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Fluid Mechanics
ME 3521

List of Experiments

 E1: Hydrostatic Pressure Measurement

 E2: To Determine the Discharge Coefficient using Venturi meter
 E3: To find the Flow Coefficients, Coefficient of Discharge, Coefficient of Velocity and Coefficient
of Contraction by using Orifice and Jet Apparatus
 E4: Flow Rate Measurement Techniques and Reynolds number
 E5: Impact of a Jet
 E6: To Investigate the Pressure Losses in Pipe Bends and Fittings
 E7-8: Flow over Bluff Bodies
 E9: Performance Characteristics of a Centrifugal Pump
 E10: Performance of Pelton Wheel Turbine
 E11: Performance of Francis and Kaplan Turbine
 E12: Free and forced vortex
 E13: CFD analysis in Converging Diverging Nozzle

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 Text Book:
 Lab Manual
 Recommended Readings:
 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 6th Edition by Munson, Young and Okiishi HT
John, Wiley & Sons.
 Grading Policy

Exam Type Percentage (%)

Quiz 10
Mid Term 20
Class Participation 15
Project 15
Final Term 40

Safety Rules and Regulations

 SAFETY TOOLS

Wear close non slippery shoes Wear gloves while working

in the laboratory with fluids other than water

 GENERAL SAFETY RULES

 Use of cell phones, IPODs is not allowed in the Lab.
 Eating /drinking is not allowed in the lab.
 Before performing the experiment, go through the procedure to develop
thorough understanding of the work.
 Use safety tools for your own protection
 Tie back or otherwise secure long hair and dangling jewelry
 All personal belongings must be placed in the assigned locations
 Eating or drinking is strictly prohibited inside the laboratory
 Keep the floor dry. Wipe if anything spills

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Safety Rules and Regulations

 In case of emergency/fire follow the instructions of lab engineers and do not get
panic
 Avoid the pointed ends of needles in Orifice and Jet Discharge apparatus
 Wear gloves while dealing with ink when using Osborne Reynolds apparatus and
flow visualization apparatus
 Report any short circuit, burning smell, to lab engineer immediately
 SPECIFIC SAFETY RULES
 Students should not manipulate the laboratory equipment or their accessories
without supervision of lab personnel (Lab engineer and lab technician)
 Avoid unnecessary fluid leakage, waste of water or waste of energy. Always use
electric equipment in presence of lab technician
 Always use delicate instruments with care
 Always clean all used equipment(s) and surrounding area(s)

E1: Hydrostatic Pressure Measurement

 Experiment Objective:
1. To determine the hydrostatic thrust acting on a plane surface immersed in water
when the surface is partially submerged or fully submerged.
2. To determine the position of the line of action of the thrust and to compare the
position determined by experiment with the theoretical position.
 Application: Dams, Flood control gates and Fluid storage tanks

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Apparatus

 To measure the static thrust exerted by a fluid on a submerged surface

 Apparatus Parts
Knife edge pivot

Hanger

Quadrant Tank

Theory

 In this experiment, you will be using an immersed quadrant tank pivoted at

a knife-edge pivot to determine the center of pressure for different values of
hydrostatic force.
 This is achieved by computing the moment, M required to counter the
moment induced by the hydrostatic force due to water acting on the
quadrant tank.
 If the clockwise moment (induced by water) just balances the counter-
clockwise moment (caused by the weights), the moment arm and hence
the center of pressure can be computed.
 The latter can then be compared with that calculated theoretically.

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Theory

 Hydrostatic Pressure (Pressure exerted by liquid at rest)

 Fluid force varies vertically
 In a fluid that is standing still, the pressure p at depth h is the fluid's weight-density w times
h:
P = wh or P = gh
 Force exerted by the fluid against the base is
F = pressure * area = whA
 Center of pressure is point at which resultant pressure occurs. The center of pressure is the
point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body
 Forces on curved inner, curved outer, horizontal upper plane and lower plane is zero as it
pass through pivot.
 Center of pressure is in general below centroid since pressure increases with depth.

