People's Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Batna 2 University
Faculty of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dissertation submitted to the department of Mechanical Engineering

in partial fulfillement of the requirements of the
Master Degree in Aeronautical Technology

THEME

STUDY AND REALIZATION OF AN

ARDUCOPTER

Candidates: Supervised by:

MESSAOUDANE Nor El Islam Prof. BOUGUECHAL Nour-Eddine
MESSAOUDANI Fouad
MELIANI Mostafa

June 2017
 Acknowledgments

The present work is the offspring of a great support with which special people in our life
provided us and to whom special thanks should be dedicated.
We would first of all like to express our gratitude to our supervisor,Prof.BOUGUECHAL
Nour-Eddine, for his patience, his availability and especially his judicious guidance.
We would like also to thank the professors of the faculty, who
covered so positively our needs and so made of our university studies a real success.
Special thanks are dedicated to our funding sources, our parents may Allah bless them.
We express a distinguished gratitude to the friends and colleagues who
demonstrated enough moral and intellectual support throughout our process.
We THANK you Bilal for your advice on the database, it
greatly facilitated our work.
 List of abbreviations
AC Alternating Current

ADC Analog to Digital Converter

AOA Angle Of Attack

BEMF Back Electro Motive Force

BLDC Brushless DC (motor)

BMS Battery Management System

DC Direct Current

DMA Direct Memory Access

ESC Electronic Speed Controller

HBN Hybrid Bull Nose, Hybrid Blunt Nose

I²C Inter-Integrated Circuit

LiPo Lithium Polymer

MCU Micro Controller Unit

MEMS Micro Electro Mechanical System

PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative

PPM Pulse Position Modulation

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

RC Radio Command

RPM Revolution Per Minute

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

 List of tables

Table 1: Comparison between BLDC and brushed DC motors ............................................... 28

Table 2: Comparison between BLDC and AC Induction Motors ............................................ 29

Table 3: Radio link receiver channels ...................................................................................... 53

 List of figures
Figure 1: Frame Dimensions .................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2: Magnetic Force ......................................................................................................... 20
Figure 3: Left –Hand Rule and Right- Hand Rule ................................................................... 21
Figure 4: Coil in a Magnetic Field ........................................................................................... 21
Figure 5: Right-hand Corkscrew Rule ..................................................................................... 23
Figure 6: Simplified BLDC Motor Diagrams .......................................................................... 24
Figure 7: Rotor Magnets Cross-Sections ................................................................................. 25
Figure 8: Motor Rotation.......................................................................................................... 25
Figure 9: Motor Classification ................................................................................................. 26
Figure 10: Electric driver circuit .............................................................................................. 30
Figure 11: Hall Sensor versus BEMF ...................................................................................... 31
Figure 12: Electric Speed Controller ........................................................................................ 32
Figure 13: Arduino, ESC and BLDC Connection .................................................................... 34
Figure 14: Arduino Uno ........................................................................................................... 36
Figure 15: Arduino Dimensions ............................................................................................... 36
Figure 16: Arduino Uno components ....................................................................................... 37
Figure 17: Arduino and GY-88 Connection ............................................................................. 41
Figure 18: Visual representation of roll, pitch, and yaw. ......................................................... 43
Figure 19: GY-87 ..................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 20: I²C SDL and SCL lines ........................................................................................... 44
Figure 21: 8bits sequences ....................................................................................................... 44
Figure 22: ACK/NACK Sequences .......................................................................................... 45
Figure 23: Internal registers addressing ................................................................................... 45
Figure 24: PID Control ............................................................................................................. 46
Figure 25: PID structure ........................................................................................................... 47
Figure 26: GUI platform .......................................................................................................... 50
Figure 27: Radio link transmitter ............................................................................................. 53
Figure 28: Radio link receiver .................................................................................................. 53
 TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages

Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................i
List of abbreviations ...................................................................................... ii
List of tables ................................................................................................... iii
List of figures ..................................................................................................iv
Table of contents .............................................................................................. v

1.GENERAL INTRODUCTION.................................................................... 1

1.1EXECUTIVE SUMMARY......................................................................................................... 1
1.2GOALS AND OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................................. 3
1.4RISKS .................................................................................................................................. 4

2.RESEARCH .................................................................................................. 6

2.1 AERONAUTICS .................................................................................................................... 6

2.1.1 LIFT AND FLIGHT STABILIZATION ...........................................................................6
2.1.2 FORWARD MOTION ................................................................................................7
2.1.3 FRAME ...................................................................................................................9
2.1.4. PROPELLERS .......................................................................................................11
2.2. POWER SOURCE ............................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 BATTERIES ...........................................................................................................15
2.2.2 BATTERY CHARGING ...........................................................................................17
2.2.3. BATTERY RISKS ..................................................................................................18
2.3.MOTORS ........................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.1. MOTOR FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS .................................................................20
2.3.2. STATOR ..............................................................................................................23
2.3.3. ROTOR ...............................................................................................................24
2.3.4. OPERATIONAL MOTOR THEORY ......................................................................25
2.3.5. MOTOR VARIETIES ...........................................................................................25
2.3.6. MOTOR TYPES ...................................................................................................26
2.3.7. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS MOTOR TYPES ......................................................27
2.3.8. BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR CONTROL ........................................................29
2.3.9. SENSORLESS BLDC MOTOR CONTROL ...........................................................30
2.4. MOTOR CONTROL DESIGN ............................................................................................... 31
 2.4.1. WHAT IS THE ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROL? ......................................................32
2.4.2. PWM (PULSE WIDTH MODULATION / HIGH RATE CONTROL) .............................33
2.4.3. ESC BRUSHLESS / BRUSHED .......................................................................33
2.4.4 WIRING UP THE CIRCUIT AND POWERING THE ESC ..............................................33
2.4.5. CALIBRATION .....................................................................................................34
2.4.6. CLASSIFICATION .................................................................................................35
2.5 ARDUINO (MICROCONTROLLERS) ..................................................................................... 36
2.5.1. COMMUNICATION ...............................................................................................40
2.5.2. I²C AND ARDUINO ..............................................................................................40
2.6. WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS ......................................................................................... 41
2.6.1. ANTENNA ...........................................................................................................42
2.7.SENSOR ............................................................................................................................. 42
2.7.1 FLIGHT STABILITY SENSOR ..................................................................................42
2.7.2. GY-87 ................................................................................................................43
2.7.3.COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL ...........................................................................44

3. DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 46

3.1.WHAT IS PID? .................................................................................................................. 46

3.1.1. THE EFFECT OF EACH PARAMETER ......................................................................47
3.1.2. HOW TO TUNE QUADCOPTER PID GAINS.............................................................48
3.1.3. CONFIGURATION VIA GUI.........................................................................................49
3.2.RADIO CONTROL ............................................................................................................... 52
3.2.1. WHAT IS A RADIO CONTROL ...............................................................................52
3.2.3. THE CONNECTION ARDUINO-RECEIVER ..............................................................53

4. GENERAL CONCLUSION .....................................................................54

REFERENCES...............................................................................................55
 Chapter 1:

General Introduction
Chapter 1: General Introduction

1.General Introduction
1.1Executive Summary

The quad-copter could be described as a UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) with

autonomous subsystems. It could be equipped with a video transmitting subsystem, so its
purpose could be for surveillance. It will have also a small payload capacity that could be
applied to the emergency delivery of low weight supplies to remote locations. However,
perhaps the most significant purpose of the quad-copter is simply anengineering exercise in
design,like in our case.
The motivations to choose the quad-copter as a Master aeronautics design project are
varied among the group members. We got the ambition from autopilot concept, then a
quadcopter with an arduino and sensors and autonomous capabilities. At first there were
concerns about the technical difficulties involved in designing and building an arducopter
however, the idea of an arducopter also generated enough excitement that ultimately the
challenge was accepted.
As the quad-copter concept has developed, its characteristics and capabilities have
become more defined. The quad-copter is a small lightweight hover-capable vehicle that can
be controlled over a custom wireless system. The custom wireless protocol, developed by the
group specifically for the quad-copter, is light in coding and overhead. The quad-copter will
have a robust sensor suite so that it can also operate in a more autonomous mode. The
autonomous mode includes subsystems such as a gyroscope module so that the quad-copter,
once given a target location, can make its own way to the target coordinates without further
human control. This flight mode requires additional subsystems such as ultrasonic proximity
sensors, so that the robot can detect and avoid obstacles (including the ground) and a digital
compass, so that its direction can be ascertained and corrected. These sensors send a lot of
data to the MCU(The ARDUINO), the brain of the quad-copter, which must process the
information according to its algorithms and prompt the appropriate subsystems to action. An
especially complex task assigned to the MCU is to maintain flight level by varying the speed
of the individual motors based upon the calculation of data received from the IMU (Inertial
Measurement Unit). The IMU combines data from a triple-axis accelerometer and a triple-axis
gyroscope using a sensor fusion algorithm. The subsystems of the quad-copter are highly
interdependent, linked by the arduino, the physical frame, and the power system. Power
comes at a premium in an aerial vehicle where flight duration varies directly with its total

1
Chapter 1: General Introduction
weight. The frame must be designed strong and rigid enough to support all the other systems
yet light enough in order to prolong flight duration to acceptable levels.

1.2Goals and Objectives

The main goal of this project is to create a lightweight flyer that can maintain a steady
altitude in flight, fly in accordance to a pre-set flight path, has a simple interface for
controlling, and has the capability to carry a payload. The arducopter is to be used by any user
capable of responsibly using the flyer. Therefore, a design and controller based on a beginner-
level pilot’s skills are essential to the project.

The first goal is software implementation and testing. The processor will implement a
high-level language to process commands and for fast debugging. The computer interface will
be a MultiWii GUI, or graphical user interface, developed in a high-level language. PWM
signals are to be implemented and tested on the ATMEGA328p. A means of controlling the
signal in small steps will be used for tilt measurements. A means of error-correction will be
made to compensate for tilting for forward, reverse, and turning by using accelerometer and
gyroscope measurements. Checking for altitude will be accomplished by both an ultrasonic
sensor and by measuring and estimating pressure and temperature data using a pre-calculated
array. The software will take into consideration the sampling rate of all analog inputs from
their respected ADCs to confirm the given data.

