University of Kassel

Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences

Department of Food and Agricultural Marketing
Dr. Thomas Krikser

Term Paper for the Module

“Research Methods”
about
Representativeness

presented by
Leonny Agustina Lasmana
Matriculation number: 35582221
Berlianti Puteri
Matriculation number: 35558493
Jennifer Sunardi
Matriculation number: 35586104

Witzenhausen, November 2019

Research Methods Written Report Lasmana, Puteri, Sunardi

Table of Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 Discussions 2
2.1 Designing Sampling Plan 3
2.2 Sampling Methods 4
2.2.1 Probability Sampling Methods 4
2.2.1.1 Simple Random Sampling 5
2.2.1.2 Systematic Sampling 5
2.2.1.3 Stratified Random Sampling 6
2.2.1.4 Cluster Sampling 7
2.3 Sampling Error 8
2.4 Sample Size 8
2.4.1 Ad Hoc Method 9
2.4.2 Statistical Method 9
2.5 Response Rate and Non-Response Rate 10
3 Conclusions 10
References (literature lists) 12

List of figures
Figure 1: Relation between sample error and sample size 8

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1 Introduction
Sampling is a procedure used to conduct a survey research, such as in assessing the
preferences or behaviour of students at a university in relation to a particular topic. Sending
out questionnaires and interviews are the common primary research methods in order to
gather information and find answers to the research question (Bryman 2016, p. 197).
However, with thousands of students at the university, the first research problem is finding a
smaller sample, which truly reflect the characteristics of the population, in order to reduce
cost and time. Moreover, the sampling procedure, such as survey strategies, needs to be
precisely defined in order to be able to generalise the results of a sample to population, as
shown in these two cases. In the first case, an interviewer stands in front of a canteen to wait
for students to pass by. In the second case, an interview was conducted to students from the
same course. Both of the given cases are very likely to give lacking or non-representative
results. In the first case, only those who come to the canteen at the right time will be given
the opportunity to participate in the survey and it is also possible, that only those who are
personally judged to seemed comfortable or cooperative would be approached to participate
in the interview. In simple terms, the sample in this case are highly determined by personal
judgement of the interviewer or availability of the participants, which leads to response bias.
In the second case, only one group of people with similar education background would
participate in the survey. Despite the many survey research conducted, the challenge
remains to perform survey which is representative to the target population (Bryman 2016,
p. 171 ff).

2 Discussions
Sampling is defined as a procedure of selecting a segment of the population for the purpose
of an investigation (Johnson and Christensen 2012, p. 343). According to Bryman, population
is defined as the large group from where the sample is selected (2016, p. 174). While
studying a large population is expensive and time-consuming, sampling is an alternative to
study the characteristics of the whole population by assessing a smaller sample size. If the
sample is representative of the larger population, researchers are able to generalise their
results from the sample to the whole population (Johnson and Christensen 2012, p. 343).
Johnson and Christensen explained that a sample is representative when it reflects the
characteristics of the population from which the sample is selected (2012, p. 217).

In a study, there are some occasions where researchers gather information from every single
unit of a population, which is a method defined as census. This type of data collection is
performed, for example, for the US Decennial Census which is conducted every 10 years by
the US Census Bureau to examine the demographic, educational, family and work

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characteristics of all United States citizens. Although census is the most ideal way to get the
most accurate results, it is also very expensive, difficult and time consuming. Therefore, a
sampling research method is used, which results are representative and can be used to
estimate the characteristics of the larger population (Johnson and Christensen 2012, p. 344).

2.1 Designing Sampling Plan

Before conducting a survey research, a sampling plan must be developed. The sampling
plan provides a sequential overview of how, when and where to conduct a survey research.
This plan is designed to ensure that representative samples are selected for the survey and
that research is conducted efficiently (Malhotra et al. 2010, p. 496).

At the very beginning of the research, the question and the hypothesis of the research must
be defined, as the whole research process is determined by the research question. Hence, it
is very important that the research question is clear, researchable and also not too broad or
too narrow (Bryman 2016, p. 83). The research question marks the start line of research,
which is followed with literature review, or also known as secondary research. Secondary
research is a very crucial step in conducting a research. Existing literature act as the
backbone of research, as it provides information such as the target population and the
sampling method, based on the previous studies by another researcher. Furthermore, it
could also give the outlook of another researcher’s mistake which could be prevented before
starting the survey research (Bryman 2016, p. 91).