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L = Distance between
suspended mass and
fulcrum/pivot point.
Case 1: Partially Submerged Case 2: Fully Submerged
D = Height of end surface.
B = Width of end surface.
H = Total depth of
quadrant.
C = Centroid of end
surface.
P = Center of pressure of
plane surface.
d = Depth of immersion in
water.
F = Hydrostatic force
exerted on quadrant.
h= Depth of centroid from
water surface.
h′= Depth of center of Thrust F=ρg (Bd2/2) F=ρgBD(d – (D/2))
pressure from water
surface. Position
h′′= Distance between
h’’=2mL/ρBd2 h’’=mL/ρBD(d-(D/2))
Exp.
fulcrum/pivot point and
the center of pressure. Position h’’= {[(d – (D/2))2 + (D2/12)] / ( d –
h’’=H – d/3
Th. (D/2))} + H – d

 Experimental Procedure
1. First of all, balance the equipment by adding 2 small hangers in the left-hand
side lever.
2. Add weight in hanger to balance the quadrant module to level.
3. Add water in tank and balance it by placing weight in hanger.
4. Measure weight and water depth ‘d’ value from scale.
5. Take reading and employ formulas to complete thrust and position reading.
6. Now proceed according to formulas given in the theory below and find out
Hydrostatic Pressure.
7. To verify that the Hydrostatic Pressure calculated is nearly exact, use the
conservation of moment’s law.

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Reading Tables

Height of Quadrant, 2nd

Depth of Immersion 2nd Moment
Mass, Thrust Moment
D (m) Immersion, (Full/ Experimental, Error %
m (kg) F (N) Theory, h"
Width of Quadrant, d (m) Partial) h" (m)
(m)
B (m)
Length of balance, L
(m)
Quadrant to pivot, H
(m)

Density (kg/m3)

Gravity (m/s2)

Find Thrust

 A balance of moments around the center of motion ‘O’ can be

established and checked:

0
M  0 : FG l  Fp. ID

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E2: Determination of Coefficient of discharge for Venturimeter

 Experiment Objective:
1. To determine the discharge coefficient of the Venturimeter
2. To measure flow rate with Venturimeter

 Application: Measure rate of flow through a pipe.

Apparatus

Air
bleed
screw

Manometer

Valve
Venturimeter
Bench valve

Probe

gravimetric
hydraulic
bench

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Measurement

Water Loop

Flow Control Storage

Pump Venturimeter
Valve Tank

volumetric
Drain
flow meter

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Venturimeter

 A meter device that is usually used to measure the flow of a fluid in the pipe.

 It basically works on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem

 The pressure in a fluid moving through a small cross section drops suddenly
leading to an increase in velocity of the flow
 The point where the characteristics become low pressure and high velocity is
the place where the venturiflow meter is used.

Venturimeter

 The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid
and lower its static pressure.
 The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the
entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.

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Bernoulli’s Theorem

 “An increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease

in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.”
 Assumptions
 Frictionless,
 Steady
 Incompressible
 Along the same streamline

Bernoulli Equation
Continuity Equation

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Why diverging section is long and at less angle?

We can see in figure that if pressure gradient dP/dx

is high then fluid particles will start to separate from
the solid walls and flow in reverse direction.

This reverse flow leads to create unsteady flow and

consumes energy. So to reduce reverse flow,
pressure gradient is kept small by adjusting
divergent angle. For large divergent angle, both
pressure gradient and separation would be large.
So it usually lies between 5 to 7 deg.

Procedure
1. Locate the apparatus on the flat top of the hydraulic bench.
2. Fill water into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench.
3. Connect the flexible inlet tube and a flexible hose to the outlet and make sure that it is directed
into the channel.
4. Partially open the outlet flow control valve at the Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration unit.
5. Fully close the bench flow control valve, V1 and then switch on the pump.
6. Gradually open V1 and allow the piping to fill with water until all air has been expelled from the
system.
7. Also check for “Trapped Bubbles” in the glass tube using “Air bleed screw”. You would need to
remove them from the system for better accuracy.
8. Adjust the discharge valve to the maximum measurable flow rate of the venturi. This is achieved
when tube 1 and 3 give the maximum observable water head difference.
9. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and record the
manometers reading.
10. Repeat step 9 with at least three decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi discharge valve.
11. Obtain the actual flow rate, Qa from the volumetric flow measurement method.
12. Calculate the ideal flow rate, Qi from the head difference between h1and h2 using Equation of
Qi.
13. Plot Qa Vs Qi and finally obtain the discharge coefficient, Cd which is the slope.