The second goal is to setup a remote communications device to communicate with the
controller (the ARDUINO in our case). The main controlling device for testing the device will
be done through a computer interface(as a test), with the possibility of adding a separate
controller. The communications will be done using a customized system of RX remote control
transceiver. These protocols will be communicated by a microwave antenna, to a dedicated
processor, to be sent via UART to the main processor. The main processor will then interpret
the command to determine whether it is a non-autonomous user-instructed command, a real-
time flight controlled by the user; or an autonomous command preset by the computer for a
demonstration or surveillance flight.

The third goal involves getting the quad-copter in the air in a stable flight. This is
defined as being able to lift from the ground to a steady-state position with almost no lateral
drift and no spinning. Simply put, what is assigned as the front stays facing the same direction

2
Chapter 1: General Introduction
until the user sends the command to move. This will be first used in an environment which
allows for more accurate readings under ideal conditions, which are a controlled temperature
in an enclosed space, preferably a garage or indoor lab. To reach this goal, tests must be done
on the motors to determine the types of signals needed to stabilize flight. This would mean
testing the signals to the accelerometer, gyroscope, and the digital compass to determine
direction and tilt. These tests will be handled by manipulating the PWM signals being sent to
each of the motors controlled via computer connection. This will, at first, be done by
connecting the frame with a prototype board onto an apparatus to allow for the quad-copter to
tilt significantly without crashing.

The fourth goal is to get real-time flight telemetry. This would be done by testing the
flight controller, which confirms the PWM signals sent to each motor. The altimeter, which is
a pressure sensor, will be used to test the overall height which can be reached within tolerance
of the transceiver. The transceiver’s range from the base unit, which is in this case a laptop,
will be tested in terms of indoor and outdoor communication limitations. The accelerometer
and gyroscope controllers will be tested in outdoor areas to determine stability under light
turbulence, or light breeze interactions, as well as testing forward/reverse movement and
turning and how it affects stable flight. Finally, flight time will be monitored for the quad-
copter thus, determining the amount of practical application time and usage.Further goals and
objectives are bulleted below.

 The copter must have navigational capabilities for tracking and positioning.
 The copter must be able to be controlled via computer interface or via a separate
controller.
 The copter must be able to receive and interpret a preset flight path.
 The copter must be able to send gyroscope and altimeter signals for current flight
information (telemetry).
 The copter must give power feedback, from the engines and the processor, via wireless
connection (telemetry).

1.3Requirements and Specifications

The requirements and specifications for specialized subsystems of the quad-copter will
be addressed individually in the appropriate research subsections of this document. General
requirements and specifications for the quad-copter are bulleted below:

3
Chapter 1: General Introduction
 Must be able to lift 2 kg of mass, including the mass of the control unit.
 Navigation must be accurate to within 3 m. (X and Y coordinates).
 A 2.4 GHz signal will be used to transmit telemetry and for direct user control.
 The quad-copter must be able to maintain flight for a minimum of 5 minutes.
 The frame must be lightweight, preferably less than 800g total.
 The quad-copter should have a radius of less than 50 cm.
 The copter must be able to move in 5 basic directions forward, rotate left,rotate right,
rise and descend.
 The quad-copter should achieve a minimum speed of 5 km/h.
 The copter must be able to be controlled via wireless connection using remote control
commands for direct control within a 30 to 50 m radius.

1.4Risks

The quad-copter as envisioned is a complex project with multiple potential points of

failure. The assumption that a known risk is preferable to an unknown risk justifies further
analysis of the risks associated with the quad-copter. According to a text on software
engineering, risks can be quantified by equating risk exposure with the product of risk
probability and risk impact (Pfleeger, ch3.6). This approach is sufficient as a basis for
assessing risks and ultimately avoiding negative consequences pertaining to the project. The
risks involved in such a project can come in many forms ranging from issues of personal
safety, a high impact risk, all the way down to losing a letter grade, a lower impact, higher
probability risk.

There are issues of personal safety involved with the quad-copter such as the potential
combustion of the LiPo (Lithium Polymer) battery if charged incorrectly. This risk can be
overcome through researching safety precautions, implementing the precautions, and by
buying the most suitable equipment without being overly swayed by price, i.e. by not buying
a cheap charger. Another, lower impact, risk associated with the LiPo battery is that if the
battery is drained too much then the battery could become un-rechargeable and therefore a
time/money risk. This risk can be addressed through power regulation and emergency
shutdown procedures but, it could still be considered as having a significant degree of
probability and thus, having a significant total modified risk exposure. Other personal safety

4
Chapter 1: General Introduction
concerns include working with the substantial current of the LiPo batteries and potential
injury from the propellers. Also to be considered is that if the quad-copter were to get out of
control and cause injury to the public then liability would be a factor. Another risk that should
be mentioned is that some motor/propeller testing was undertaken using a car battery as a
power source, which has a potentially fatal level of amperage. There are other risks more
uniquely associated with the quad-copter as the choice of a project. Previous senior design
groups have had great difficulty in achieving flight stability with a quad-copter. From their
mistakes it is learned that early prototyping should be undertaken in order to reduce this risk.
If the quad-copter cannot maintain a steady hover in a time frame compatible with the
milestone chart then the risk of not having a successful project increases. Another high
probability project completion risk is that the wireless communication system, for direct
control of the quad-copter, is to be an original, custom designed system undertaken by a group
member with substantially more enthusiasm than experience on the subject. Again, previous
senior design groups have had difficulties with similar systems. Although this custom
wireless system will undoubtedly be rigorously attempted, there remains the risk of failure.
This risk could be partially mitigated by maintaining a backup plan of substituting a
predesigned system at the last minute.

There are numerous high probability project completion type risks associated with the
quad-copter: MCU code development, parsing I2C serial data, power distribution and
regulation, Aeronautics, and the list goes on. The quantity multiplied by the probability
multiplied by the impact level of these project completion risks would therefore seem to
generate a substantial level of risk exposure according to the risk assessment rubric. In
conclusion, while high impact risks should not be underrated, lower impact risks can
accumulate to threaten a project. The quad-copter is a technically demanding endeavor that
will require all members of the group to function on a steep learning curve.

5
Chapter 2: Research
Chapter 2: Research

2.Research
2.1 Aeronautics
2.1.1 Lift and flight stabilization

To facilitate flight stability, two forces must be considered: Lift force and the Magnus
effect. The most important force pertaining to flight is the lift force. Lift is based on the
upward vertical component acting on an airfoil’s aerodynamic center. The force which reacts
to the thrust of the airfoil moves perpendicularly to the airfoil, which is represented as a
vertical and horizontal force. The horizontal vector is known as the drag force (as the name
implies, it moves in opposition to the thrust). Lift, which will need to be related to air density,
is given by the following equation:

Lift equation: L  Cd qS

Where:

Cd is the lift coefficient,

q is the dynamic pressure,

S is the platform area, or the area of the blade or airfoil.

For most airfoils, this is measured at the center of pressure, which is usually found at
the center of the chord of the blade. This concept will hold true for most airfoils found on
standard aircraft.

In terms of measuring the lift for a helicopter, the propeller speed is considered rather
than the thrust. This is due to the fact that the propeller, which is with few exceptions virtually
vertical, is now operating on a horizontal plane. The centrifugal force used to move a
propeller plane forward is now the primary lift force of the quad-copter. This calculation
facilitates optimization of the motors in relation to the propellers at hand. Propeller design
also factors in as the blade turns outward from the center. This results in a change of the angle
of attack to its optimum angle at the tips of each propeller blade. This would be a
disadvantage to users who are more experienced with flight stunts for helicopters. In terms of
using the copter as a surveillance device, it would be ideal for the most static picture from an
aerial perspective.

6
Chapter 2: Research
The other forces to consider are the lateral forces being induced. Normally, there are
no drag forces found on the helicopter or in a hover. This is due to the dual blade propeller
moving at such high speeds. The torque generated from the motor creates a rotational force,
causing the entire craft to spin, hence the second blade to counteract the forces of the torque
(called the anti-torque blade). For the quad-copter, the torques of the counter rotating blades
cancel each other out thus protecting the system from drift. Another design consideration is
the Magnus effect. This assumes a cylinder of infinite length which rotates. What was found
was that the air would have a tendency to induce a lift if the rotation of the cylinder was
moving relatively upwards. This is meant to explain why a baseball pitcher can curve a ball.
For the project, the force is negligible in still air while hovering but, when turbulence occurs,
it is possible for this force to become imbalanced and create a drift force. This drift force is
also something to be considered when in motion. Initial take-off circumstances must also be
taken into account. At start-up, the capability of a slow increase in the propellers’ speed to
avoid a fast take-off is desirable.

Fast take-offs will have long term stress and shearing effects on the internal bolts of
the craft. Ground effects will also lead to a faster take-off due to more air being pushed back
into the airflow of the blades. This leads to an initial cyclonic effect surrounding the blades,
creating further stress on the frame and the propellers and more instability.

2.1.2 Forward Motion

Forward motion is still an issue involving propellers for standard helicopters.

Normally, blades on the main rotor can tilt in a way to create forward flight. In the quad-
copter design, the propeller blades will remain static. To compensate and create forward
flight, the whole copter will need to be tilted by reducing the lift speed of at least one motor.
Timing of this is crucial for maintaining altitude. To maintain altitude, the optimum angle that
the copter can maintain, with a maximum forward thrust, is no more than 10-15 degrees.
There is also the placement of the sensors for feedback to the processor. The accelerometer
and the gyroscope will be required to assist in this faculty. For optimal response, the
accelerometer will handle lateral and vertical feedback, and a gyroscope will handle all
rotation feedback. Orientation of these devices must be considered for controlling flight.
Further testing and signal processing will allow the user to observe the required statistics
needed to command forward flight.