The next crucial step in obtaining a representative sample is defining the target population.
The population is the material of a survey research and is determined based on the research
question, as the relevant attributes of the population are specific to individual research
question (Ramsey and Hewitt 2005, p. 72). For example, age is a relevant attribute in a study
of coffee consumption, as young children tend to dislike the bitter taste of coffee. However,
religion is not an attribute to consider for this research question. On the other hand, gender is
an important attribute in a study regarding the consumption of alcohol, as some religions,
such as Islam, Budha and Hindu, prohibit the consumption of any kind of alcohol.
Additionally, the population decides on where the survey should take place and how it should
be conducted (Ramsey and Hewitt 2005, p. 72). Moreover, selecting a wrong target
population would lead to a lack of representativeness of the study, although an excellent
sampling method is applied to select the sample. Because any data obtained from the
research reflect only the population from which the sample are taken. For example, the
findings from a study at university A on the consumption of vegetarian food among students,
could only be generalised to the students of university A (Bryman 2016, p. 193). For that

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reason, it is very crucial that the target population is defined precisely (Ramsey and Hewitt
2005, p. 72).

The next two important steps in obtaining representative samples are selecting the
appropriate sampling method and also deciding on the correct sample size, which will both
reflect the target population and also be reasonable in terms of cost and time (Bryman 2016,
p. 176, 183). These are discussed in detail in chapters 2.2 and 2.4.

2.2 Sampling Methods

There are two types of sampling techniques; probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. The two techniques differ in the probability of each unit to be chosen or selected.
In probability sampling, or widely known as random sampling, each unit in the population has
an equal chance of being selected for sampling (Bryman 2016, p. 176). On the other hand, in
non-probability sampling, also referred as non-random sampling, one unit in the population
has greater or lower chance to be selected than another. In other words, not every sample in
the population has an equal chance of being selected for sampling (Bryman 2016, p.187).

If representativeness is the objective of a research, one should avoid the use of non-
probability sampling technique. The reason is because sampling error cannot be tracked in
non-probability sampling. Moreover, this technique often involves human judgement (Bryman
2012, p. 188). Judgemental sampling occurs when researchers use their personal judgement
to determine representative samples. For instance, a researcher wants to collect sample
members to represent a country. However, the method of sample selection only involves
searching for willing participants in several shopping centres. In this case, the researcher
would not be able to obtain generalisable samples due to unknown sampling frame and
unspecified sampling procedure. This may ultimately lead to sampling bias and non-
representativeness (Aaker et al 2011, p. 350). Nevertheless, the possibility of non-
representativeness can be eliminated by using probability method technique. By giving the
same probability of selection to every unit in the population, the technique creates unbiased
representation of a population (Bryman 2012, p. 176 ff).

2.2.1 Probability Sampling Methods

There are generally four types of probability sampling methods; simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling. Each method has
advantages as well as disadvantages (Bryman 2012, p. 190 ff).

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2.2.1.1 Simple Random Sampling

This sampling method is the most fundamental of all probability sampling methods. This
method is often used as sampling method itself or can also be a constituent of more complex
sampling methods. As mentioned above, every unit in a population has an equal probability
of being selected as sample in this method. The probability of each sample can be easily
calculated using the formula of sampling fraction. The formula is as follows:
!
(1)
"

n represents the sample size and N is the population size. For example, a teacher wants to
select five out of fifty students to be the class representatives. The teacher places lottery
inside a hat and blindly select five names from the hat. In this event, all students in that
particular class have the same 10% probability (5/50) of being chosen. In order to generate
random numbers for sample selection, this method may use a table of random numbers, a
computer program which can generate random numbers, or using the conventional way
similar to the case above (lottery method, blindfolded method, etc) (Bryman 2012, p. 190 f).

The advantage of using this method is there is almost no opportunity of human bias since the
selection of sample does not favor any certain unit over the others in the population (Bryman
2016, p. 176 ff). However, there is still a very small chance that important characteristics of
the research might be excluded if conventional ways are preferred, causing under sampling
(Adwork 2015, p. 96). To illustrate, the teacher selected all female students by chance,
because the names did not well mixed and most of the females put their names inside the
hat at the same time. That is why using a table of random numbers is more recommended.
Other possibility to prevent such a situation is to use other probability sampling methods,
such as systematic sampling.