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Readings
Water Head (mm)
Sr. Volume Time Qa
no. (L) (s) (LPM) hA hB hC hD hE hF

E3: Determine Flow Coefficients, Discharge Coefficient, Velocity

Coefficient and Contraction Coefficient

 Experiment Objective:
1. To calculate the Cd, Cv and Cc at a number of head pressures for two different
orifices.
2. To find coefficient of velocity, coefficient of contraction and coefficient of
discharge.
3. To draw a relationship between these properties and the size of orifice.
 Application: It is used to measure the flow rate of fluids in their single state and
mixed.
 Water treatment plants
 Natural gas industries
 Refineries
 Petrochemical plants

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Orifice

 Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes.
 The fluid is single-phase and well-mixed
 The flow is continuous rather than pulsating.
 The fluid occupies the entire pipe.
 The flow profile is even and well-developed and the fluid and flow rate
meet certain other conditions

Orifice

 It works on the Differential Pressure Measurement principle.

 The liquid or gas whose flow rate is to be determined is passed through the orifice
plate.
 This creates a pressure drop across the orifice plate which varies with the flow
rate, resulting in a differential pressure between the outlet and inlet segments.
 This pressure drop is measured and is used to calculate the flow rate of the fluid
or gas.

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Orifice Benefits

 The Orifice is small plates and easy to install/remove.

 Offer very little pressure drop from which 60% to 65% is recovered.
 The orifice meter can be easily maintained.
 Measures a wide range of flows.
 They have a simple construction.
 They have easily fitted between the flanges.
 They are the most suitable for most gases and liquids.
 They are cheap, The price does not increase dramatically with size.

Important Terms

 Vena-Contracta
 It is a place where the cross section area is minimum.
 Fluid velocity is at its maximum.

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Important Terms

 Coefficient of velocity Cv

2
= =
ℎ 2
 The value of Cv varies from 0.95 to 0.99 for different shape orifice.
 Coefficient of contraction Cc

= =

 The value of Cc varies from 0.61 to 0.69.

Important Terms

 Coefficient of discharge Cd

= = .

 The value of Cd varies from 0.60 to 0.64.

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Orifice And Jet Discharge Apparatus

Orifice Needle

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Procedure (Orifice and Jet)

 Measure the diameter of the orifice in both orifice plates.

 Finally, place the paper in the clamp against the clipboard.
 Raise all of the needles to their highest position where they are “out of the way”.
 Turn on the water supply. Once the water has reached the level where it is spilling into the overflow pipe, adjust the flow so that it just
barely trickles into the pipe.
 Record the water level or head (h). At this time the water jet should be formed and protruding forcefully from the cylindrical tank.
 Measure the flow rate Q of the water jet, take the measuring cup and collect water from the jet for a set amount of time. Record the
volume of water collected and the time for which it was collected.
 Adjust the height of each needle such that the tip of the needle is just above the water jet as it passes underneath.
 Once all of the needles are set, mark the position of the top of each needle on the paper against the clipboard.
 The vena contracta of the water jet should serve as datum – (first mark), first mark will be a bit to the left of the clipboard, the x and y
components are measured as shown in the figure below (The vena contracta is the place where the water jet narrows from the
diameter of the orifice to the diameter of the rest of the jet). The position of the vena contracta is usually very close to the orifice.
 Once the marks are made, return the needles to the starting position.
 Change the head of water and take a few more readings for the same orifice plate.
 Change orifice and repeat experiment.

Orifice Apparatus

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Procedure

 Start the pump and slowly open the discharge valve to admit water to the tank
until a small and steady overflow is observed.
 Record H and the flow rate by using the Hydraulics Bench measuring tank and
stopwatch.
 Swing the micrometer so that the Pitot tube is in line with the jet and at a
distance below the orifice approximately equal to the diameter of the orifice.
 Slowly turn the micrometer knob until the wire starts touching the jet and records
the micrometer reading.
 Turn the micrometer knob further and record the Pitot tube reading Hc.
 To measure the diameter of vena contracta, subtract the value of pitot tube
diameter (4.5mm) from value taken from micrometer.
 Turn the micrometer knob until the wire start leaving the jet and again record
the micrometer reading. Diameter of the Vena Contracta is the difference
between H and Hc.

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E4: Flow Rate Measurement Techniques and

Determination of Reynolds number

 Experiment Objective:
1. To obtain the flow rate measurement by utilizing three basic types of flow
measuring techniques, rotameter, venturimeter and orifice meter.
2. To study and learn how to determine Reynolds number, Re by experiment.
3. Effects of fluid viscous forces, static pressure and acceleration of fluid flow.
4. To observe the characteristics of laminar, transition and turbulent flow.

