure differential.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION

In Presence of O2
Glucose Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate Krebs’s cycle 6CO2 + 6H2 O + 38ATP
In cytoplasm (3 – C) In Mitochondria

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Glucose Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate absence of O2 2C2H5 OH + 2CO2+2ATP

(6 - C) In cytoplasm (3 – C) In yeast cell

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Glucose Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate absence of O2 Lactic acid + 2ATP

(6 - C) In cytoplasm (3 – C) in muscle cells

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Q. How is ATP formed?
During respiration energy released is used to make ATP molecules from ADP (Adenosine Di Phosphate) molecules
and inorganic phosphate (pi) and energy gives ATP.
ADP +Pi ATP
Energy released in the oxidation is stored in the high energy bonds of ATP. The high energy bonds are later
broken down using water and the energy is set free which is used by the cells.

ATP ADP +Pi +energy

BREATHING MECHANISM IN HUMANS:

It involves two steps:
 Inhalation-Process of taking in air
a) The external intercoastal muscles contract and internal intercoastal muscles relax causing the ribs to move
upward
b) The diaphragm contracts (somewhat straight)
c) Expansion of the chest cavity which creates a partial vacuum so atmospheric air rushes to the lungs.
 Exhalation-Process of expelling carbon dioxide rich air out of the lung
a) The internal intercoastal muscles contract and external intercoastal muscles relax causing the ribs to move
down.
b) The diaphragm relaxes (dome shaped)
c) The chest cavity compresses the lungs, so air rushes out of the lungs into atmosphere.

RESIDUAL AIR
It is the volume of the inhaled air that is left in the lungs after exhalation. The lungs always contain a residual
volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.
HAEMOGLOBIN
It is the respiratory pigment in mammals which has a greater affinity to oxygen and is present in the RBC’s of the
blood.
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
Exchange of gases takes place through-
a) Stomata (lower epidermis of the leaf)
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b) Lenticel (small openings on the old stem)
c) Root Hairs (Thread like structure arising from the root) through simple diffusion.
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
a)Unicellular organisms like Amoeba ,Euglena-general body surface.
b) Earthworm-general body surface (simple diffusion)
c) Frog-moist skin and lungs
d) Insects-Spiracles
e) Aquatic animals-Gills

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