2.2.1.2 Systematic Sampling

In this method, every unit in the targeted population is numbered and put in order. The first
sample is then selected at a random starting point and the next sample is by using the so-
called ‘sampling interval’. Sampling interval can be determined by the formula below:
"
(2)
!

where N determines the whole population and n as the desired sample size. Case in point: a
teacher wants to conduct a systematic sampling to his class of fifty students. The teacher
lists all fifty names and numbered them from 1 to 50. Desired sample size is still the same as
previous case; five. In this case, sampling interval would be 50 divided by 5, which brings 10
as a result. The starting point is then randomly selected between sample number 1 and 10.
Thereafter, the nth term applies in order to select the following sample. For example, if the

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starting point is 2, then the following sample should every tenth student on the list. Hence,
the next sequence will be 12, 22, 32, and 42 (Bryman 2012, p. 191).

Depending on the list, there are some cases where systematic sampling gives a more
representative result than simple random sampling. For example, a researcher wants to
conduct a research about how income affects shopping behaviour, and he has a list of
people based on their income in monotonic order. The result will be more representative
because the researcher now has all samples from various income levels, whereas it is
doubtful to have the chance of getting such result using simple random sampling. However,
not in all cases that this method is better than simple random sampling, e.g. if the list is
arranged cylically. For instance, a researcher observes the number of people shopping in the
supermarket and a sampling interval 30 is selected, then the data collected will not be
representative for the people who shop at some other time in the month (Aaker 2011, p. 347-
348).

2.2.1.3 Stratified Random Sampling

In stratified random sampling, the population is divided into different subgroups or commonly
called strata. Units from every strata are then drawn in proportion to the population from each
strata. The stratification variable could be based on anything they have in common, e.g.
same nationality, religion, gender, etc. It is important to note that the targeted population is
heterogeneous, and the strata is homogeneous within each other. This methods can be
classified into two different types; proportional stratified sampling and disproportional
stratified sampling (Shao 2002 p. 366 f).

As the name suggests, proportional stratified means that the number of sampling units
chosen within each group is proportional to the population method. For example, there are
60 females and 40 males in the population, and a researcher requires a sample size of 10
people. Because the percentage of female is 60% of the whole population, sample selected
from female population is also 60% of total desired sample size, which equals to 6 in this
example. The same way should should be applied to determine the sample size of male
population; 40% of total desired sample, which means 4. As a result, the researcher will
select 6 random females and 4 random males from the population. This method is usually
applied if the research aim is for generalising the whole population (Shao 2002 p. 367 f).

Conversely, the sample is selected differently than the population proportion in

disproportional stratified sampling. This method may be applied when the aim of the research
is comparing between groups, or when certain strata in the population is very small. As an
example, a researcher wants to compare between gender in a population of 90 females and
10 males. On that occasion, the sample size should consist of the same amount from both

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groups; i.e. 5 females and 5 males if the desired sample size is 10 (Johnson and Christensen
2014, p. 346 f).

This method assures that all units with different characteristics are included, therefore there
is no discarded opinions from certain group. That is why it is a good method in regards of
representativeness. It could be possible to achieve such accuracy when using other methods
such as simple random sampling or systematic sampling, but it is unlikely. Nonetheless, this
method can only be feasible when there is enough information on sample identity to
determine the stratification variable. Because when there is no sufficient information, it would
be costly and impractical to determine each unit characteristics (Bryman 2012, p. 192 f).

2.2.1.4 Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is similar as stratified sampling method, where the population is divided into
different subgroups. But, instead of selecting sample from every group, sample selection for
the whole population is represented from several subgroups only. The subgroups, or more
commonly called clusters, are initially selected using simple random sampling. Clusters can
be classified based on various variables, such as colleges, schools, counties, localities,
airports, planes, hospitals, government buildings, etc. There are two possible ways to
conduct cluster sampling; one-stage cluster sampling and two-stage cluster sampling
(Churchill and Brown 2007, p. 365 f).

One-stage cluster sampling means that every unit in the selected clusters are included in the
sample. For example, if one wants to evaluate 100 schools in the population, and 5 random
schools are selected in sampling, then all students in those 5 schools should be included.
Supposing that each school has 100 students, then the total sample size would be 500. In
two-stage cluster sampling however, sample is reselected from the clusters that have been
randomly chosen in one-stage cluster sampling, e.g. 50 students are selected from each
school, if the desired sample size is 250 (Johnson and Christensen 2014, p. 347 ff).

Cluster sampling clearly gives advantages for the researcher, compared to other methods,
i.e. simple random sampling, systematic sampling or stratified random sampling, because
transportation cost as well as time are saved by only having to travel to 5 different schools
(Johnson and Christensen 2014, p. 347 ff). However, sampling error cannot be avoided in
the case of one selected cluster has a biased opinion. As a result, the entire population may
be assumed to have the same opinion, while in reality is not necessarily the case (Sharma
2017, p. 750 f).

