2

FPO

Learn to Predict  
Brad and his lab partner, Angie, mixed a 
small amount of starch into a test tube 

The Chemical
of water. Then they added iodine, which 
stained the starch molecules blue. Next 
they added saliva to the test tube. After 

Basis of Life
30 minutes, the blue color disappeared. 
This exercise demonstrates the conse-
quences of metabolism in the absence 
of homeostasis (described in chapter 1). 
Homeostasis often involves a balance of 
chemical reactions that will make and 

L
break molecules, such as starch. In the  ife is chemistry. Chemicals compose the structures of the body, and the interac-
test tube, only one reaction occurred. After  tions of chemicals with one another are responsible for the body’s functions.
reading the chapter, you will have learned  Nerve impulse generation, digestion, muscle contraction, and metabolism can
that the rate of a chemical  reaction can be  be described in chemical terms, and so can many abnormal conditions and illnesses, as
greatly increased by  enzymes in cells and  well as their treatments. These diverse functions all involve intricate interactions
body fl uids, and you will understand the  between molecules. For example, chemicals in saliva interact with food to aid in digestion,
roles of two chemical phenomena— and membrane proteins assemble to form a pore for ions to pass into and out of our
activation energy and  decomposition  cells to aid in nerve impulse generation and muscle contraction. To understand anatomy
reactions. Considering the properties of  and physiology, it is essential to have a basic knowledge of chemistry—the scientific
enzymes and chemical  reactions, can  discipline concerned with the atomic composition of substances and the reactions
you explain why the blue color in the test  they undergo. This chapter is not a comprehensive treatment of chemistry, but it does
tube disappeared? review some of the basic chemical concepts related to living systems. When necessary,
refer back to this chapter when chemical processes are discussed later in the book.

Photo: The chemical composition of the body’s structures 
determines their function. This ribbon diagram of a potassium 
channel protein (Kv1.2) shows the four subunits (in different 
colors) assembled together to create a pore for the passage 
of potassium ions (purple balls) across the plasma membrane. 
A view from the side (right) and a top-down view (left) of  Module 2
the channel are shown. Cells and Chemistry

24

van03636_ch02.indd 24 12-10-01 11:44 AM

 CHAPTeR 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 25

2.1 Basic Chemistry
LeARning OuTCOMeS
After reading this section, you should be able to
A. Define matter, mass, and weight.
B. Distinguish between elements and atoms, and state the
four most abundant elements in the body.
C. name the subatomic particles of an atom, and indicate
their mass, charge, and location in an atom.
D. Define atomic number, mass number, isotope, atomic mass,
and mole.
e. Compare and contrast ionic and covalent bonds.
F. Differentiate between a molecule and a compound.
g. explain what creates a hydrogen bond, and relate its
importance.
H. Describe solubility and the process of dissociation, and
predict if a compound or molecule is an electrolyte or
a nonelectrolyte.
Matter, Mass, and Weight
All living and nonliving things are composed of matter, which is
anything that occupies space and has mass. Mass is the amount
of matter in an object, and weight is the gravitational force acting
on an object of a given mass. For example, the weight of an apple
results from the force of gravity “pulling” on the apple’s mass.
Predict 2 element oxygen is composed of only oxygen atoms.
The difference between mass and weight can be illustrated by considering  An element, or an atom of that element, is often represented
an astronaut. How do an astronaut’s mass and weight in outer space  by a symbol. Usually, the symbol is the first letter or letters of the
compare with the astronaut’s mass and weight on the earth’s surface?
The international unit for mass is the kilogram (kg), which is
the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measurements in France. The mass of all
other objects is compared with this cylinder. For example, a
2.2-pound lead weight and 1 liter (L) (1.06 qt) of water each have
a mass of approximately 1 kg. An object with 1/1000 the mass of a
kilogram has a mass of 1 gram (g).
elements and Atoms
An element is the simplest type of matter, having unique chemical
properties. A list of the elements commonly found in the human
body appears in table 2.1. About 96% of the body’s weight results
from the elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. The
majority of the body’s weight is from oxygen. Oxygen is also the
most abundant element in the earth’s crust. Carbon plays an
especially important role in the chemistry of the body, due in part
to its propensity to form covalent bonds with itself and other
molecules. Many elements are present in only trace amounts, but
still play essential roles in the body. Elements can have multiple
roles and exist in different states in the body. For example, min-
eralized calcium contributes to the solid matrix of bones, while
dissolved calcium helps regulate enzyme activities and nervous
system signaling.
An atom (atomos, indivisible) is the smallest particle of an
element that has the chemical characteristics of that element.
An element is composed of atoms of only one kind. For example,
the element carbon is composed of only carbon atoms, and the
element’s name—for example, C for carbon, H for hydrogen, and

TABLe 2.1 Common elements in the Human Body

Percent in Human Percent in Human
Atomic Mass Body by Weight Body by number
element Symbol number number Atomic Mass (%) of Atoms (%)
Hydrogen   H   1   1    1.008 9.5 63.0
Carbon   C   6   12   12.01 18.5 9.5
Nitrogen   N   7   14   14.01 3.3 1.4
Oxygen   O   8   16   16.00 65.0 25.5
Fluorine   F   9   19   19.00   Trace   Trace
Sodium   Na   11   23   22.99 0.2 0.3
Magnesium   Mg   12   24   24.31 0.1 0.1
Phosphorus   P   15   31   30.97 1.0 0.22
Sulfur   S   16   32   32.07 0.3 0.05
Chlorine   Cl   17   35   35.45 0.2 0.03
Potassium   K   19   39   39.10 0.4 0.06
Calcium   Ca   20   40   40.08 1.5 0.31
Iron   Fe   26   56   55.85   Trace   Trace
Iodine   I   53   127 126.9   Trace   Trace

