OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications

communicate over a network.

A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships.

The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide vendors and developers so the
digital communication
products and software programs they create can interoperate, and to facilitate a
clear framework that
describes the functions of a networking or telecommunication system.
OSI model layers
The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints
in a network can be
divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or layers.
Each communicating user or program is on a device that can provide those seven
layers of function.

In this architecture, each layer serves the layer above it and, in turn, is served
by the layer below it.
So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data down through
the layers in the
source computer, across the network, and then up through the layers in the
receiving computer.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be
characterized by
their size as well as their purpose.

The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the
number of computers
that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of
devices within a
single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.

Some of the different networks based on size are:

Personal area network, or PAN

Local area network, or LAN
Metropolitan area network, or MAN
Wide area network, or WAN
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means
they are used for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing the
Internet.
Some types of networks, however, serve a very particular purpose. Some of the
different
networks based on their main purpose are:

Storage area network, or SAN

Enterprise private network, or EPN
Virtual private network, or VPN.

Local Area Network

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site,
typically an individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing
resources,
such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive
hardware,
such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.

The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate
thousands of computers.
A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and
security,
but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN.
High speed and relatively low cost are the defining characteristics of LANs.

LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources among
themselves but not with the rest of the outside world. Think of an office building
where everybody should be able to access files on a central server or be able to
print a
document to one or more central printers. Those tasks should be easy for everybody
working in
the same office, but you would not want somebody just walking outside to be able
to send a document
to the printer from their cell phone! If a local area network, or LAN, is entirely
wireless,
it is referred to as a wireless local area network, or WLAN.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country
or the entire world.
A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs.
The Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.

Communication
Definition: Communication is the process of transmitting information from one
person to another.
It is the act of sharing of ideas, facts, opinions, thoughts, messages or emotions
to other people,
in and out the organisation, with the use of the channel to create mutual
understanding and confidence.

Elements of Communication
Communication is a two way process, wherein interchange of message connects the
sender and receiver,
towards an agreed direction, consisting seven elements:

Sender: Otherwise known as a source, it is the person who has something to pass on,
to another individual.
Encoding: The sender of the message, selects appropriate words or non-verbal
techniques to
convert the idea into the message, which is called as encoding.
Message: Message implies something that the sender wants to communicate, to the
receiver.
Without a message, no communication is possible.
Medium: Medium alludes to the channel or mode, through which message is
communicated to the receiver, i.e.
it can be sent by way of electronic word processing system, graphic, symbol, etc.
Receiver: The one to whom the message is directed, is called receiver.
He/she notices and conveys some meaning to the message.
Decoding: The act of interpreting message by the receiver, is termed as decoding.
The receiver’s outlook, experience, and attitude play a vital role in decoding
message.
Feedback: The process of communication can never be completed, if the response of
the receiver
is missing. It enables the communicator of a message to know whether the message
has been
received and interpreted in the same manner as directed.
All the seven elements of communication has a great role to play in the entire
process,
as there can be some deformation between the intended message and the received one.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

Posted by: Margaret Rouse

WhatIs.com

Contributor(s): Kate Gerwig

TCP/IP, or the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol,

is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the
internet.
TCP/IP can also be used as a communications protocol in a private network (an
intranet or an extranet).
The entire internet protocol suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is commonly
referred to as TCP/IP, though others are included in the suite.

TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end
communications that identify how it should be broken into packets, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. TCP/IP requires little central
management, and it is designed to make networks reliable, with the ability to
recover automatically from the failure of any device on the network.

The two main protocols in the internet protocol suite serve specific functions. TCP
defines how applications can create channels of communication across a network. It
also manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets before they are then
transmitted over the internet and reassembled in the right order at the destination
address.

IP defines how to address and route each packet to make sure it reaches the right
destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address to
determine where to forward the message.

For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be transported from

one device to other over some medium. Various transmission media can be used for
transfer of data. These transmission media may be of two types −

Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has
a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.

Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form
of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.

Analog Signal
An analog signal is a continuous wave denoted by a sine wave (pictured below) and
may vary in signal strength (amplitude) or frequency (time). The sine wave's
amplitude value can be seen as the higher and lower points of the wave, while the
frequency (time) value is measured in the sine wave's physical length from left to
right.

There are many examples of analog signals around us. The sound from a human voice
is analog, because sound waves are continuous, as is our own vision, because we see
various shapes and colors in a continuous manner due to light waves. Even a typical
kitchen clock having its hands moving continuously can be represented as an analog
signal.

Digital Signal
A digital signal - a must for computer processing - is described as using binary
(0s and 1s), and therefore, cannot take on any fractional values. As illustrated in
the graphic below, digital signals retain a uniform structure, providing a constant
and consistent signal. Because of the inherent reliability of the digital signal,
technology using it is rapidly replacing a large percentage of analog applications
and devices. For example, the wristwatch, showing the time of day, with its minute,
hour, and sweeping second hands, is being replaced by the digital watch, which
offers the time of day and other information using a numerical display.
A typical digital signal is represented below. Note the equally dispersed 1s and
0s.

Synchronous mode Asynchronous transmission is used only when the rate at which
characters generated is unknown or the transmission data rate is too low.
For the transmission of a large block of data at relatively higher bit rates,
synchronous transmission is used. In synchronous mode, the sending and receiving
devices are synchronized with a common clock signal. This eliminates the need for
the start and stop bits. The complete block of data is transmitted with fixed time

interval between the bits. Before the start of transmission, clocks at both ends
are
to be synchronized. This is achieved by sending special character bytes called
sync
bytes or sync characters between the sender and the receiver. The sender informs
the
receiver about the start of a block. The receiver figures out the start of each
character
by knowing the coding scheme used. If the sender is idle or does not transmit any
character,
the receiver searches for the next group of sync characters.
The devices are then resynchronized to receive the next block of characters.
The block length varies from few bytes to many hundreds of bytes.
The most commonly used protocol is the BISYNC or Bit Synchronous Protocol.
 Asynchronous mode Asynchronous mode is also known as start-stop mode.
This mode is used when data to be transmitted is generated at random intervals.
For example, when a user communicates with a computer using a keyboard,
the time interval between two successive keystrokes is random.
This means that the signal on the transmission line will be in idle state
for a long time interval between characters. With this type of communication,
the receiver must be able to resynchronize at the start of each new character
received.
To accomplish this, each transmitted character or byte is encapsulated between an
additional
start bit and one or more stop bits. This mode is mainly used for the transmission
of characters
between a keyboard and a computer. Asynchronous transmission can also be used for
the transmission
of a block of characters or bytes between two computers.
The time interval between successive characters is a variable entity.

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable.
When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first.
Exactly two neighbours for each device.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes
are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

Routing
Flooding

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to
the hierarchy.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more
topologies.
For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).