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2.3 Sampling Error

Sampling error occurs when there is a variance in value between the sample and the
population characteristic where a survey is assessed. Although probability sampling reduces
the chance of sampling error, sampling error may still happen. Sampling error has a
correlation with sample size in which larger sample size relates to smaller sample error
(Figure 1.1). Following example shows a significant case in sampling error. Supposing there
is a population of 100 people. They are divided into two categories; those who do watch and
do not watch movies. The required sample size for the study is 50 people. Representative
sample could be obtained, if 25 people from each category are selected, which shows that
there is no error in the sampling process. However, a small sampling error is shown if 24
people from the watch category and 26 from the do not watch category are selected.
Respectively, it will lead to more serious degree of over-representation of people who do not
watch movies (Bryman 2012, p. 188 ff; Hyman and Sierra 2010, p. 226).

Figure 1: Relation between sample error and sample size (Hyman and Sierra 2010, p. 226).

2.4 Sample Size

In a research, sample size in a survey should be known. Sample size means the number of
units that need to be surveyed to obtain a precise and reliable data. It can be people, places
or things (Fink 2003, p. 33). As mentioned before, larger sample size could generally leads to
a better result due to smaller sampling errors, which means the data collected is closer to the
population’s characteristics. Basically, the sample size itself is influenced by four factors, the
number of groups and subgroups within the evaluated sample, the value of the information in
the study in general and the accuracy required of the results in particular, the sample cost
and the variability of the population. There are some approaches to determine sample size,
either by using statistical technique or by some ad hoc methods (Aaker et al. 2011, p. 362 ff).

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2.4.1 Ad Hoc Method

This method is often used by a person who is experienced in determining sample size in a
research, even when there are some limitations such as budget constraints. Several
common ad hoc methods include blind guess, budget constraint, rules of thumb and
comparable studies (Aaker et al. 2011, p. 362 f; Hyman and Sierra 2010, p. 227 f). The first
method, blind guess, is a common approach method by guessing a sufficient number for the
sample size. The second method is called budget constraint because in most cases, sample
size might also be bounded to budget constraint, which considers if the research is worth to
conduct or not. Larger sample size increases cost while smaller sample size may leads to
insufficient accuracy of the data. For example, a food company have only $100 budget to do
a survey. If each participant is awarded $5 and a data analysis costs $50, then the total
affordable sample size is only 10. At this point, the company should consider if the sample
size 10 is worthwhile, or if the budget for the data survey should be increased or if the survey
should just not be conducted. As for the third method, rules of thumb, 100 sample size is set
as a standard. Finally, in the last method, which is called comparable studies, information on
sample size from similar studies are adopted, and are used as a guide (Hyman and Sierra
2010, p. 227; Aaker et al. 2011, p. 362 f).

2.4.2 Statistical Method

Sample size can also be determined by statistical calculation in order to achieve an ideal
sample as a miniature version of the target population. It is calculated by following simple
formula below:

&' )
𝑛 = (3)
(

where 𝑛 = sample size, z = z-score corresponds to level of confidence, s = standard

deviation, E = acceptable magnitude of sample error (precision).

Based on the formula above there are three factors which are considered to determine
sample size. First is standard deviation, which means the homogeneity and heterogeneity of
the parameter in a population. Second, the acceptable magnitude of sample error or
precision estimates the precision required. The closer the estimation reflects the true value in
the population. Third is the level of confidence which describes the degree of researcher can
feel certain with the estimation of true value falls within the precision range (Hyman and
Sierra 2010, p. 230; Churchill and Brown 2007, p. 379).

As the calculation above shows that the population size has no direct effect on sample size,
the next case is to calculate when a large portion of the population is known. The finite
population correction (fpc) should be used when applicable since the larger the sample

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Research Methods Written Report Lasmana, Puteri, Sunardi

cause the study to be more expensive. Finite population correction (fpc) factor is used when
the estimated sample is more than 5 to 10% of the population. The sample size is calculated
by the following formula:

𝑛* = 𝑛 [(𝑁/(𝑁 + 𝑛 − 1)] (4)

where 𝑛* = revised size (sample size with fpc), 𝑛 = originally determined size (sample size
without fpc) and N = population size (Churchill and Brown 2007, p. 386).