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Chapter 2: Research
As a basis for finding the optimum orientation for forward flight, the helicopter model
is useful. For the typical copter, the AOA (Angle Of Attack) for each blade is assumed to be
optimum for lift at 15 degrees. Since forward flight would mean a change in angle of the
copter, it would also mean a change in the AOA, which will cause a drop in the altitude. To
compensate for this, the above equation, involving the centrifugal force, is modified by setting
the lift used in hovering as the forward thrust. The new lift is the vertical force upward, which
must equate the lift in hover before forward motion to maintain altitude. The new equations
generated from forward thrust are as follows:

Lift equation(Revised): LF  Lhover  cos ζ

Forward Thrust equation: TF  Lhover  sin ζ

Where :

Lhover is the lift in hover before forward motion, which is calculated by centrifugal
force,

ζ is the tilt angle forward. For small angles (below 2 degrees) it will only appear to be
a drift, and must test all angles between 5-15 degrees for any clear results. The minimum
value is given to distinguish from the effects of vibration and drift to the forward thrust, and
the maximum is considered 15 since airfoils which are angled at more than 15 degrees begin
to stall. These same considerations are also given for reverse flight, to allow for halting
forward motion, as well as a reverse function for the copter.[1]

Once the copter is in a constant forward motion, the net forces are considered to be
zero, and the velocity of the copter is regarded in a linear perspective. This can be said if it is
assumed that the plane, in which the copter’s propellers are rotating, is a solid and the mass is
centered. This allows for a steady-state velocity to be established, which can be determined by
the linear momentum equation. Next, turning is also an issue, since forward flight attitude
requires more power. For turning, the solution is the same relation like in forward flight as
was discussed before. Equations 1.5 and 1.6 are the same solutions for therequired tilt,
including more thrust required for forward flight. Since this would require additional power,
the revised equations from above are as follows:

Lift equation (rev. 2): LFT  Lhover  cos ζ  cos θ

Thrust equation (rev. 2): TFT  Lhover  sin ζ  sin θ

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Chapter 2: Research
Where :

theta is the angle of the pitch to be determined, again, the range of angles theta must
be kept at is between 5-15 degrees, as discussed above.[1]

2.1.3 Frame

In considering the frame, the first consideration is the material to be used. It must be
lightweight, sturdy, and affordable. The forces which act on the aircraft primarily will be
gravity and air pressure. Gravity allows for construction under the guidance of a limited mass
to allow for structural stability on the ground, as well as control of the copter in the air. Air
pressure, which is used to determine the airspeed, will affect the quad-copter’s stress on the
screws at higher altitudes. The higher the altitude, the lighter the air, the smaller the forces
against the frame, which implies the copter’s frame, is being stretched. This is what is kept in
mind when considering for the base material for our aircraft. For the project, three materials
are possibile due to their popularity in the RC World: aluminum, wood, and carbon fiber
tubing.

Wood is a very popular choice for many RC designers due to its low cost and to its
soft nature. However, issues begin to arise in an entirely wooden craft, especially in summer
heat and humidity which can lead to further complications in propeller and frame design.
Furthermore, wood, without much reinforcement, has a tendency to bend over a short period
of use such that the design would quickly go out of tolerance. Reinforcing the wood is a
possibility however; it would necessitate more mass being added to the system. This would be
better suited for an airplane system, but not for a helicopter. Therefore, a purely wooden
system would not be the most prudent approach.

Aluminum was the next best choice, due to its tolerance to Batna’s environment. With
aluminum, test flights can be performed repeatedly without requiring reinforcement from
another source. Furthermore, due to its increased strength to stress, aluminum is less likely to
bend due to take-off or stable flight; also, it brings a stronger stability to the frame. This
would mean a longer life for the frame in regard to its basic structure. Problems arise
concerning the weight of the aluminum beams to meet the minimum quad-copter
requirements. It is advisable to use a minimal amount of aluminum, due to its more expensive
nature, relative to wood. Aluminum could also act as a plate which can stabilize the main
board, as well as reinforce the frame.

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Chapter 2: Research
Carbon fiber tubing was found to be the best option for the quad-copter due to its two
main advantages: it can handle stretching better than wood, and it is lighter than aluminum.
Wood operates better when it’s being compressed, which makes it perfect for internal
structure of a larger version of the craft. It would be less effective for the quad-copter
regarding long-term and maintenance issues.

PVC would be a solution to these issues of structure, since most plastics (especially
PVC ) can handle external stretching on the structure.

Frame Weight：282g

Diagonal Wheelbase：450mm

Takeoff Weight：800g ~ 1200g

Recommended Propeller：10 × 7.62 cm ; 8 × 10.16 cm

Recommended Battery：3S~4S LiPo

Recommended Motor：2212 ~ 2216 (Stator size)

Recommended ESC：15 A ~ 30A

Figure 1: Frame dimensions

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Chapter 2: Research

2.1.4. Propellers

Regarding the propellers used for this project, a choice emerged as to purchase
premade blades, or to design them from scratch. Designing them had one major advantage,
namely, any size and pitch blades could be fashioned without constraint. In addition, an
attachment to the rotor could be created, which would mimic a helicopter’s structure. The
major disadvantages were that the only materials conducive to this type of experimentation
would be wood, and the fact that no group members had ever designed or balanced an RC
propeller blade from scratch. Purchasing premade blades would allow the use of stronger,
lighter plastic as well as be a more efficient use of the group's time. It is for these reasons that
premade propeller blades will be bought.
Most of the available propeller blades have a maximum chord length, the length from
the front tip to the back tip of the propeller blade, of 2.54 cm. By using the assumptions
above, the best type of blade for the quad-copter can be determined. To provide enough room
for the centerpiece, which will house the batteries and main controlling unit, and to prevent
interference among the blades, it was decided to choose blades which were at the radial
length. For a 45.5 cm. radius frame, as high as 22.85 cm. radius blades would be acceptable.
Larger blades would mean a possible greater risk to the inexperienced pilot, the engineers
involved in testing, as well as any nearby spectators. At the current state of analysis, a 30.48
cm diameter blade seems the best candidate for the quad-copter, being less costly and easier
to maneuver than with a larger blade. This smaller design can allow for more versatility in
mobility, and can be an implementation for future development. Therefore, 6 in. radius blades
would be largest blade for this size of copter.
Finally, there is an issue with the material for the propellers. Four materials are very
popular for use: plastic, wood, fiberglass, and carbon fiber. Fiberglass and carbon fiber will
do for the purposes of a demonstration, however these materials are more expensive to
acquire. Wood is still popular with most RC flyers, and can be used for stunts. Wood, as an
RC propeller is been prone to breaking very easily at high speeds. Wood also needs to be
glued onto the rotor shaft using a type of plastic wedge. This makes replacing a broken
propeller difficult and time-inefficient. Plastic, like fiberglass and carbon fiber, doesn’t suffer
from the use of glue. A simple washer and screw will hold the blade in place. Furthermore,
replacement of the blade is quick and simple. Therefore, a plastic blade is the best choice for
the quad-copter.

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Chapter 2: Research
Choosing Propellers
Propellers are responsible for producing the required thrust by spinning and stirring
the air surrounding them. The more air is stirred in the surroundings, the more thrust is
generated.
The Basics – Size/Pitch

Every quadcopter comes fitted with a couple of clockwise and anti-clockwise

propellers. Propellers come in different sizes and pitch. For example, 9×4.7 (sometimes
referred to as 9047) propellers are 22.86 cm in length and 10.16 cm in pitch. 5x3x3 (referred
to as 5030×3) means three blade 12.7 cm propeller with a pitch of 7.62 cm.

The length of a propeller is measured from one tip to another and is also commonly
known as the diameter. This is because when you spin a propeller, a circle is formed and the
diameter is the length of the propeller.

Pitch is also sometimes called “Pitch Length” which can be said to be the travel
distance of a single propeller’s rotation. As a rule of thumb, if you increase the propeller
diameter or pitch, they are likely to draw more current from the batteries due to the motion of
more air in the surroundings. Remember that we have assumed the RPM to be constant in this
entire scheme of things. Keep in mind that with more current drawn from the battery, it
becomes hard for the propellers to spin. The bottomline is that if we use larger propellers or
greater pitch length, we will get greater drone speeds but at the cost of more power
comsumption.

Number of Blades

Dual blade propellers are the most commonly used propellers. Drone racers and
freestyle dronies take a fancy to tri-blade propellers. Quad-blade and hex-blade-propellers are
also available. As a matter of fact, the more blades a propellers sports, the more surface area it
will boast and hence will produce more thrust. However, in such a case, the propeller will
draw more current from the batteries and will result in less efficiency.Our quadcopter can
attain higher levels of efficiency with a well balanced blend of appropriate motor and
propeller. It will also enhance our battery output but will also allow us to exercise greater
control over our device.

Effects of Prop Size and Pitch

Generally a propeller that has a lower pitch will spin faster at a higher RPM. The
motors will not need to provide more energy for the propellers to spin and hence will draw
lesser current. If we want to perform incredible aerial stunts, we ought to opt for lower pitch

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Chapter 2: Research
propellers to furnish higher acceleration; thereby consuming lesser power from the system.
This will also have a positive impact on the aircraft’s steadiness.[2]

A propeller with a higher pitch, on the other hand, will move greater amount of air,
which in turn can disrupt the UAV’s stability and produce propeller wash. More thrust will be
generated giving faster speed at the cost of more current drawn from the batteries.[2]

A propeller which is smaller in size will be easier to stop and speed up. On the
contrary, a larger propeller will take a longer amount of time to change its revolutions per
minute due to its inertia.

Material

Propellers consist of a number of materials including plastic, carbon fiber, wood etc.
Unique capabilities and characteristics can be achieved from each type of material such as
carbon fiber and wooden propellers are a bit hard and provide a smooth flight. Propellers
made of plastic, on the other hand, are more durable and reliable.

Shape

Another important parameter that has a crucial role to play in the performance of our
quadcopter is the shape of the propellers. The most prominent difference among propellers of
different shapes and sizes constitutes their tips: pointy nose, bull nose (BN) and hybrid
bullnose (HBN). Propellers with the same size and pitch are most efficient with pointy tips
and produce lesser thrust. Bullnose propellers generate more thrust but simultaneously draw
more current from the batteries. This is primarily because of their larger surface area as
opposed to those with tiny tips. A hybrid bullnose propeller is a blend of the two types of
propellers discussed above.[2]

2.2. Power Source

One of the most essential items considered in designing the quad-copter is the power
source; which must provide a significant current to accommodate the four motors. An
auxiliary, low-watt battery system may be used for the main board, sensors, wireless
communication, and video systems. Specifications and requirements for the primary power
source include:

 High power RC battery – between 10.5V to 12V at operational amperes (varies from
motor to motor).