van03636_ch02.indd 25 12-10-01 11:44 AM

 26 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

6e– 8e–
1e–

6p+ 8p+
1p+
6n0 8n0
Electron Nucleus
cloud

Hydrogen Carbon Oxygen

atom atom atom

Figure 2.2  Hydrogen, Carbon, and Oxygen Atoms

Proton
(positive charge)
Neutron
(no charge)
Figure 2.1    Model of an Atom
The tiny, dense nucleus consists of positively charged protons and uncharged
neutrons. Most of the volume of an atom is occupied by rapidly moving,   Protons and neutrons have about the same mass, and they are
negatively charged electrons, which can be represented as an electron cloud.
The probable location of an electron is indicated by the color of the electron
cloud. The darker the color in each small part of the electron cloud, the more
likely the electron is located there.
Within the nucleus, the number of positively charged protons (p+) and
uncharged neutrons (n0) is indicated. The negatively charged electrons (e−)
are around the nucleus. Atoms are electrically neutral because the number  
of protons and the number of electrons within an atom are equal.
protons, the atomic number is also the number of electrons. There
are 90 naturally occurring elements, but additional elements have
been synthesized by altering atomic nuclei. See the periodic table
in appendix A for additional information about the elements.
responsible for most of the mass of atoms. Electrons, on the other
hand, have very little mass. The mass number of an element is
the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom.
For example, the mass number for carbon is 12 because it has
6 protons and 6 neutrons.

Ca for calcium. Occasionally, the symbol is taken from the Latin, Predict 3
Greek, or Arabic name for the element—for example, the symbol
The atomic number of potassium is 19, and the mass number is 39. How
for sodium is Na, from the Latin word natrium. many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of potassium?

Atomic Structure
The characteristics of matter result from the structure, organiza-
tion, and behavior of atoms. Atoms are composed of subatomic
particles, some of which have an electrical charge. The three major
types of subatomic particles are neutrons, protons, and electrons
(figure 2.1). A neutron has no electrical charge, a proton has one
positive charge, and an electron has one negative charge. The
positive charge of a proton is equal in magnitude to the negative
charge of an electron. The number of protons and the number of
electrons in each atom are equal, and the individual charges cancel
each other. Therefore, each atom is electrically neutral.
Protons and neutrons form the nucleus at the center of an atom,
and electrons move around the nucleus (figure 2.1). The nucleus
accounts for 99.97% of an atom’s mass but only 1 ­ten-trillionth of its
volume. Most of the volume of an atom is occupied by the electrons.
Because electrons are always moving around the nucleus, the
region where they are most likely to be found can be represented
by an electron cloud.
Isotopes and Atomic Mass
Isotopes (ī′sō-tōpz) are two or more forms of the same element
that have the same number of protons and electrons but a different
number of neutrons. Thus, isotopes have the same atomic number
but different mass numbers. There are three isotopes of hydrogen:
hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium. All three isotopes have 1 proton
and 1 electron, but hydrogen has no neutrons in its nucleus, deute-
rium has 1 neutron, and tritium has 2 neutrons (figure 2.3). Isotopes
can be denoted using the symbol of the element preceded by the
mass number (number of protons and neutrons) of the isotope.
Thus, hydrogen is 1H, deuterium is 2H, and tritium is 3H.
1e– 1e– 1e–
p+
p+
p+
n0 n0 n0

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Each element is uniquely defined by the number of protons in the
(a) Hydrogen (1H) (b) Deuterium (2H) (c) Tritium (3H)
atoms of that element. For example, only hydrogen atoms have
1  proton, only carbon atoms have 6 protons, and only oxygen
Figure 2.3  Isotopes of Hydrogen
atoms have 8 protons (figure 2.2; see table 2.1). The atomic number (a) Hydrogen has 1 proton and no neutrons in its nucleus. (b) Deuterium has
of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom 1 proton and 1 neutron in its nucleus. (c) Tritium has 1 proton and 2 neutrons
and, because the number of electrons is equal to the number of in its nucleus.

van03636_ch02.indd 26 12-10-01 11:44 AM


Individual atoms have very little mass. A hydrogen atom has
a mass of 1.67 × 10−24 g (see appendix B for an explanation of the
scientific notation of numbers). To avoid working with such small
numbers, scientists use a system of relative atomic mass. In this
system, a dalton (Da), or unified atomic mass unit (u), is 1/12 the
mass of 12C, a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Thus, 12C
has an atomic mass of exactly 12 Da. However, a naturally ­occurring
sample of carbon contains mostly 12C and a small quantity of other
carbon isotopes, such as 13C, which has 6 protons and 7 neutrons.
The atomic mass of an element is the average mass of its naturally
occurring isotopes, taking into account the relative abundance of
each isotope. For example, the atomic mass of the element carbon
is 12.01 Da (see table 2.1), which is slightly more than 12 Da because
of the additional mass of the small amount of other carbon isotopes.
Because the atomic mass is an average, a sample of carbon can be
treated as if all the carbon atoms had an atomic mass of 12.01 Da.
The Mole and Molar Mass
Just as a grocer sells eggs in lots of a dozen, a chemist groups
atoms in lots of 6.022 × 1023, which is called Avogadro’s number,
or 1  mole (abbreviated mol). Stated another way, a mole of a
substance contains Avogadro’s number of entities, such as atoms,
ions, or molecules. The mass of 1 mole of a substance expressed
in grams is called the molar mass. Molar mass is a convenient
way to determine the number of atoms in a sample of an element.
Because 12 g of 12C is used as the standard, the atomic mass of
an entity expressed in unified atomic mass units is the same as the
molar mass expressed in grams. Thus, carbon atoms have an atomic
mass of 12.01 Da, and 12.01 g of carbon has Avogadro’s number
(1 mol) of carbon atoms. By the same token, 1.008 g of hydrogen
(1 mol) has the same number of atoms as 12.01 g of carbon (1 mol).
Sodium atom (Na)
11e–
Sodium ion (Na+ )
11p+ Lo ses e 10e–
12n0 lectron
11p+
12n0
Sodium
chloride
(NaCl)
e–
17p+
18n0
17p+
ron
18n0 Gains elect
18e–
17e–
(a) Chlorine atom (Cl) Chloride ion (Cl– )
(c)
van03636_ch02.indd 27
CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 27
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
1. Define matter. How are the mass and the weight of an object
different?
2. Differentiate between element and atom. What four elements
are found in the greatest abundance in the human body?
3. For each subatomic particle of an atom, state its charge and
location. Which region of an atom is most responsible for the
mass of the atom? Its volume?
4. Which subatomic particle determines the atomic number?
What determines the mass number?
5. What is an isotope? How are isotopes denoted?
6. What is Avogadro’s number? How is it related to a mole and
molar mass?
Electrons and Chemical Bonding
The outermost electrons of an atom determine its chemical behav-
ior. When these outermost electrons are transferred, or shared,
between atoms, chemical bonding occurs. Two major types of
chemical bonds are ionic and covalent bonds.
Ionic Bonds
Recall that an atom is electrically neutral because it has equal
numbers of protons and electrons. However, an atom can donate
or lose electrons to other atoms. When this occurs, the numbers of
protons and electrons are no longer equal, and a charged particle,
called an ion (ī′on), is formed. After an atom loses an electron, it
has 1 more proton than it has electrons and is positively charged.
A sodium atom (Na) can lose an electron to become a positively
charged sodium ion (Na+) (figure 2.4a). After an atom gains an
electron, it has 1 more electron than it has protons and is negatively
charged. A chlorine atom (Cl) can accept an electron to become a
negatively charged chloride ion (Cl−).
Na+
Cl–
(b)
Figure 2.4    Ionic Bonds
(a) A sodium atom (Na) loses an electron to become a smaller, positively
charged ion, and a chlorine atom (Cl) gains an electron to become a larger,
negatively charged ion. The attraction between the oppositely charged ions
results in ionic bonding and the formation of sodium chloride. (b) The ­sodium
ions (Na+) and the chlorine ions (Cl−) are organized to form a ­cube-shaped
array. (c) A photomicrograph of salt crystals reflects the cubic arrangement
of the ions.
12-10-01 11:44 AM
 28 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