Rotameter

 The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating
element.
 A rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through which
fluid flow upward.
 Within the tube is placed a freely suspended “float”.

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Venturimeter

 The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid
and lower its static pressure.
 The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the
entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.

Orifice meter

 The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a

concentric square-edged circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped
between the flanges of the pipe
 The downstream pressure tap is placed at the minimum pressure position,
which is assumed to be at the vena contracta.

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Orifice

 Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in pipes.
 The fluid is single-phase and well-mixed
 The flow is continuous rather than pulsating.
 The fluid occupies the entire pipe.
 The flow profile is even and well-developed and the fluid and flow rate
meet certain other conditions

Measurements

 Upstream diameter: 26mm

 Throat diameter: 16mm

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Procedure (Flow meters)

 Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe
into volumetric tank.
 With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up
the pump supply from hydraulic bench.
 Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened. When the flow in the pipe is
steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the bench valve to
reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
 By using the air bleed screw, adjust water level in the manometer board. Retain
maximum readings on manometers with the maximum measurable flow rate.
 Note readings on manometers rotameter and measured flow rate.
 Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates. The flow rates can be
adjusted by utilizing both bench valve and discharge valve.
 To demonstrate similar flow rates at different system static pressures, adjust
bench and flow control valve together. Adjusting manometer levels as required.

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Bernoulli Equation
Continuity Equation

 first of all note 4 to 5 values of

manometer at different flow rates
 Now draw a graph between ideal
flow rate calculated by the formula
& flow rate calculated by volumetric
method (which the help of
measuring tank and stopwatch).
 The slope of the curve will give the
coefficient of discharge. Now the
actual discharge through orifice and
venturi meter is calculated by
multiplying ideal discharge and
coefficient of discharge as
mentioned here.

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E4: Determination of Reynolds number

 A dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to indicate whether fluid

flow past a body or in a duct is steady or turbulent.
 Laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are
dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion;
 Turbulent flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial
forces, which tend to produce eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities

Dye
Storage
Tank

Water
Storage
Tank
Visualizing
Tube

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Rotameter

Venturimeter Orificemeter

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Measurements

 Glass tube: 12.5mm inside diameter. 700mm total length, effective length
about 600 mm (Used in Re formula).
 Main cylinder: Head cylinder made with cleared acrylic, <= 145mm inside
diameter x 200mm height. Contained glass balls for getting less water
turbulent.
 Dye bottle: Cleared plastic, 400ml effective volume with needle and flow
control valve.

Procedure (Re)

 This experiment demonstrates visually laminar (or streamline) flow and its transition to turbulent
flow at a particular velocity.
 Firstly, the apparatus is set up and insert the red dye into the dye reservoir with a steady flow of
water.
 The dye is allowed to flow from the nozzle at the entrance of the channel until a colored stream is
visible along the passage. The velocity of water flow should be increased if the dye accumulates
around the nozzle.
 Adjust the water flow until a laminar flow pattern which is a straight thin line or streamline of dye is
able to be seen along the whole passage.
 Collect the volume of water that flows for 10 seconds then measure the amount of water in the
volumetric measuring tank. Repeat this step 3 times to get the average and more accurate
volume of water. The volume flow rate is calculated from the volume and a known time.
 The water flow rate is increased by opening the pipe vessel and the flow pattern of the fluid is
observed. Repeat step 2-4 for transition and turbulent flow.
 Clean all the apparatus after the experiment is done.

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E5: Impact of a Jet

 Experiment Objective:
 To measure the force produced by a water jet when it strikes three types of
vanes: a flat plate, a conical vane and hemispherical vane.
 To compare the results with the theoretical values calculated from moment flux
in the jet.
 To verify the momentum equation experimentally through the impact of the jet
experiment.
 Application
 Hydraulic machineries such as the Pelton wheel and the impulse turbine.
 Reaction force produced on vanes when a jet of water impacts the vane.

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Flow Physics

 When fluid strikes a vane and deflect a force is generated due to change
in fluid momentum.
 The force on surface equals to rate of change in fluid momentum.
 In the absence of friction, the magnitude of the velocity across the surface
is equal to the incident velocity Vi.
 The jet impact force is given by the difference between the jet inlet ( ̇ )
and outlet ( ̇ ) momentum:
= . . ( − )

V0 = Speed at nozzle exit

V1 = Impact speed

Flow Physics

 Flat object, = 90o

= . .
 Conical object, = 45o
= . .( − 45 )
= 0.2929. . .
 Hemispherical object, = 180o
= . .( − 180 )
= 2. . .