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Chapter 2: Research
 Not more than 800g of mass dedicated towards power.

 Must be able to sustain a flight time of 10 minutes or more.

Regarding the types of batteries for the particular motors researched, there was a trend
found of requiring a minimal voltage of 10.5 V for operation. This was due to the effects of
the motor which, when read from a multimeter, left a drop in overall voltage, which was due
to the motor. The motor is a three-phase load, and thus follows Lens’s Law of inductive
energy. This would ideally create an equivalent reverse force on the battery, assuming no
impedances from the battery or the inductive load. The equivalent series network between the
battery and the motor create a loss in this force, or BEMF (Back EMF), and allows for a drop
in voltage.

For the initial test motor, the A2212/13T Brushless Outrunner, the voltage would drop
by approximately 2.5V. By then dropping the voltage, the determination can be made that
10.5 V is the optimum. Once it dropped below 8.0V on the multimeter, the engine had
stopped. One member read the actual voltage after disconnecting the motor from the system,
and it read 10.48V.This was also measured at 20 percent duty cycle from the controller. This
made the choice official: for the motor to run optimally, the required source should have a
voltage no smaller than 10.5V.The maximum of 12 V can be used however; anything higher
would come with a considerably greater financial cost and with the added risk of burning out
the motors and the system.

The next issue was the current, which is the key for calculating the approximate flight
time. Most batteries aren’t rated by their current, but their charge in terms of current-time
(usually mAH or AH in RC power supplies). If flight time is assumed as a linear function of
battery capacity, then the maximum time is easy to calculate as shownin equation 2.2.1:

Qch arg e( in A  hr )
Motor Operation equation:  60  t motor ( in min)
I mo ( in A )

Where:

Qcharge is the charge held by the battery,

Imo is the motor’s standard (or maximum efficiency) operational current,

60 is the conversion factor from hours to minutes,

tmotor is the maximum time the motor will remain on.

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Chapter 2: Research
This formula will also hold for the maximum current output in considering a worst
case scenario.Since there are 4 motors operating, three options need to be considered as
follows (with the operational motor time being tm for each calculation):

 Option 1 – each motor has its own battery source. In which case, the formula above
would apply to each motor. The downside is that the added mass would be
unacceptable due to the possibility that the batteries would likely consume up to 1 kg
of weight (well over the specification tolerance). Thus, tm = tmotor.
 Option 2 – one battery for every two motors. In essence, half the power going to each
ESC and motor. The weight will be closer to 500g, and within specification. Issues
may arise in designing the power supplied to the main board. Therefore, tm=tmotor/2 .
 Option 3 – one battery for all motors. This would be the ideal design in considering a
battery to power the motors and the processor due to simplicity. The issue of using a
single power source for all the components would pose a problem for batteries near
shutdown. If a voltage detector is used, the microprocessor will need time to shut
down power to the other subsystems to protect the system. A separate power module
may be required for this configuration to work. Thus, tm = tmotor/4, approximately.[4]
Finally, there is the mass to consider. Since it is ideal to keep the quad-copter at a low
mass, having power efficient batteries with a fast recharge time, reliability in battery life-
longevity, and practical application of power be considered in design. A perfect example
would be powering the main board, which houses the processor and sensor control functions,
to be turned on and off by either a main battery, or a separate battery and allow for a
dedicated power supply to the motors. This will be considered more in the design section of
this document.

2.2.1 Batteries
There are five battery types used by all RC beginners, hobbyists, and enthusiasts:

1. Alkaline
2. Nickel Metal-Hydride (NiMH)
3. Nickel Cadmium (NiCad)
4. Nickel Zinc (NiZn)
5. Lithium Polymer(LiPo)
For most electromechanical systems, such as RC helicopters, batteries are required for
engine start-up and signal management. Since all cars run off of a DC source, the electric
network may be required to convert the DC energy to AC by means of relays and inverter

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networks. From an analysis perspective, this requires both DC and AC analysis, in terms of
voltage, current, and power. These effects can also affect DC power consumption, as well as
thermal effects that can result in component shutdown (the motors especially).[4]

The argument is simple: “Which is more important: motors, the processor, the sensors,
or the video system? When is there an exception?” At this point, it is assumed that the video
system has its own power source. Therefore, we only need to concern ourselves with the
motors, the processor, and the sensors. The sensors themselves are auxiliary systems which
operate with the processor, and are not entirely necessary for flying the craft. However, it
does give the user essential data regarding flight data and analysis for control. For this section,
consider the sensors and processor as the main board.

Most of the components on the main board are low-power devices, operating in
current ratings as high as the mA to as low as the nA range. This would make most power
dissipation from the source minimal, at best. However, it will be an issue in regards to initial
start-up, and at shut-down. The effects of current and voltage spikes due to an under-damped
system, and the reverse current on regulators can be an issue regarding the life of the
components. With the exception of the compass module all the sensors are designed as analog
parts. These parts are ICs which can easily overheat due to unregulated current and voltage.
Furthermore, the digital components, which are the processor, and the digital compass; cannot
suffer from under-damped DC effects (overshooting nominal operating, standing wave effect,
electromagnetic interference due to signal leakage or improper shielding).[4]

Lithium Polymer (LiPo) Batteries

For the best choice in batteries, there are the LiPo batteries, the predominating
rechargeable battery. LiPo batteries have a much higher voltage rating in one cell than in their
predecessors, as well as slightly lighter weight. However, the charge typically found in these
batteries is between 3.6V to 4.7V per cell. This allows for the construction of a powerful
battery with a minimum number of cells required. This is also useful for issues concerning
overall weight, which is an issue with the other considered sources.

The only concerns with the batteries themselves are the cost and the safety issues. The
cost of most batteries will vary depending on the charge capacity used. 2300mAH at 11.1V
typically go for 5825.96DA to 7283.96DA, while the 5500mAH at the same voltage range
from 12925.95DA to 18388.92DA .Careful design and timing considerations must be given to
these batteries to ensure these batteries do not drain too much during charging (discussed

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more in Battery Charging). Currently, the two main distributers of batteries are Thunder
Power and Racer’s Edge. Though there are other distributers which at times offer better deals,
these provide a more consistent supply of their batteries, and are the recommended choice for
purchasing.

The other issue is the safety issue in charging these batteries. Some LiPo packs come
with their own charger, which is desired for the project. However, in case the pack does not
come with a charger, it may be because the battery pack is a customized pack, and requires
special attention. If this is not carefully monitored, these batteries can catch fire and can create
severe property damage or injury. This will be discussed more in the Battery Risks Section.
Because the battery packs hold a lot of power, they can be wired to the main board for
powering the components. Issues arise in the power being supplied to the main board. Since
there is a great deal of power being sent to the board, it’s possible to melt the board and
overheat the components well beyond their operating temperature tolerances. A voltage
regulator with a heat sink is the best solution, if testing shows it is required. It’s possible this
may necessitate placement of a fuse to protect the main board and its components.[4]

2.2.2 Battery Charging

When it comes to the most common rechargeable batteries, most times all that is
required is a premade charger. This is the recommended method for charging any type of AA,
AAA, C, or D class rechargeable batteries. They’re easy to find and typically are fairly cheap
at most stores. Most battery dealers (Duracell, Energizer, and Radio Shack to name a few)
will sell these chargers for anywhere from 1000DA to 1500DA. This is a recommended
method only for batteries with alkaline battery holders. For RC battery packs, some of these
come with AC adapters for quick, easy charging. These exist for some of the smaller packs
(6.0V typically, 9.6V at best). These are usually packs of “true-C” cells comprised of NiCad
or NiMH. For the quad-copter, this is an insufficient voltage due to back EMF effects from
the motor. LiPo battery packs and customized NiCad and NiMH packs use chargers which
can control the voltage and the current being sent to the battery. Since LiPo batteries are the
preferred choice of battery for this project, the battery life and safety must be considered,
depending on the battery.[4]

Most computers and cell phones which use Li-Ion batteries have a power regulation
controller called a BMS (Battery Management System), which allows for voltage and current
to be sent to the cells which require charging. RC batteries still require this type of charging

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for performance during use. Most of these batteries do not have the capabilities of supporting
a controller from their respected manufacturers. The best option is to use a balancer, which
does the exact same job as the controllers on a motherboard. Because these are more costly, it
is recommended to use what the manufacturer recommends to all amateurs in this venture.

2.2.3. Battery Risks

Each battery is known for its faults regarding safety and usage. Without considering
this, batteries will at best be financially costly, and at worst cause serious harm to the
engineers, testers, and the user. This section is meant to summarize most of the concerns with
handling all of the batteries listed above.[4]

 Overusing the batteries. Regarding rechargeable batteries, once the battery is dead,
it’s dead. This is especially true for the LiPo and NiMH batteries. This is usually true
for NiCad and NiZn batteries, with certain exception of dendrite formations. These
dendrites cause a short circuit between the cathode and anode. A shot of large current
could fix the problem, but this is something that is not recommended if there is more
than one dendrite formation. Alkaline batteries have a tendency of leaking fluid if kept
unchecked for long periods of use.
 Overcharging batteries. As stated before, more complex electronics have a means of
recovering charge to a battery. If a battery becomes overcharged, it will begin to get
hot. In some cases, there have been fires started by improper charging techniques. Be
present when charging all batteries. Do not let them sit on a charger overnight.
 Improper or misuse of batteries .It is extremely important to double check all device
connections throughout designing, prototyping, and testing. It should be noted to
possibly ground oneself as an extra precaution to not incur a shock.
 Heavy Metal Poisoning. Most of these batteries are comprised of metals not naturally
found in the human body with any abundance. This is especially true for Cadmium. A
battery leak of a NiCad, necessitate calling emergency to inform them of possible
Cadmium poisoning.
Tips for protecting the battery, the user, and the designer:

 For the designer's considerations: with every use, the battery's operating time should
be recorded. The statistical analysis for handling an average time will both confirm the
calculations above and allow for more accurate testing and flight time.
 Once the battery is low on energy, the user should stop operations and begin charging.