e– e–
Positively charged ions are called cations (kat′ī-onz), and
negatively charged ions are called anions (an′ī-onz). Because oppo-
sitely charged ions are attracted to each other, cations and anions p+ p+
tend to remain close together, forming an ionic (ī-on′ik) bond.
For example, Na+ and Cl− are held together by ionic bonding to
form an array of ions called sodium chloride (NaCl), or table salt 1 There is no interaction between the two hydrogen atoms because they
(figure 2.4b,c). Some ions commonly found in the body are listed are too far apart.
in table 2.2.

Covalent Bonds e– e–
A covalent bond forms when atoms share one or more pairs of
electrons. The resulting combination of atoms is called a molecule. p+ p+
An example is the covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms
to form a hydrogen molecule (figure 2.5). Each hydrogen atom
has 1 electron. As the two hydrogen atoms get closer together, 2 The positively charged nucleus of each hydrogen atom begins to
the ­positively charged nucleus of each atom begins to attract the attract the electron of the other.
electron of the other atom. At an optimal distance, the 2 nuclei
mutually attract the 2 electrons, and each electron is shared by
both nuclei. The two hydrogen atoms are now held together by a e–
covalent bond.
The sharing of one pair of electrons by two atoms results in
a single covalent bond. A single line between the symbols of the p+ p+
atoms involved (e.g., H—H) represents a single covalent bond. A
double covalent bond results when two atoms share 4 electrons, e–
2 from each atom. When a carbon atom combines with two oxy-
3 A covalent bond is formed when the electrons are shared between the
gen atoms to form carbon dioxide, two double covalent bonds nuclei because the electrons are equally attracted to each nucleus.
form. Double covalent bonds are indicated by a double line
between the atoms (O C O). Process Figure 2.5  Covalent Bonding

When electrons are shared equally between atoms, as in

Table 2.2 Important Ions in the Human Body a hydrogen molecule, the bonds are called nonpolar covalent
Common Ions Symbols Significance* bonds. However, atoms bound to one another by a covalent bond
do not always share their electrons equally because the nucleus of
2+
Calcium Ca Part of bones and teeth;   one atom attracts the electrons more strongly than does the nucleus
functions in blood clotting,
of the other atom. Bonds of this type are called polar covalent
muscle contraction, release of  
neurotransmitters bonds and are common in both living and nonliving matter.
Polar covalent bonds can result in polar molecules, which
Sodium Na+ Membrane potentials, water  
are electrically asymmetric. For example, oxygen atoms attract
balance
electrons more strongly than do hydrogen atoms. When covalent
Potassium K+ Membrane potentials bonding between an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms forms
Hydrogen H +
Acid-base balance a water molecule, the electrons are located closer to the oxygen
− nucleus than to the hydrogen nuclei. Because electrons have a
Hydroxide OH Acid-base balance
­negative charge, the oxygen side of the molecule is slightly more
−
Chloride Cl Water balance negative than the hydrogen side (figure 2.6).
−
Bicarbonate HCO3 Acid-base balance

Ammonium NH4 +
Acid-base balance Molecules and Compounds
Phosphate PO4 3−
Part of bones and teeth;   A molecule is composed of two or more atoms chemically com-
functions in energy exchange, bined to form a structure that behaves as an independent unit.
acid-base balance Sometimes the atoms that combine are of the same type, such as two
Iron Fe2+ Red blood cell formation hydrogen atoms combining to form a hydrogen molecule. However,
2+ more typically, a molecule consists of two or more different types of
Magnesium Mg Necessary for enzymes
atoms, such as two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom combin-
−
Iodide I Present in thyroid hormones ing to form water. Thus, a glass of water consists of a collection of
*The ions are part of the structures or play important roles in the processes listed. individual water molecules positioned next to one another.