For example, calculate the estimated sample that is needed to determine the average
amount of money that students in Mainz earn per month. The data from previous studies
show that the standard deviation is €250. The desired level of confidence is 95% which
comparable to 1.96 z value and the precision of about €50 is still accepted. From the formula
(3), the calculation should be as the following:

4.678 9 ):;8
𝑛= = 96.04 ≈ 97 samples
:;8

If the total of students in Mainz is 500 students, it means that 97 samples is more than 10%
of the total 500 students. Therefore, the sample size can be calculated with the finite
population correction as the following calculation:

500
𝑛* = 97 = 81.38 ≈ 82 samples
500 + 97 − 1
2.5 Response Rate and Non-Response Rate

Once the survey is conducted, both response and non-response rate will be generated as a
feedback. On one hand, the response rate calculates the percentage of how many
participants agree to contribute in the survey. On the other hand, non-response rate happens
when members of the sample refuse to corporate, cannot be contacted or cannot supply the
data because of some reasons, for example disability. The response rate is calculated as the
following formula:

QRSTUV WX YZV[\]\YZQ[^
% response rate = × 100 (5)
[W[Z_ ^ZSY_U ` QWQ`VU^YWQ^U YZV[\]\YZQ[^

(Bryman 2012, p. 199).

3 Conclusions
This report examined the methods used to design a sampling plan, in order to obtain
representative sample and minimize sampling error. Sampling is performed to assess the
characteristics of the target population, using only a small sample size to reduce cost, time
and difficulties in the analyses. A representative sample must be obtained in order to
generalize the results to the whole population. Three major sources of sampling bias were

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explained. First, the use of non-probability sampling method, which is often influenced by
personal judgement. The next problem is when the sample size is too small to reflect the
population or if the relevant attributes of the population are not accurately defined. Last is the
non-response of the participant, which could occur when they refuse or unable to participate
in the survey. Therefore, a representative sample can only be obtained by careful planning
during data collection and proper sampling design.

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Research Methods Written Report Lasmana, Puteri, Sunardi

References (Literature Lists)

Aaker, D. A., Kumar, V., Day, G. S., & Leone, R. P. (2011). Marketing research (10th ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc..

Adwork, J. (2015). Probability Sampling - A Guideline for Quantitative Health Care Research.
The ANNALS of AFRICAN SURGERY, 12(2), 95–99.

Bryman, A. (2012): Social Research Methods. 4th ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bryman, A. (2016): Social Research Methods. 5th ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Churchill, G.A and Brown, T.J. (2007): Basic Marketing Research. 6th ed. Ohio: Thomas
South Western.

Fink, A. (2003): The Survey Kit. How To Sample In Surveys. 2nd ed., California: Sage
Publication, Inc.

Hyman, M.R and Sierra, J.J. (2010): Marketing Research Kit For Dummies. Indiana: Wiley
Publishing, Inc..

Israel, G. D. (1992): Determining sample size, University of Florida Cooperative Extension

Service, Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences, EDIS.

Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2012): Educational Research Quantitative, Qualitative, and
Mixed Approaches. 4th ed., California: Sage Publication, Inc.

Malhotra, N.K; Birks, D.F.; Wills, P. (2010): Marketing Reasearch: An Applied Approach .4th
ed., Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Pickery, J., & Carton, A. (2008): Oversampling in Relation to Differential Regional Response.

Ramsey, C. A., & Hewitt, A. D. (2005). A Methodology for Assessing Sample

Representativeness. Environmental Forensics, 6(1), 71–75. doi:
10.1080/15275920590913877.

Shao, A. T. (2002): Marketing Research: An Aid to Decision Making. 2nd ed., Ohio: South-
Western Thomson Learning.

Sharma, G. (2017). Pros and cons of different sampling techniques. International Journal of
Applied Research, 3(7), 749–752.

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Affidavit

Hiermit versichere ich an Eides Statt, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbstständig und
ohne die Benutzung anderer als der angegebenen Hilfsmittel angefertigt habe. Alle
Stellen, die wörtlich oder sinngemäß aus veröffentlichten und nicht veröffentlichten
Schriften entnommen wurden, sind als solche kenntlich gemacht. Die Arbeit ist in gleicher
oder ähnlicher Form oder auszugsweise im Rahmen einer anderen Prüfung noch nicht
vorgelegt worden.

I hereby confirm to the best of my knowledge that this thesis is solely my original work and
that I have only used the sources and materials indicated. All quotations from other works
as well as paraphrases or summaries of other works have been identified as such and
properly acknowledged in the thesis. This thesis or parts thereof have not been submitted
to an educational institution in Germany or abroad as part of an examination or degree
qualification.”

Kassel, 10.11.2019

Place, date of signature Leonny Agustina Lasmana

Witzenhausen, 10.11.2019

Place, date of signature Berlianti Puteri

Kassel, 10.11.2019

Place, date of signature Jennifer Sunardi

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