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 The best choice for charging a multiple- cell battery pack is a balancer. We should use
this to allow for maximum charging of each cell.
 If our battery dies in the process of testing, we must dispose of it properly at the local
waste management facility.
 If exposed to battery contents, we must contact the emergency and the lab supervisor.
 If we start to feel dizzy, hard to breathe, dry sore throat, or nauseous, the battery must
be stored in a sealed, cool container, as it may be due to a leak.
 It is highly recommended for the user to double and triple check all connections
throughout the project.
 We must test for any inconsistencies in temperature, current, or voltage in the circuit.
 We must always check the temperature of the battery. (A temperature sensor is
preferred, but not required).
 We must make sure that the battery is stored away in a cool and dry storage container
in a dry area.
 We must properly ground ourselves when handling the battery with the copter.

2.3.Motors
The BLDC motor is widely used in applications including appliances, automotive,
aerospace, consumer, medical, automated industrial equipment and instrumentation. The
BLDC motor is electrically commutated by power switches instead of brushes. Compared
with a brushed DC motor or an induction motor, the BLDC motor has many advantages:

 Higher efficiency and reliability

 Lower acoustic noise

 Smaller and lighter

 Greater dynamic response

 Better speed versus torque characteristics

 Higher speed range

 Longer life

This part initially provides a general overview to familiarize the reader with motor
control fundamentals, terms and concepts, and applications. The latter portion of this

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document provides detailed descriptions of motor structure, working principle, characteristics
and control methods.

2.3.1. Motor Fundamental Concepts

General Motor Principles

Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy using electromagnetic

principles. The energy conversion method is fundamentally the same in all electric motors.
This part starts with a general overview of basic electromagnetic physics before discussing the
details of motor operation.[3]

A.Magnetic Force

Magnetic poles generate invisible lines of magnetic force flowing from the northpole
to the south pole as shown in Figure 2. When magnetic poles of opposite polarity face each
other, they generate an attractive force, while like poles generate a repulsive force

Figure 2: Magnetic Force

B.Left-Hand Rule

Current in a conductor generates a magnetic field. Placing a conductor in the vicinity

of a separate magnetic field can generate a force that reaches its apex when the conductor is at
90° to the external field. The left-hand rule can help the user determine the direction of the
force, as shown in Figure 3(a).

Left-Hand Rule: Extend the left hand with the thumb and four fingers on the same
plane with the thumb pointing out. Face the palm towards the north pole of the external
magnetic field and the four fingers in the direction of the current; the thumb points in the
direction of the force

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Figure 3: Left –Hand Rule and Right- Hand Rule

The magnitude of the force can be calculated from the equation below:

F= BILsinθ ……..(1)

Where:

 F is the electromagnetic force,

 B is the magnetic field density,

 I is the conductor current,

 L is the length of the conductor,

 θ is the angular difference between B and I. Given that a coil usually has two effective
conductors: a-b and c-d shown in Figure 4(a), these two conductors induce two forces
of opposite direction when current passes through in the magnetic field.

Figure 4: Coll in a Magnetic Field

The torque is the product of the tangential force acting at a radius with units of force
multiplied by length. If there are N continuous coil turns, and based on the parameters in
Figure 4(b), the generated torque equals:

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𝑇𝐷 = 2rFN=2rBILN=𝐾𝑡 𝑙 …….(2)

Where:

• 𝑇𝐷 is the electromagnetic torque (N·m)

• r is the distance between axis OO’ and the conductor (m)

• N is the number of winding turns

• KT=2rBLN is the torque constant (N·m/A).

C. Right-Hand Rule

The movement of the conductor in the magnetic field induces an electromotive force
known as the BEMF. The right-hand rule can determine the direction of the force as shown in
Figure 2(b). The Right-Hand Rule: Stretch out the right hand with the four fingers and the
thumb on the same plane,the palm facing the north pole of the external magnetic field, and the
thumb pointing in the direction of the velocity of v. The four fingers point in the direction of
the induced electromotive force. The magnitude of the induced electromotive force can be
calculated as:

E=BLv sinθ ……(3)

Where:

 E is the induced electromagnetic force (V).

 v is the velocity of the conductor (m/s)

 θ is the angular difference between B and L (rad)

When the motor rotates at an angular velocity of ω (rad/s) and there are N coil turns, the total
electromotive force is:[3]

E= 2BLvN =2BL ωrN K = 𝐾𝑒 ω……..(4)

Where:

 ω is the angular velocity (rad/s).

 r is the internal radius of the motor (m).

 KE=2rBLN is the electromotive force constant (V·s/rad).

Based on the parameters from Figure 4(c)

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D. Right-Hand Corkscrew Rule

Given that an electrical current flowing in a straight line generates a magnetic field as
shown in Figure 5(a) coiling the conductor would therefore generate clear magnetic poles as
shown in Figure 5(b), with the direction of the magnetic fields determined by the right-hand
corkscrew rule

Right-Hand Corkscrew Rule: For a current flowing in a straight line as shown in

Figure 4(a), the thumb points in the direction of the current I, and the fingers curl in the
direction of the magnetic field B. For a coiled current as shown in figure 5(a) , the fingers curl
in the direction of the current I, and then the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic
field B through the center of the loop.[3]

Figure 5: Right-hand corkscrew Rule

2.3.2. Stator

There are three classifications of the BLDC motor: single-phase, two-phase and three-
phase. This discussion assumes that the stator for each type has the same number of windings.
The single-phase and three-phase motors are the most widely used. Figure 6 shows the
simplified cross section of a single-phase and a three-phase BLDC motor. The rotor has
permanent magnets to form 2 magnetic pole pairs, and surrounds the stator, which has the
windings.

A single-phase motor has one stator winding—wound either clockwise or counter-clockwise

along each arm of the stator—to produce four magnetic poles. By comparison, a threephase
motor has three windings. Each phase turns on sequentially to make the rotor revolve.

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Figure 6: Simplified BLDC Motor Diagrams

There are two types of stator windings: trapezoidal and sinusoidal, which refers to the
shape of the back electromotive force (BEMF) signal. The shape of the BEMF is determined
by different coil interconnections and the distance of the air gap. In addition to the BEMF, the
phase current also follows a trapezoidal and sinusoidal shape. A sinusoidal motor produces
smoother electromagnetic torque than a trapezoidal motor, though at a higher cost due to their
use of extra copper windings. A BLDC motor with trapezoidal stator windings has a
simplified structure.

2.3.3. Rotor

A rotor consists of a shaft and a hub with permanent magnets arranged to form
between two to eight pole pairs that alternate between north and south poles. Figure 7 shows
cross sections of three kinds of magnets arrangements in a rotor.

There are multiple magnet materials, such as ferrous mixtures and rare-earth alloys.
Ferrite magnets are traditional and relatively inexpensive, though rare-earth alloy magnets are
becoming increasingly popular because of their high magnetic density. The higher density
helps to shrink rotors while maintaining high relative torque when compared to similar ferrite
magnets.

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Figure 7: Rotor Magnets Cross-Sections

2.3.4. Operational Motor Theory

Motor operation is based on the attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles. Using
the three-phase motor shown in Figure 8, the process starts when current flows through one of
the three stator windings and generates a magnetic pole that attracts the closest permanent
magnet of the opposite pole. The rotor will move if the current shifts to an adjacent winding.
Sequentially charging each winding will cause the rotor to follow the rotating field. The
torque in this example depends on the current amplitude and the number of turns on the stator
windings, the strength and the size of the permanent magnets, the air gap between the rotor
and the windings, and the length of the rotating arm.[5]

Figure 8: Motor Rotation

2.3.5. Motor Varieties

There are multiple varieties of electric motor differentiated by structure and signal
type, but are generally based on the same principle as the three-phase motor previously
discussed. Figure 9 diagrams the different motors organized by classifying features.

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series compound shunt

Wound Field PM

Homopolar commutator

DC

Electric
Motors

AC

Asynchronous Synchronous

Induction
Sinusoidal stepper Reductance

Brushless Hysteresis
Poly- Single
phase phase

Figure 9: Motor Classification

The primary difference between AC and DC motors is the power type applied to the
armature. From this vantage, a BLDC motor actually is an AC motor. The difference between
an asynchronous and a synchronous motor is whether or not the rotor runs at the same
frequency as the stator. Each motor favors specific applications.

2.3.6. Motor Types

A. Brushed DC Motor

A brushed DC motor consists of a commutator and brushes that convert a DC current

in an armature coil to an AC current, as shown in Figure 9. As current flows through the

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commutator through the armature windings, the electromagnetic field repels the nearby
magnets with the same polarity, and causes the winding to turn to the attracting magnets of
opposite polarity. As the armature turns, the commutator reverses the current in the armature
coil to repel the nearby magnets, thus causing the motor to continuously turn. The fact that
this motor can be driven by DC voltages and currents makes it very attractive for low cost
applications. However, the arcing produced by the armature coils on the brush-commutator
surface generates heat, wear, and EMI, and is a major drawback

B.Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor

A BLDC motor accomplishes commutation electronically using rotor position

feedback to determine when to switch the current. The structure is shown in Figure 7.
Feedback usually entails an attached Hall sensor or a rotary encoder.

The stator windings work in conjunction with permanent magnets on the rotor to
generate a nearly uniform flux density in the air gap. This permits the stator coils to be driven
by a constant DC voltage (hence the name brushless DC), which simply switches from one
stator coil to the next to generate an AC voltage waveform with a trapezoidal shape.

2.3.7. Comparison of Various Motor Types

The BLDC motor has several advantages over other motors. Table 1 and Table 2
summarize the advantages of the BLDC motor when compared against a brushed DC motor
and an AC induction motor. [5]

The primary disadvantage of BLDC is cost, though this is no inherent reason due to
the motor itself; the construction of a BLDC motor is actually simpler than that of brushed
DC motor or AC induction motor. The higher cost of BLDC motor is caused by the additional
driver circuit for BLDC motor. However if the application requires adjustable speed, accurate
position control, or requires a driver circuit, then BLDC motor is not only advantageous but
also less expensive overall.