van03636_ch02.indd 28 12-10-01 11:44 AM

 CHAPTeR 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 29

A compound is a substance resulting from the chemical

combination of two or more different types of atoms. Water is a
H H
δ+ molecule that is also a compound because it is a combination of
two different atoms, hydrogen and oxygen. But not all molecules
are compounds. For example, a hydrogen molecule is not a com-
O pound because it does not consist of different types of atoms.
O
Some compounds are molecules and some are not. (Remember
H
H that, to be a molecule, a structure must be an independent unit.)
δ– Covalent compounds, in which different types of atoms are held
(a) (b)
together by covalent bonds, are molecules because the sharing
of electrons results in distinct units. On the other hand, ionic
FiguRe 2.6 Polar Covalent Bonds compounds, in which ions are held together by the force of attrac-
(a) A water molecule forms when two hydrogen atoms form covalent bonds 
with an oxygen atom. (b) The hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms are sharing 
tion between opposite charges, are not molecules because they do
electron pairs (indicated by the black dots), but the sharing is unequal. The  not consist of distinct units. Table salt (NaCl) is an example of a
dashed outline shows the expected location of the electron cloud if the  substance that is a compound but not a molecule. A piece of NaCl
electrons are shared equally. But the actual electron cloud (yellow) is shifted  does not consist of individual sodium chloride molecules positioned
toward the oxygen. Consequently, the oxygen side of the molecule has a  next to one another. Instead, NaCl is an organized array of individual
slightly negative charge (indicated by δ−), and the hydrogen side of the 
molecule has a slightly positive charge (indicated by δ+).
Na+ and individual Cl− in which each charged ion is surrounded by
several ions of the opposite charge (see figure 2.4b).

Clinical  Applications of Atomic Particles

IMPACT

P
rotons, neutrons, and electrons are
responsible for the chemical properties
of atoms. They also have other proper-
ties that can be useful in a clinical setting. For
example, they have been used to develop meth-
ods for examining the inside of the body. Health
professionals and researchers commonly use
radioactive isotopes because sensitive measur-
ing devices can detect their radioactivity, even
when they are present in very small amounts.
Radioactive isotopes have unstable nuclei,
which spontaneously change to form more
stable nuclei. As a result, either new isotopes
or new elements are produced. In this process
of nuclear change, the nuclei of radioactive iso-
topes emit alpha particles, beta particles, and
gamma rays. Alpha (α) particles are positively
charged helium ions (He2+), which consist of
2  protons and 2 neutrons. Beta (β) particles
are electrons formed as neutrons change into
protons. An electron is ejected from the neu-
tron, and the proton that is produced remains
in the nucleus. Gamma (γ) rays are a form of
electromagnetic radiation (high-energy pho-
tons) released from nuclei as they lose energy.
All isotopes of an element have the same
atomic number, and their chemical behavior
is very similar. For example, 3H (tritium)
can substitute for 1H (hydrogen), and either
125
iodine or 131iodine can substitute for
126
iodine in chemical reactions.
Several procedures that are used to deter-
mine the concentration of substances, such as
hormones, depend on the incorporation of
small amounts of radioactive isotopes, such as
125
iodine, into the substances being measured.
These procedures enable clinicians to more
accurately diagnose disorders of the thyroid
gland, the adrenal gland, and the reproduc-
tive organs.
Radioactive isotopes are also used to treat
cancer. Some of the particles released from iso-
topes have a very high energy content and can
penetrate and destroy tissues. Rapidly growing
tissues, such as tumors, are more sensitive to
radiation than are healthy cells. Thus, radio-
active isotopes can be used to destroy tumors.
Medical facilities also use radiation to sterilize
materials that cannot be exposed to high tem-
peratures (e.g., some fabric and plastic items
used during surgical procedures). In addition,
radioactive emissions can be used to sterilize
food and other items.
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations
with a much shorter wavelength than visible
light. When electric current is used to heat a
filament to very high temperatures, the energy
of the electrons becomes so great that some
electrons are emitted from the hot filament.
When these electrons strike a positive elec-
trode at high speeds, they release some of their
energy in the form of x-rays.
X-rays do not penetrate dense material
as readily as they penetrate less dense mate-
rial, and x-rays can expose photographic
film. Consequently, an x-ray beam can pass
through a person and onto photographic
film. Dense tissues of the body absorb the
x-rays; on the film, these areas are underexposed
and, so, appear white or light in color. By
contrast, the x-rays readily pass through less
dense tissue, so the film in these areas is
overexposed and they appear black or dark in
color. In an x-ray film of the skeletal system,
the dense bones are white, and the less dense
soft tissues are dark, often so dark that no
details can be seen. Health professionals use
x-rays to determine whether bones are broken
or have other abnormalities.
Soft tissues can be photographed by using
low-energy x-rays. Mammograms are low-
energy x-rays of the breast that can reveal
tumors because tumors are slightly denser
than normal tissue.
Radiopaque substances are dense materi-
als that absorb x-rays. If a radiopaque liquid
is given to a patient, the liquid assumes the
shape of the organ into which it is placed. For
example, if a patient swallows a barium solu-
tion, the outline of the upper digestive tract
can be photographed using x-rays to detect
any abnormality, such as an ulcer.