V0 = Speed at nozzle exit

V1 = Impact speed

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V0 = Speed at nozzle exit

V1 = Impact speed

Flow Physics

 However, as the nozzle is below the target the impact velocity will be less
than the nozzle velocity due to interchanges between potential energy
and kinetic energy so that:
V0 = Speed at nozzle exit = – 2
V1 = Impact speed

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Apparatus

Procedure

1. Remove the cover from the equipment by unscrewing the fixing screws.
2. Screw the wished impact object to the support stem.
3. Connect the nozzle with the wished diameter to the bottom pipe.
4. Set the cover and screw the fixing screws.
5. Adjust the pins so that the equipment is perfectly leveled.
6. Set the pointer beside the weight stem assembly base center (without jet flowing).
7. Place the weight on the weight hanger and start the jet by controlling the flow rate.
8. Adjust flow rate such that the hanger returns back to pointer position.
9. Note down flow rate using stopwatch and weight placed on weight hanger.
10. 1Calculate nozzle exit velocity using flow rate and impact velocity using the Bernoulli equation
with atmospheric pressure assumptions of both nozzle and impact vane.
11. Depending upon the shape of impact object, employ the theoretical force equation and
compare it with actual force.
12. Repeat steps 7-11 for different weights and report the error between forces.
13. Draw a graph between theoretical and actual force with flow rate on the x-axis and forces on
the y-axis.

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V0 = Speed at nozzle exit

Table V1 = Impact speed

Nozzle: Flat/Conical/Hemispherical
Sr. Flow, Q Mass, m Speed, Speed, Force (Th.) Force (Exp.) Error
No. (m3/s) (kg) (m/s) (m/s) Fth Fexp=mg (%)
= Q/A (N) (N)
= –

E6: To Investigate the Pressure Losses in

Pipe Bends and Fittings
 Experiment Objective:
 To determine the relationship between total head loss and flow rates for pipe
bends and other common fittings.
 To determine the loss coefficient K for each fitting and to compare the results
with standard data.

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Types of flow

 Internal flow ( flow in pipes)

 External flow ( flow over bodies, drag, lift)
 Examples of internal flow
 Blood flow
 Oil and Gas industry
 Cooling system of a car (Radiator)
 Air Conditioning (Chilled water system)

Types of losses

“Losses are mainly due to friction and obstruction”

 Types
 Major losses
 Major losses is also known pressure losses or head losses
 The major losses is solely depend on the pipe

 Minor losses
 The obstruction components (valves, bends, elbows, enlargements etc) in pipe
which interrupts flow smoothness results in minor losses.

Total losses = Major Losses + Minor Losses

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Major Losses

Friction factor
Friction factor for laminar regime

Friction factor for turbulent regime

Colebrook Equation
Moody Chart

Minor Losses

 Loss coefficient KL

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Moody Chart

Example

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Gate Valve
• Mainly for blocking fluid flow and are less
likely to be employed for flow regulation.
• Advantage of gate valves is their reduced
head loss when open compared to globe
valves.
• Not useful for throttling.
• Gate valves are used in wastewater plants,
power plants, and process plants.

Globe Valve
• Globe valves can seal against the fluid
flow.
• Used where flow control is required
• More head loss.
• More costly.

Strainer

• Purify/filter water from solid matter like

debris, rust etc.
• Reduce maintenance cost of equipment's
• Protects expensive equipment's like pump,
flowmeter etc.

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Test Setup

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Procedure and Precautions

1. Note down the relevant dimensions as diameter and length of pipe between the pressure tapping, area of collecting
tank etc.
2. Pressure tapping of a pipe a is kept open while for other pipe is closed.
3. The flow rate was adjusted to its maximum value. By maintaining suitable amount of steady flow in the pipe.
4. The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water level in the left and right limbs of manometer
tube.
5. The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and the discharge & reading of manometer are
recorded.
6. This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure tapping of this pipe, together with other pipes and for opening of
another pipe.
 Precaution
 When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean position carefully.

 There in some water in collecting tank.

 Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.

Table for Major and minor losses

calculation

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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubyxYHFv2qw
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eBBZF_3DLCU

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