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Feature BLDC Motor Brushed DC Actual Advantage

Motor
Commutation Electronic Mechanical Electronic switches replace
commutation based brushes and the mechanical devices
on rotor position commutator
information
Efficiency High Moderate Voltage drop on electronic
device is smaller than that on
brushes
Maintenance Little/None Periodic No brushes/commutator
maintenance.
Thermal Better Poor Only the armature windings
performance generate heat, which is the
stator and is connected to the
outside case dissipates heat
better than a rotor located
inside of brushed DC motor.
Output High Moderate/Low Modern permanent magnet
power/Frame and no rotor losses.
size(Ratio)
Speed/Torque Flat Moderately flat No brush friction to reduce
Characteristics useful torque.
Dynamic Response Fast Slow Lower rotor inertia because of
permanent magnets.
Speed Range High Low No mechanical limitation
imposed by brushes or
commutator
Electric Noise Low High No arcs from brushes to
generate noise, causing EMI
problems.
Lifetime Long Short No brushes and commutator

Table1: Comparison between BLDC motor and brushed DC motor

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Feature BLDC motor AC induction motor Actual Advantage
Speed / Torque Flat Nonlinear-lower Permanent magnet design
Characterisitics torque at lower speeds with rotor position
feedback gives BLDC
higher starting and low-
speed torque
Output High Moderate Both stator and rotor have
Power/Frame windings for induction
size(Radio) motor
Dynamic Response Fast Low Lower rotor inertia
because of permanent
magnet
Slip Between stator No Yes ; rotor runs at a BLDC is a synchronous
and rotor frequency lower frequency than motor, induction motor is
stator by slip an asynchronous motor
frequency and slip
increases with load on
the motor

Table2: Comparison between BLDC Motor and AC Inducation Motor

2.3.8. BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR CONTROL

Switch Configuration and PWM

Brushless DC motors use electric switches to realize current commutation, and thus
continuously rotate the motor. These electric switches are usually connected in an H-bridge
structure for a single-phase BLDC motor, and a three-phase bridge structure for a three-phase
BLDC motor shown in Figure 10. Usually the high-side switches are controlled using pulse-
width modulation (PWM), which converts a DC voltage into a modulated voltage, which
easily and efficiently limits the startup current, control speed and torque. Generally, raising
the switching frequency increases PWM losses, though lowering the switching frequency
limits the system’s bandwidth and can raise the ripple current pulses to the points where they
become destructive or shut down the BLDC motor driver. [6]

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(a)H-bridge (b) Three-phase bridge

Figure 10: Electric driver circuit

2.3.9. Sensorless BLDC Motor Control

However, sensors cannot be used in applications where the rotor is in a closed housing
and requires minimal electrical entries, such as a compressor or applications where the motor
is immersed in a liquid. Therefore, the BLDC sensorless driver monitors the BEMF signals
instead of the position detected by Hall sensors to commutate the signal. Fig. 11 shows the
relation between BEMF and hall sensor signals. The sensor signal changes state when the
voltage polarity of the BEMF crosses from positive to negative or from negative to positive.
The BEMF zero-crossings provides precise position data for commutation. [6]

However, as BEMF is proportional to the speed of rotation, this implies that the motor
requires a minimum speed for precise feedback. So under very low speed conditions—such as
start-up— additional detectors—such as open loop or BEMF amplifiers—are required to
control the motor.

The sensorless commutation can simplify the motor structure and lower the motor
cost. Applications in dusty or oily environments that require only occasional cleaning, or
where the motor is generally inaccessible, benefit from sensorless commutation.

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Figure 11: Hall Sensor versus BEMF

2.4. Motor Control Design

When initially designing the quad-copter, a premade brushless electronic speed controller
(ESC) made by the motor manufacturer was used for preliminary testing. Because no one in the group
has any prior background in aerial craft design, the group decided to buy four motors and four ESCs to
determine the feasibility of the project. These four ESCs, which we had rated at 30A for testing
purposes, were purchased at a more costly rate than anticipated. There is also the issue of availability
and shipping with our supplier, which is addressed in France (Paris) .

In considering the design of the ESC, there are certain basic requirements which must be met
to control the motor: the design and specifications of the motor, the input and output signals in the
circuit, and the complications involved with the motors involving the power supply, the motors, and
the ESC’s. This would allow for us to design the inverter and the controller for optimized load voltage
and load current. For the A2212/13T, the frequency which must be simulated for the motor is at
400Hz.

Essentially, the cost in time is too great to be spent on ESC design. Since so much effort and
financial resources will be distributed to other systems, it is concluded at this time to use the
manufacturer’s ESC, or it’s lesser priced equivalent.

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2.4.1. What is the electronic speed control?

An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an electric
motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake.

Specification Table

Electrical
Voltage 6-16.8 volts
Max Current 30 amps
Physical
Length 50 mm 2.0 in
Width 25 mm 1.0 in
Height 11 mm 0.45 in
Power connectors Male 3.5 mm bullet
Motor connectors Female 3.5 mm bullet
Signal connector 3-pin servo connector (0.1 ‘’ pitch)(ground, 5v, signal)

Figure 12: Electric Speed Controller

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2.4.2. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation / High rate control)

The control of motor speed is obtained by switching the power to the motor on and off
in various ratios e.g. maximum throttle is permanently on, half throttle is on half time, off half
time etc. This switching on and off is done many times a second. The speed at which the
switching takes place has a large effect on overall efficiency. Early speed controls used what
is known as "frame rate" switching, which means that they switched approximately 50 times a
second, the same rate as frames of information are delivered over the radio. Most modern
ESCs switch at a much higher rate which makes them much more efficient i.e. they lose less
power as heat in the controller. Switching rates around 3000 Hz (times a second) are about
optimum. Anywhere between 1000 Hz and 5000Hz is acceptable. [7]

2.4.3. ESC BRUSHLESS / BRUSHED

ESC systems for brushed motors are very different by design; as a result brushed
ESC's are not compatible with brushless motors. Brushless ESC systems basically create a tri-
phase AC power output of limited voltage from an onboard DC power input, to run brushless
motors by sending a sequence of AC signals generated from the ESC's circuitry, employing a
very low impedance for rotation. Brushless motors, otherwise called outrunners or inrunners
depending on their physical configuration, have become very popular with
"electroflight" radio-control aeromodeling hobbyists because of their efficiency, power,
longevity and light weight in comparison to traditional brushed motors. Brushless AC motor
controllers are much more complicated than brushed motor controllers. [8]

The correct phase varies with the motor rotation, which is to be taken into account by
the ESC: Usually, back EMF from the motor is used to detect this rotation, but variations exist
that use magnetic (Hall Effect) or optical detectors. Computer-programmable speed controls
generally have user-specified options which allow setting low voltage cut-off limits, timing,
acceleration, braking and direction of rotation. Reversing the motor's direction may also be
accomplished by switching any two of the three leads from the ESC to the motor.

2.4.4 Wiring up the circuit and powering the ESC

Usually ESCs need a voltage higher than the one provided by the Arduino from his 5V
pin: typically they need 2 LiPo cells (around 8V). To achieve that all the circuit must be
powered from an external power supply connected directly to the ESC and not via the
Arduino, which will be powered by the BEC circuit of the ESC. To make that happen it’s

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enough to connect the red and black of the control connector to the 5V and GDN of the
Arduino board.

Figure 13: Arduino, ESC and BLDC Connection

The rest of the circuit is pretty easy: from pin 9 of the Arduino we have the signal for
the ESC, the voltage reading from the potentiometer comes in.

2.4.5. Calibration

Now that everything is setup, the motor rotates only forward, and only to 80% of the
throttle (forward and reverse) and then stops: all these are symptoms of lack of calibration, or
a calibration done with a different range of PWM signals. Calibration procedure:

 Powered up the ESC while the having maximum forward throttle applied.
 Tone and some beeps and after a while (usually 2 seconds) , a confirmation tone and
the led will blink a few times with a different color: this indicates that the ESC has
measured the wave length of max throttle.
 At this point we applied zero throttle (in a fwd/reverse ESC this means full throttle
reverse), waited again few seconds for the tones and led to blink: full reverse
measured.
 We moved to central (only for fwd/reverse ESCs) and waited again for the tone and
blinks.

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2.4.6. Classification

ESCs are normally rated according to maximum current, for example, 25 amperes or
25 A. Generally the higher the rating, the larger and heavier the ESC tends to be which is a
factor when calculating mass and balance in airplanes. Many modern ESCs support nickel
metal hydride, lithium ion polymer and lithium iron phosphate batteries with a range of input
and cut-off voltages. The type of battery and number of cells connected is an important
consideration when choosing a Battery eliminator circuit (BEC), whether built into the
controller or as a stand-alone unit. A higher number of cells connected will result in a reduced
power rating and therefore a lower number of servos supported by an integrated BEC, if it
uses a linear voltage regulator. A well designed BEC using a switching regulator should not
have a similar limitation.

Electronic Speed Controllers (ESC) are essential componentsin modern quadcopters

(and all multirotors) that offer high power, high frequency, high resolution 3-phase AC power
to the motors in an extremely compact miniature package. These craft depend entirely on the
variable speed of the motors driving the propellers. This wide variation and fine RPM control
in motor/propeller speed gives all of the control necessary for a quadcopter (and all
multirotors) to fly. [9]

Height is determined by the amount of power to all four motors. Forward motion is
achieved by driving the back props faster than the forward props. Sideways motion is
achieved by running the left or right props faster. 'Rudder' movements (yaw), (turning left or
right) are again achieved by slowing or speeding individual motors - and this control is reliant
on the fact that two of the rotors rotate clockwise while the other two rotate counterclockwise
so that, again, slowing or speeding individual motors (and props) will produce a change in
attitude in the craft.

Quadcopters are a rapidly growing hobby subject but also provide aerial mounts for
video cameras for sports coverage, agricultural research, inspection of electrical pylons and
historic exploration.Quadcopter ESCs usually can use a faster update rate compared to the
standard 50 Hz signal used in most other RC applications. PWM signals up to 400 Hz can be
used in some cases, and other control options can increase this rate even higher. Also some
software delays, such as low-pass filters, are removed in order to improve control latency. [9]

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2.5 Arduino (Microcontrollers)

Figure 14: Arduino Uno

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
crystal oscillator, a USB interface, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It
contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno
differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip.
Instead, it features the Atmega8U2 programmed as a USB-to-serial converter. [10]

"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino
1.0. The Uno is the reference version of Arduno. The Uno is the latest in a series of USB
Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a comparison with
previous versions.

Figure 15: Arduino Dimensions

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Technical specifications

Microcontroller ATmega328 Operating Voltage 5V

Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by
Boot loader
SRAM 2 KB
EEPROM 1 KB
Clock Speed 16 MHz

Figure 16: Arduino uno components

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Chapter 2: Research
The power

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.