van03636_ch02.indd 29 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 30 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body
The properties of elements can change when they are com-
bined to form compounds. For example, the element hydrogen
is extremely flammable, and oxygen, although not flammable on
its own, promotes fire. However, when combined, hydrogen and
oxygen form the very nonflammable compound water. Likewise,
elements that are dangerous or toxic to humans can become use-
ful as compounds. For example, sodium is very explosive when
placed in water, and chlorine is a strong disinfectant in solutions,
such as bleach and swimming pool water. Chlorine is so toxic that
it was used as a poison gas in World War I, yet, when combined,
sodium and chloride form the relatively safe and nonexplosive
compound table salt.
The kinds and numbers of atoms (or ions) in a molecule or
compound are typically represented by a formula consisting of
the symbols of the atoms (or ions) plus subscripts denoting the
quantity of each type of atom (or ion). The formula for glucose (a
sugar) is C6H12O6, indicating that glucose has 6 carbon, 12 hydro-
gen, and 6 oxygen atoms (table 2.3).
The molecular mass of a molecule or compound can be
determined by adding up the atomic masses of its atoms (or ions).
The term molecular mass is used for convenience for ionic com-
pounds, even though they are not molecules. For example, the
atomic mass of sodium is 22.99 and that of chloride is 35.45. The
molecular mass of NaCl is therefore 58.44 (22.99 + 35.45).
intermolecular Forces
The weak electrostatic attractions that exist between the oppo-
sitely charged parts of molecules, or between ions and molecules,
are called intermolecular forces. These forces, which are much
weaker than the forces producing chemical bonding, include
hydrogen bonds and the properties of solubility and dissociation.
TABLe 2.3 Picturing Molecules
Representation Hydrogen
Chemical Formula
The formula shows the kind and number  H2
of atoms present.
electron-Dot Formula
The bonding electrons are shown as dots  H:H
between the symbols of the atoms.
Single covalent bond
Bond-Line Formula
The bonding electrons are shown as lines  H—H
between the symbols of the atoms.
Single covalent bond
Models
Atoms are shown as diff erent-sized and 
diff erent-colored spheres.
Hydrogen
atom
van03636_ch02.indd 30
Hydrogen Bonds
Molecules with polar covalent bonds have positive and negative
“ends.” Intermolecular force results from the attraction of the
positive end of one polar molecule to the negative end of another
polar molecule. When hydrogen forms a covalent bond with oxy-
gen, nitrogen, or fluorine, the resulting molecule becomes very
polarized. If the positively charged hydrogen of one molecule is
attracted to the negatively charged oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine
of another molecule, a hydrogen bond forms. For example, the
positively charged hydrogen atoms of a water molecule form
hydrogen bonds with the negatively charged oxygen atoms of
other water molecules (figure 2.7). These hydrogen bonds are
essential for the unique properties of water (see section 2.3).
Hydrogen bonds play an important role in determining
the shape of complex molecules. The bonds can occur between
different polar parts of a molecule to hold the molecule in its nor-
mal three-dimensional shape (see “Proteins” and “Nucleic Acids:
DNA and RNA” in section 2.4).
Table 2.4 summarizes the important characteristics of
chemical bonds (ionic and covalent) and intermolecular forces
(hydrogen bonds).
Solubility and Dissociation
Solubility is the ability of one substance to dissolve in another—
for example, sugar dissolving in water. Charged substances, such
as sodium chloride, and polar substances, such as glucose, readily
dissolve in water, whereas nonpolar substances, such as oils, do
not. We all have seen how oil floats on water. Substances dissolve
in water when they become surrounded by water molecules. If the
positive and negative ends of the water molecules are more attracted
to the charged ends of other molecules than to each other, the
Carbon Dioxide glucose
CO2 C6H12O6
O::C::O Not used for complex molecules
Double covalent bond
CH2OH
O C O O
Double covalent bond  OH
HO OH
OH
Oxygen Carbon
atom atom
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 CHAPTeR 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 31

TABLe 2.4 Comparison of Bonds

FUNDAMeNTAL Figure
Bond example
ionic Bond
A complete transfer of electrons  Na+Cl−
between two atoms results in  Sodium chloride
separate positively charged and 
Water molecule negatively charged ions.
Polar Covalent Bond
An unequal sharing of electrons  H
δ+

O
between two atoms results in a   O 
Hydrogen bond slightly positive charge (δ+) on one 

O
side of the molecule and a slightly  H
δ– Water
negative charge (δ−) on the other 
side of the molecule.
nonpolar Covalent Bond H

O
An equal sharing of electrons 
HOCOH
between two atoms results in an 

O
even charge distribution among  H
the atoms of the molecule. Methane

Hydrogen Bond H
...HOO

O
The attraction of oppositely charged  O
ends of one polar molecule to another 

O
O
polar molecule holds molecules or  H H
Hydrogen Oxygen parts of molecules together. Water molecules

FiguRe 2.7 Hydrogen Bonds

The positive (δ+) hydrogen part of one water molecule (blue) forms a 
 hydrogen bond (red dotted line) with the negative (δ−) oxygen part of 
 another water molecule (red). As a result, hydrogen bonds hold the water  Maintaining the proper balance of electrolytes is important
molecules together.
hydrogen bonds between the ends of the water molecules break,
and water molecules surround the other molecules, which become
dissolved in water.
When ionic compounds dissolve in water, their ions dissociate,
or separate, from one another because cations are attracted to the
negative ends of water molecules and anions are attracted to the
positive ends of water molecules. When NaCl dissociates in water,
sodium and chloride ions separate, and water molecules surround
and isolate the ions, thereby keeping them in solution (figure 2.8).
When molecules (covalent compounds) dissolve in water,
they usually remain intact, even though they are surrounded by
water molecules. Thus, in a glucose solution, glucose molecules
are surrounded by water molecules.
Cations and anions that dissociate in water are sometimes
called electrolytes (ē-lek′trō-lītz) because they have the capac-
ity to conduct an electric current, which is the flow of charged
particles. An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of electric
currents produced by the heart. These currents can be detected by
electrodes on the surface of the body because the ions in the body
fluids conduct electric currents. Molecules that do not dissoci-
ate form solutions that do not conduct electricity and are called
nonelectrolytes. Pure water is a nonelectrolyte.
for keeping the body hydrated, controlling blood pH, and ensuring
the proper function of muscles and nerves. Under most condi-
tions, including moderate exercise, the body’s usual regulatory
mechanisms are sufficient to maintain electrolyte homeostasis.
However, people engaging in prolonged exercise, such as compet-
ing in a triathlon, are advised to consume sports drinks containing
electrolytes. In an emergency, administering intravenous solutions
can restore electrolyte and fluid balance.
ASSeSS YOuR PROgReSS
7. Describe how an ionic bond is formed. What are a cation and
an anion?
8. What occurs in the formation of a covalent bond? What is the
difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds?
9. Distinguish between a molecule and a compound. Give
an example of each. Are all molecules compounds? Are all
compounds molecules?
10. What are intermolecular forces, and how do they create a
hydrogen bond?
11. What is meant by the statement “table sugar is soluble in water?”
12. Describe what occurs during the dissociation of NaCl in water.
What occurs when glucose (C6H12O6 ) dissolves in water?
13. Explain the difference between electrolytes and nonelectrolytes.
Classify each of the following water solutions as an electrolyte
or a nonelectrolyte: potassium iodide (KCl), sucrose (C12H22O11),
magnesium bromide (MgBr2), lactose (C12H22O11).

van03636_ch02.indd 31 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 32 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body
Salt
Salt crystal
Figure 2.8    Dissociation 
Sodium chloride (table salt) dissociates in water. The positively charged Na+ are attracted to the negatively charged (δ−) oxygen (red) end of the water molecule,
and the negatively charged Cl− are attracted to the positively charged (δ+) hydrogen (blue) end of the water molecule.
2.2  Chemical Reactions and Energy
Learning Outcomes
After reading this section, you should be able to
A. Summarize the characteristics of synthesis, decomposition,
reversible reactions, and oxidation-reduction reactions.
B. Illustrate what occurs in dehydration and hydrolysis
reactions.
C. Explain how reversible reactions produce chemical
equilibrium.
D. Contrast potential and kinetic energy.
E. Distinguish between chemical reactions that release
energy and those that take in energy.
F. Describe the factors that can affect the rate of chemical
reactions.
In a chemical reaction, atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds
interact either to form or to break chemical bonds. The substances
that enter into a chemical reaction are called reactants, and the
substances that result from the chemical reaction are called products.
For our purposes, three important points can be made about
chemical reactions. First, in some reactions, less complex reac-
tants are combined to form a larger, more complex product. An
example is the synthesis of the complex proteins of the human
body from amino acid “building blocks” obtained from food
van03636_ch02.indd 32
δ+ δ–
Na+
δ+
Na+
Cl– Water
molecules
δ–
δ+
Cl–
δ+
(figure 2.9a). ­Second, in other reactions, a reactant can be broken
down, or decomposed, into simpler, less complex products. An
example is the breakdown of carbohydrate molecules into glucose
molecules (figure 2.9b). Third, atoms are generally associated with
other atoms through chemical bonding or intermolecular forces;
therefore, to synthesize new products or break down reactants, it
is necessary to change the relationship between atoms.
Synthesis Reactions
When two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new
and larger product, the process is called a synthesis reaction. An
example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of two amino
acids to form a dipeptide (figure 2.9a). As the amino acids are
bound together, water results. Synthesis reactions in which water
is a product are called dehydration (water out) reactions. As the
atoms rearrange as a result of a synthesis reaction, old chemical
bonds are broken and new chemical bonds are formed.
Another example of a synthesis reaction in the body is the
formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; see section 2.4 for the
details of ATP structure). ATP, which is composed of adenos-
ine and three phosphate groups, is synthesized from adenosine
diphosphate (ADP), which has two phosphate groups, and an
inorganic phosphate (H2PO4) that is often symbolized as Pi:
A-P-P + Pi A-P-P-P
(ADP) (Inorganic (ATP)
phosphate)
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 CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 33

Synthesis

Amino acids Protein molecule

Synthesis (dehydration) reaction

R1 R2 R1 R2

C C C C
H N C OH + H N C OH H N C N C OH + H OH
H H H H
H O H O H O O
Amino acid Amino acid Dipeptide Water (H2O)
(a)

Decomposition

Carbohydrate molecule Glucose molecules

Decomposition (hydrolysis) reaction

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O
HO OH O OH O + H OH HO OH O H + HO OH OH

OH OH OH OH
Disaccharide Water (H2O) Glucose Glucose
(b)

Figure 2.9  Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions

(a) A synthesis reaction in which amino acids combine to form a protein molecule. The combination of two amino acids is shown in detail. This reaction is also a dehydration
reaction because it results in the removal of a water molecule from the amino acids. (b) A decomposition reaction in which a carbohydrate breaks apart into individual
glucose molecules. The breakdown of a disaccharide is shown in detail. This reaction is also a hydrolysis reaction because it involves the splitting of a water molecule.

Synthesis reactions produce the molecules characteristic of
life, such as ATP, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic
acids. All of the synthesis reactions that occur within the body are
collectively referred to as anabolism (ă-nab′ō-lizm). The growth,
maintenance, and repair of the body could not take place without
anabolic reactions.
Decomposition Reactions
A decomposition reaction is the reverse of a synthesis reaction—a
larger reactant is chemically broken down into two or more smaller
products. The breakdown of a disaccharide (a type of carbohy-
drate) into glucose molecules (figure 2.9b) is an example. Note
that this reaction requires that water be split into two parts and
that each part be contributed to one of the new glucose molecules.
Reactions that use water in this manner are called hydrolysis
(hī-drol′i-sis; water dissolution) reactions.
The breakdown of ATP to ADP and an inorganic phosphate
is another example of a decomposition reaction:
A-P-P-P A-P-P + Pi
(ATP) (ADP) (Inorganic
phosphate)
The decomposition reactions occurring in the body are
collectively called catabolism (kă-tab′-ō-lizm). They include
the digestion of food molecules in the intestine and within cells,
the breakdown of fat stores, and the breakdown of foreign matter
and microorganisms in certain blood cells that protect the body.
All of the anabolic and catabolic reactions in the body are collec-
tively defined as metabolism.