The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's
power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the
POWER connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended
range is 7 to 12 volts. [10]

The power pins are as follows:

VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source
(as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through
this pin.

5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other
components on the board. This can come either from VIN via the on-board regulator, or be
supplied by USB or another regulated 5V supply.

3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator with amaximum output
current of 50 mA.

GND. Ground pins.

Memory

The Atmega328 has 32 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 0,5 KB is used
for the bootloader); It has also 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and
written with the EEPROM library). [11]

Input and output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as input or output, using the pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or

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receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 kOhms.

specialized functions

Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These
pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip .

External Interrupts 2 and 3.

These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or
a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.

PWM

3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.

SPI

10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication, which,
although provided by the underlying hardware, is not currently included in the Arduino
language.

LED: 13

There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the
LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, each of which provides 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024
different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to
change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality.

I2C: 4 (SDA) and 5 (SCL)

Support I2C (TWI) communication using the Wire library.

AREF:Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().

Reset:Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller.

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2.5.1. Communication

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega8U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USBand appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '8U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, an *.inf file is required. The Arduino
software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the
Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted
via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial
communication on pins 0 and 1). [12]

A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any two of the Uno's digital pins.

The ATmega328 also support I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for
details. To use the SPI communication, it just takes the reading of the “throttle”, maps it from
0-1023 to 0-179 (analog reading to servo “degrees”) and then sends it to the ESC via the
Servo library. Even in its extreme simplicity this sketch is very useful when you want to
calibrate a new ESC to work with the Servo library of Arduino. [11]

2.5.2. I²C and Arduino

The Serial Clock pin of the Arduino Board will be connected to the Serial Clock pins
of the two breakout boards, the same goes for the Serial Data pins and we will power the
boards with the Gnd and the 5V pin from the Arduino Board. [12]

Now in order to communicate with these sensors we need to know their unique
addresses. We can find them from the datasheets of the sensors. For the GY-87 breakout
board we have the following 4 addresses: a hexadecimal 0x53 for the 3 Axis Accelerometer
sensor, a hexadecimal 0x69 for the 3 Axis Gyro, a hexadecimal 0x1E for the 3 Axis
Magnetometer and a hexadecimal 0x77 for the Barometer and Thermometer sensor. We can
also get or check the addresses using the I²C Scanner sketch which can be found in the
Arduino official website. So if we upload and run that sketch, we will get the addresses of the
connected devices on the I²C bus. [12]

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Figure 17: Arduino and GY-87 Connection

2.6. Wireless Communications

Wireless Communication is going to be used in this project to control and get status
messages from the quad-copter. There are numerous solutions that will be researched in order
to meet the design specifications of the desired wireless communication. Those design
specifications are:

 Range: 100 m
 Data Rate: Equal Or greater than 56 Kbps
 Latency: To be 100 ms or less
 Cost: To be Less than 8548,96 DA.

Different wireless communication protocols are available that can meet theses
specifications, but budget and time will limit the choices to one system. Wireless
communication protocols available to choose from include: Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Bluetooth,
6lowpan, Wave, Dash7, and a custom in-house point to point protocol. All of which will be
researched in the following subsections of this paper. After choosing the right protocol
different chip vendors will be researched to choose the part that meets the design
specifications. All of these protocols have advantages and disadvantages, one might be cost,
and another might be not enough time and so on.

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The weight of each specification will be analyzed and compared between each
wireless communication protocol and between integrated circuits. The data rate is not as
important as budget and range. Since the status messages and control signal that will be
transmitted will be small. On the other hand budget and range have the same importance. It
would be desirable to choose a part, Part A, with a higher range. But if this higher range costs
substantially more than Part B, then Part B would be the best choice for the quad-copter. [13]

2.6.1. Antenna
There are two types of antenna that will be researched for the use of the quad-copter.
One of the two antennas is the dipole antenna; the second is a patch antenna. The patch
antenna, or micro strip antenna, is a piece of flat metal put on top of a ground plane. The
patch antenna is sensitive to the thickness and the dielectric constant of the PCB, for this
reason the quad-copter will not use a patch antenna. The dipole antenna is an antenna made
out of two quarter-wave antennas put together. Unlike the patch antenna the dipole antenna is
not sensitive to the thickness or dielectric constant of the PCB.

The Quad-copter will need an antenna that can operate at the frequency of 2.4 GHz.
The antenna has to have an impendence of 50 ohms, and a gain greater than 0 dBi. The
antenna chosen is a 2.4 GHz antenna with a gain of 5 dBi and a reverse polarity SMA
connector. [14]

2.7.Sensor

2.7.1 Flight stability sensor

In the interest of flight stability, or achieving level controlled flight, a combination of
sensors will be required to continually monitor the roll and pitch of the quad-copter such that
the microcontroller can process the data and effect real time corrections. The pitch is a
measurement of the nose of the quad-copter pointing either upwards, positive pitch, or
downwards, negative pitch. The roll is a measurement of the rotation around the longitudinal
axis of the quad-copter with the right or starboard side down being a positive roll. The yaw is
a measurement of the rotation around the vertical axis. These parameters are illustrated below
in Figure 18 for clarity. [15]

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Figure 18: Visual representation of roll, pitch, and yaw.

2.7.2. GY-87

The GY-87 is a multi-chip module designed for a low-field magnetic sensing with a
digital interface for application such as low compassing and magnetometry, The GY-87
includes high resolution HMC118X series magneto-resistive sensors plus ASIC containing
amplification, automatic degaussing strap drivers, offset cancellation , and a 12-bit ADC that
enable 1 degree to 2 degrees compass heading accuracy. The I²c serial bus allows for easy
interfacing.The GY-87 is 21x17mm. [16]

Figure 19: GY-87

Each device has a preset ID or a unique device address so the master can choose with
which device will be communicating.The two wires, or lines are called Serial Clock (or SCL)

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and Serial Data (or SDA). The SCL line is the clock signal which synchronize the data
transfer between the devices on the I2C bus and it’s generated by the master device. The other
line is the SDA line which carries the data.The two lines are “open-drain” which means that
pull up resistors needs to be attached to them so that the lines are high because the devices on
the I2C bus are active low. Commonly used values for the resistors are from 2K for higher
speeds at about 400 kbps, to 10K for lower speed at about 100 kbps.

Figure 20: I²C SDL and SCL lines

2.7.3.Communication Protocol

The data signal is transferred in sequences of 8 bits. So after a special start condition
occurs comes the first 8 bits sequence which indicates the address of the slave to which the
data is being sent. After each 8 bits sequence follows a bit called Acknowledge. After the first
Acknowledge bit in most cases comes another addressing sequence but this time for the
internal registers of the slave device. After the addressing sequences follows the data
sequences as many until the data is completely sent and it ends with a special stop condition.
[12]

Figure 21: 8bits sequences

The start condition occurs when data line drops low while the clock line is still high.
After this the clock starts and each data bit is transferred during each clock pulse. The device
addressing sequence stars with the most significant bit (MSB) first and ends with the least
significant bit (LSB) and it’s actually composed of 7 bits because the 8th bit is used for
indicating whether the master will write to the slave (logic low) or read from it (logic high).

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Figure 22: ACK/NACK Sequences

The next bit AKC/ NACK is used by the slave device to indicate whether it has
successfully received the previous sequence of bits. So at this time the master device hands
the control of the SDA line over to the slave device and if the slave device has successfully
received the previous sequence it will pull the SDA line down to the condition called
Acknowledge. If the slave does not pull the SDA line down, the condition is called Not
Acknowledge, and means that it didn’t successfully received the previous sequence which can
be caused by several reasons. For example, the slave might be busy, might not understand the
received data or command, cannot receive any more data and so on. In such a case the master
device decides how it will proceed.

Figure 23: Internal registers addressing

Next is the internal registers addressing. The internal registers are locations in the
slave’s memory containing various information or data. For example the ADX345
Accelerometer has a unique device address and in addition internal registers addresses for the
X, Y and Z axis. So if we want to read the data of the X-axis, first we need to send the device
address and then the particular internal register address for the X-axis. After the addressing,
the data transfer sequences begin either from the master or the slave depending of the selected
mode at the R/W bit. After the data is completely sent, the transfer will end with a stop
condition which occurs when the SDA line goes from low to high while the SCL line is high.
[12]

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Chapter 3 : Design

3. Design
3.1.What is PID?

PID (proportional-integral-derivative) is a closed-loop control system that tries to get

the actual result closer to the desired result by adjusting the input. Quadcopters or
multicopters use PID controllers to achieve stability. [4]

Figure 24: PID Control

There are 3 algorithms in a PID controller, they are P, I, and D respectively. P depends
on the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of future
errors, based on current rate of change. These controller algorithms are translated into
software code lines.

To have any kind of control over the quadcopter , we need to be able to measure the
quadcopter sensor output (for example the pitch angle), so we can estimate the error (how far
we are from the the desired pitch angle, e.g. horizontal, 0 degree). We can then apply the 3
control algorithms to the error, to get the next outputs for the motors aiming to correct the
error.

There are three parameters that a pilot can adjust to improve better quadcopter
stability. These are the coefficients to the 3 algorithms we mentioned above. The coefficent
basically would change the importance and influence of each algorithm to the output. Here we

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are going to look at what are the effects of these parameters to the stability of a quadcopter.
[4]

Figure 25: PID structure

3.1.1. The effect of each parameter

PID : Roll, Pitch, Yaw

When the MultiRotor orientation is changed in any pitch/roll/yaw axis, the gyros
indicate an angular change from its initial position. The MultiRotor controller tries to correct
the error calculated between a measurement at the controller output (measured by the gyros)
and an input set point (position of the stick), and drives the motors to attempt to return the
MultiRotor to its 0initial position.

This combination of the measured angular deviation and sampling the change over
time provides enough information for the controller to drive the motors to return
equilibrium with only a gyrocscope : this is the default Acro MODE

The variation of each of these parameters alters the effectiveness of the stabilization.
Generally there are 3 PID loops with their own P I D coefficients, one per axis, so you will
have to set P, I and D values for each axis (pitch, roll and yaw). [4]

To a quadcopter, these parameters can cause these behaviors:

 Proportional Gain coefficient – the quadcopter can fly relatively stable without other
parameters but this one. This coefficient determines which is more important, human

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control or the values measured by the gyroscopes. The higher the coefficient, the
quadcopter seems more sensitive and reactive to angular change. If it is too low, the
quadcopter will appear sluggish and will be harder to keep steady. You might find the
multicopter starts to oscillate with a high frequency when P gain is too high.