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 34 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body
Reversible Reactions
Some chemical reactions are reversible. In a reversible reaction,
the reaction can proceed from reactants to products or from prod-
ucts to reactants. When the rate of product formation is equal to
the rate of the reverse reaction, the reaction system is said to be at
equilibrium. At equilibrium, the amount of reactants relative to
the amount of products remains constant.
The following analogy may help clarify the concept of revers-
ible reactions and equilibrium. Imagine a trough containing water.
The trough is divided into two compartments by a partition, but
the partition contains holes that allow water to move freely between
the compartments. Because water can move in either direction, this
is like a reversible reaction. Imagine that the water in the left com-
partment is the reactant and the water in the right compartment
is the product. At equilibrium, the amount of reactant relative to
the amount of product in each compartment is always the same
because the partition allows water to pass between the two com-
partments until the water level is the same in both compartments.
If additional water is added to the reactant compartment, water
flows from it through the partition to the product compartment
until the water level is the same in both compartments. Likewise,
if additional reactants are added to a reaction system, some will
form product until equilibrium is reestablished. However, in most
reversible reactions, the ratio of reactants compared with products
is not one to one. Depending on the specific reversible reaction,
one part reactant to two parts product, two parts reactant to one
part product, or many other possibilities can occur.
An important reversible reaction in the human body involves
carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) combine to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic
acid then separates by a reversible reaction to form hydrogen ions
(H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3−):
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3−
If CO2 is added to H2O, additional H2CO3 forms, which
causes more H+ and HCO3− to form. The amount of H+ and
HCO3− relative to CO2 therefore remains constant. Maintaining
a constant level of H+ is necessary for proper functioning of the
nervous system. This can be achieved, in part, by regulating blood
CO2 levels. For example, slowing down the respiration rate causes
blood carbon dioxide levels to increase.
Predict 4
If the respiration rate increases, CO2 is eliminated from the blood. What effect
does this change have on blood H+ levels?
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Chemical reactions that result from the exchange of electrons
between the reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions.
When sodium and chlorine react to form sodium chloride, the
sodium atom loses an electron and the chlorine atom gains an
electron. The loss of an electron by an atom is called oxidation,
and the gain of an electron is called reduction. The transfer of
the electron can be complete, resulting in an ionic bond, or it
can be partial, resulting in a covalent bond. Because one atom
van03636_ch02.indd 34
partially or completely loses an electron and another atom gains
that electron, these reactions are called oxidation-reduction reac-
tions. Synthesis and decomposition reactions can be oxidation-
reduction reactions. Thus, a chemical reaction can be described in
more than one way.
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
14. Using the terms reactant and product, describe what occurs in
a chemical reaction.
15. Contrast synthesis and decomposition reactions, and explain how
catabolism and anabolism relate to these two types of reactions.
16. Describe the role of water in dehydration and hydrolysis reactions.
17. What is a reversible reaction? How does this type of reaction lead
to chemical equilibrium?
18. What are oxidation-reduction reactions?
Predict 5
When hydrogen gas combines with oxygen gas to form water, is the
hydrogen reduced or oxidized? Explain.
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work—that is, to move matter.
Energy can be subdivided into potential energy and kinetic energy.
­Potential energy is stored energy that could do work but is not
doing so. Kinetic (ki-net′ik) energy is the form of energy that
is actually doing work and moving matter. A ball held at arm’s
length above the floor has potential energy. No energy is expended
as long as the ball does not move. However, if the ball is released
and falls toward the floor, it has kinetic energy.
According to the conservation of energy principle, the total
energy of the universe is constant. Therefore, energy is neither
­created nor destroyed, but it can take on different forms. For
example, the potential energy in the ball is converted into kinetic
energy as the ball falls toward the floor. Conversely, the kinetic energy
required to raise the ball from the floor is converted back into
potential energy.
Potential and kinetic energy exist in many different forms. Here
we consider mechanical, chemical, and heat energy. Mechanical
energy results from the position or movement of objects. Many of
the activities of the human body, such as moving a limb, breathing,
and circulating blood, involve mechanical energy.
Chemical Energy
The chemical energy of a substance is the potential energy stored
within its chemical bonds. In any chemical reaction, the potential
energy in the chemical bonds of the reactants can be compared
with the potential energy in the chemical bonds of the products.
If the potential energy in the reactants is less than that in the
products, energy must be supplied for the reaction to occur. An
example is the synthesis of ATP from ADP:
ADP + H2PO4− + Energy ATP + H2O
(Less potential (More potential
energy in reactants) energy in products)
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For simplicity, the H2O is often not shown in this reaction, and
Pi is used to represent inorganic phosphate (H2PO4−). For this reac-
tion to occur, bonds in H2PO4− are broken, and bonds are formed
in ATP and H2O. As a result of the breaking of existing bonds, the
formation of new bonds, and the input of energy, these products
have more potential energy than the reactants (figure 2.10a).
If the potential energy in the chemical bonds of the reactants
is greater than that of the products, the reaction releases energy.
For example, the chemical bonds of food molecules contain more
potential energy than the waste products that are produced when
food molecules are decomposed. The energy released from the
chemical bonds of food molecules is used by living systems to
synthesize ATP. Once ATP is produced, the breakdown of ATP to
ADP results in the release of energy:
−
ATP + H2O ADP + H2PO4 + Energy
(More potential (Less potential
energy in reactants) energy in products)
For this reaction to occur, the bonds in ATP and H2O are
broken and bonds in H2PO4− are formed. As a result of breaking
the existing bonds and forming new bonds, these products have
less potential energy than the reactants, and energy is released
(figure 2.10b). Note that there are two quantities of energy in this
reaction. The first is energy required to break the reactant chemical
bonds. The second is energy released from those chemical bonds,
which yields the net release of energy in the reaction. Thus, break-
down of ATP results in the net release of energy when the overall
reaction is considered. The energy released when ATP is broken
down can be used to synthesize other molecules, to do work (such
as muscle contraction), or to produce heat.
REACTANT PRODUCTS
ATP ADP + Pi + Energy
More potential Less potential
energy energy
(a)
REACTANTS PRODUCT
ADP + Pi + Energy ATP
Less potential More potential
energy energy
(b)
Figure 2.10    Energy and Chemical Reactions
In the two reactions shown here, the larger “sunburst” represents greater potential
energy and the smaller “sunburst” represents less potential energy. (a) Energy is
released as a result of the breakdown of ATP. (b) The input of energy is required