 Integral Gain coefficient – this coefficient can increase the precision of the angular
position. For example when the quadcopter is disturbed and its angle changes 20
degrees , in theory it remembers how much the angle has changed and will return 20
degrees. In practice if you make your quadcopter go forward and then force it to stop,
the quadcopter will continue for some time to counteract the action. Without this term,
the opposition does not last as long. This term is especially useful with irregular wind,
and ground effect (turbulence from motors). However, when the I value gets too high
your quadcopter might begin to have slow reaction and a decrease effect of the
Proportional gain as consequence, it will also start to oscillate like having high P gain,
but with a lower frequency.
 Derivative Gain coefficient – this coefficient allows the quadcopter to reach more
quickly the desired attitude. Some people call it the accelerator parameter because it
amplifies the user input. It also decreases control action fast when the error is
decreasing fast. In practice it will increase the reaction speed and in certain cases an
increase the effect of the P gain.

Acrobatic flight

 Requires a slightly higher P

 Requires a slightly lower I
 Increase D

Gentle smooth flight

 requires a slightly lower P

 Requires a slightly higher I
 Decrease D

3.1.2. How to tune quadcopter PID Gains

It is usually necessary to tune one parameter at a time starting with P gain, I and then
D gain going back to fine tune the values if need to.

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For P gain, we first start low and work our way up, until we notice it’s producing
oscillation. Fine tune it until we get to a point it’s not sluggish and there is no oscillation.

For the I gain, again start low, and increase slowly. Roll and pitch our quad left and
right, we have to pay attention to how long does it take to stop and stabilize. Then we want to
get to a point where it stabilizes very quickly as we release the stick and it doesn’t wander
around for too long. Test it under windy conditions to get a reliable I-value.

For D gain, it can get into a complicated interaction with P and I values. When using
D gain, we need to go back and fine tune P and I to keep the flight well stabilized.

Quadcopters are symmetric so we can set the same PID Gain values for Pitch, and
Roll. The value for Yaw is not as important as those of Pitch and Roll so it’s probably OK to
set the same values as for Pitch/Roll to start with (even if it might not be the best).

3.1.3. Configuration via GUI

The GUI is a java program that can run on any PC windows/linux/mac computer.The
Arduino must be connected via an USB cable to the computer to use it.Alternatively, it is
possible to use a Wireless transmission via bluetooth as data are transported over a simple
serial port.GUI launch procedure:

1) We connect the arduino board to our PC via the USB connection (the same used to inject
the software via Arduino IDE)

2) Once it’s done, we launch the GUI, and then select the good PORT COM (the same used
by arduino IDE)

3) Once it’s done, we wait some seconds to let the arduino boot and run the software. (the
LED blink)

4) Once the status led is OK (it should blink and stays off), we press the START button to see
the evolution of values.

5) We READ the current parameters in the Arduino before configuring it. Default values
areset at the beginning. [16]

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Figure 26: GUI platform

RC rate and RC expo

RC rate: defines the sensibility of the multicopter for PITCH and ROLL RC stick.
RC expo: defines a smoother zone at the center of PITCH and ROLL RC stick. With this
function, it’s possible to have both a good precision and a good amplitude.
0 = no expo
1 = full expo
P and I Level

Defines the acc influence in stable mode only (this parameter has no effect if the stable mode
is disabled)

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PITCH/ROLL/YAW PID and rate

For a very stable multicopter with a solid attitude, the PID settings must be set high.
But we want to do some acrobatics with these settings, the multi starts to wobble in fast
translation or when we decide to shake it too much. So solution is to decrease the PID, but it
is to the detriment of static stability. [17]

So instead of implementing a switch between 2 PID settings, there are now 2 options
in the GUI to define the way we should decrease PID, depending on ROLL/PITCH/YAW
stick deviation

The two boxes on the right define the rate of cancellation of the nominal PID (the one
which is used on neutral ROLL/PITCH/YAW stick position) in relation with
ROLL/STICK/YAW deviation. In fact only P and D parameters are impacted in the
transformation. The purpose of this setting is not really to gain more stability, but to gain
more maneuverability. 0 = soft rate (for FPV or beginners); 0.4 = soft acro ; 0.7 = fast acro ;
1 = insane rate
THROTTLE rate

This box defines the rate of cancellation of the nominal PID (the one which is used on
neutral ROLL/PITCH stick position) in relation with Throttle stick.
The purpose of this curve is to gain more stability when we are in a situation to use more
throttle than needed to just maintain a lift. This is typically the case in fast translation.
How to activate options

Depending on your configuration, you can easily activate/deactivate options via 2 switches on
your RC TX.

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The 2 switches correspond to channel 5 (AUX1) and channel 6 (AUX2).
LEVEL is the autolevel feature (require an ACC)
BARO allows to keep a constant altitude once activated (require a barometer)
MAG allows to keep a perfect heading direction once activated (require a magnetometer)
CAMSTAB: if activated, the PITCH&ROLL servo output will follow the inclination of the
multi (require an ACC + the code activation via #define statement)
CAMSTRIG: if activated, a servo output will trigger repetitively a sequence where we can
define the duration on the HIGH/LOW position.
To activate a function, we check the white box at the intersection of the required option (row)
and at the switch state we want to enable (column).
It’s possible to make a complex mix.
Sensor detection/usage

On this screen, the left column resumes the detection of sensors.

The right column precises if the sensor is currently use or not (depending on the checked
options)

3.2.Radio control
3.2.1. What is a Radio Control

The R/C equipment consists of a Transmitter operated by the pilot and the airborne
units consisting in a Receiver together with one or more motors ( 4 in our case ) depending on
the number of channels used and a Battery pack. A typical RC Transmitter has about 4 to 6
channels with at least 4 of them being proportional, which means the controlled surfaces or
devices will move proportionally to the movements of the control sticks.Additional channels
may function only in “on-off” manner like a switch, and are usually used to actuate retractable
landing gears, airbrakes, lamps, etc.

3.2.2 PPM

The R/C equipment consists of a Transmitter operated by the pilotand the airborne
units consisting in a Receiver together with one or more motors ( 4 in our case ) depending on
the number of channels used and a Battery pack. A typical RC Transmitter has about 4 to 6

52
Chapter 3 : Design
channels with at least 4 of them being proportional, which means the controlled surfaces or
devices will move proportionally to the movements of the control sticks.Additional channels
may function only in "on-off" manner like a switch, and are usually used to actuate retractable
landing gears, airbrakes, lamps, etc. [17]

Figure 27: radio link transmitter

3.2.3. The connection Arduino-Receiver

Figure 28: Radio link receiver

Throttle Pin 2 Chanel 3

Yaw Pin 6 Chanel 1
Pitch Pin 5 Chanel 2
Roll Pin 4 Chanel 4
Aux1 Pin 7 Chanel 5
Aux2 Pin 8 Chanel 6

Tableau 3: Radio link receiver channels

53
Chapter 4: General Conclusion
Chapter 4: General Conclusion

General Conclusion

The central aim of the present study was to design a stabilized, flying GPS guided quad-
copter.
After several tests we have done, we arrived to the hypothesis that the PID values
arenot close enough to those the quad-copter requires to maintain a 70% stable flight.So it
seemed that the only work left to do is getting the PID values closer to the end where 95% of
stable flight would be guaranteed.
We have worked along with that hypothesis, the results were that the quad-copter can
only maintain a 40% stable flight , the only conclusion we could have of the whole procedure
is that the parts of the quad-copter are well connected .
We have come with another hypothesis, after checking the code instructions, we
stopped at the ESC instruction.We found that the ideal frequency for the ESC to communicate
properly with The BLDC motor should be about 400Hz.The ESC we have worked with in this
project can only work at 50Hz.We had to find the ESC circuit and plug in an USB-ASP
circuit to transfer a firmware which can upgrade the 50Hz to 400Hz.
On our final tests, we focused in parallel on both hypotheses, the quad-copter reached
approximately 90% of a stable smooth flight.

Limitations of the Study

Like any other studies, this one seems to have some limitations. Mainly because of time
constraints, the shortcomings of the present study can be summarized in the following points:
 Most of the electronic parts are not available in our country
 We faced problems with the airport authorities concerning the imported parts
 These main problems caused us also a funding issue

Recommendations for Further Research

Based on the aforementioned limitations, we recommend the following:
 Getting an extra of the required elements for building a quad-copter
 Working with an Arduino Mega instead of an Arduino uno, so that the GPS and the
other sensors can work properly
 Build a protection for the quad-copter , in order to be able to do more tests

54
 References

[1] Flying Robot Surveyor “fyprepository.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/flying-robot-surveyor.pdf”

[2] How To Choose Motors and Propeller “top-10-drones.com”

[3] http electronique.marcel.free.fr/VAE/Docs/OT1%20Controleur/AN885a.pdf

[4] Quad-Copter (Autonomous Surveillance Robot).

[5] Electrical concepts ’’ http://electricalbaba.com/brushless-dc-bldc-motor/’’

[6] Control of Brushless DC Motors ‘https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3231115/’

[7] Quora (How does ESC Work) “www.quora.com”

[8] Electronic Speed Control “Wikipedia”

[9] ESC “http://dictionnaire.sensagent.leparisien.fr”

[10] www.arduino.cc

[11] D-c- Arduino uno.pdf

[12] How I²C Communication Works “http://howtomechatronics.com”

[13] Wireless Communication “www.mathworks.com”

[14] Antenna “Compact Antennas and Arrays for Unmanned Air Systems.pdf”

[15] Quad-Copter Sensors By Salah El Hakimi.

[16] www.multiwii.com

[17] Radio link.Pdf

Bramwell, A.R.S. “Helicopter Dynamics”. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.1976.

Watkinson, John. “The Art of the Helicopter”.Elsevier Butterworth- Heinmann. 2004.

Chapman, Stephen. “Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Second Edition”.McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991, 1985.

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