for the synthesis of ATP.
van03636_ch02.indd 35
CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 35
Heat Energy
Heat energy is the energy that flows between objects that are at
different temperatures. Temperature is a measure of how hot or
cold a substance is relative to another substance. Heat is always
transferred from a hotter object to a cooler object, such as from a
hot stove top to a finger.
All other forms of energy can be converted into heat energy.
For example, when a moving object comes to rest, its kinetic
energy is converted into heat energy by friction. Some of the
potential energy of chemical bonds is released as heat energy during
chemical reactions. Human body temperature is maintained by heat
produced as a by-product of chemical reactions.
Predict 6
Energy from the breakdown of ATP provides the kinetic energy for muscle
movement. Why does body temperature increase during exercise?
Speed of Chemical Reactions
Molecules are constantly in motion and therefore have kinetic
energy. A chemical reaction occurs only when molecules with
sufficient kinetic energy collide with each other. As two molecules
move closer together, the negatively charged electron cloud of
one molecule repels the negatively charged electron cloud of the
other molecule. If the molecules have sufficient kinetic energy,
they overcome this repulsion and come together. The nuclei in
some atoms attract the electrons of other atoms, resulting in
the breaking and formation of new chemical bonds. Activation
energy is the minimum amount of energy that the reactants must
have to start a chemical reaction (figure 2.11). Even reactions that
release energy must overcome the activation energy barrier for the
reaction to proceed. For example, heat in the form of a spark is
required to start the reaction between oxygen and gasoline vapor.
Once some oxygen molecules react with gasoline, the energy
released can start additional reactions.
Progress
of reaction
without EA
enzyme without EA with
enzyme enzyme
is lower
Reactants
Free energy
Progress of
reaction with
enzyme
Products
Progress of the reaction
Figure 2.11  Activation Energy and Enzymes
Activation energy is required to initiate chemical reactions. Without an enzyme,
a chemical reaction can proceed, but it needs more energy input. Enzymes
lower the activation energy, making it easier for the reaction to proceed.
12-10-01 11:45 AM
 36 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body
Given any population of molecules, some of them have more
kinetic energy and move about faster than others. Even so, at normal
body temperatures, most of the chemical reactions necessary for
life proceed too slowly to support life because few molecules have
enough energy to start a chemical reaction. Catalysts (kat′ă-listz)
are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without
being permanently changed or depleted themselves. ­Enzymes
(en′zīmz), which are discussed in greater detail later in the chapter,
are proteins that act as catalysts. Enzymes increase the rate of
chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy necessary
for the reaction to begin (figure 2.11). As a result, more molecules
have sufficient energy to undergo chemical reactions. An enzyme
allows the rate of a chemical reaction to take place more than a
million times faster than it would without the enzyme.
Temperature can also affect the speed of chemical reactions. As
temperature increases, reactants have more kinetic energy, move at
faster speeds, and collide with one another more frequently and with
greater force, thereby increasing the likelihood of a chemical reac-
tion. For example, when a person has a fever of only a few degrees,
reactions occur throughout the body at an accelerated rate, increasing
activity in the organ systems, such as the heart and respiratory rates.
When body temperature drops, various metabolic processes slow. For
example, in cold weather, the fingers are less agile, largely because
of the reduced rate of chemical reactions in cold muscle tissue.
Within limits, the greater the concentration of the reactants,
the greater the rate at which a given chemical reaction proceeds.
This is true because, as the concentration of reactants increases,
they are more likely to come into contact with one another. For
example, the normal concentration of oxygen inside cells enables
oxygen to come into contact with other molecules and produce
the chemical reactions necessary for life. If the oxygen concentration
decreases, the rate of chemical reactions decreases. A decrease in
oxygen in cells can impair cell function and even result in death.
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
19. Define energy. How are potential and kinetic energies different
from each other?
20. Summarize the characteristics of mechanical, chemical, and
heat energies.
21. Use ATP and ADP to illustrate the release or input of energy in
chemical reactions.
22. Define activation energy, catalyst, and enzymes; then explain
how they affect the rate of chemical reactions.
23. What effect does increasing temperature or increasing
concentration of reactants have on the rate of a chemical reaction?
2.3 Inorganic Chemistry
Learning Outcomes
After reading this section, you should be able to
A. Distinguish between inorganic and organic compounds.
B. Describe how the properties of water contribute to its
physiological functions.
van03636_ch02.indd 36
C. Describe the pH scale and its relationship to acidic, basic,
and neutral solutions.
D. Explain the importance of buffers in organisms.
E. Compare the roles of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body.
Inorganic chemistry generally deals with substances that do
not contain carbon, although a more rigorous definition is the
lack of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Organic chemistry is the study
of ­carbon-containing substances, with a few exceptions. For
example, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), which lack C—H bonds, are classified
as inorganic molecules.
Inorganic substances play many vital roles in human anatomy
and physiology. Examples include the oxygen we breathe, the
calcium phosphate that makes up our bones, and the many metals
required for protein functions, ranging from iron in blood gas
transport to zinc in alcohol detoxification. In this section, we dis-
cuss the important roles of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water—all
inorganic molecules—in the body.
Water
Water has remarkable properties due to its polar nature. A mol-
ecule of water is formed when an atom of oxygen forms polar
covalent bonds with two atoms of hydrogen. This gives a partial
positive charge to the hydrogen atoms and a partial negative
charge to the oxygen atom. Because of water’s polarity, hydrogen
bonds form between the positively charged hydrogen atoms of
one water molecule and the negatively charged oxygen atoms
of another water molecule. These hydrogen bonds organize the
water molecules into a lattice, which holds the water molecules
together and are responsible for many unique properties of water
(see figures 2.6 and 2.7). The attraction of water to another water
molecule is called cohesion. An example of cohesion is the surface
tension exhibited when water bulges over the top of a full glass
without spilling over. The same attractive force of hydrogen bonds
with water will also attract other molecules. This process is called
adhesion. The combination of cohesion and adhesion helps hold
cells together and move fluids through the body.
Water accounts for approximately 50% of the weight of a
young adult female and 60% of a young adult male. Females have
a lower percentage of water than males because they typically have
more body fat, which is relatively free of water. Plasma, the liquid
portion of blood, is 92% water. Water has physical and chemical
properties well suited for its many functions in living organisms.
These properties are outlined in the following ­discussion.
Stabilizing Body Temperature
Water can absorb large amounts of heat and remain at a fairly
stable temperature; therefore, it tends to resist large temperature
fluctuations. Because of this property, blood, which is mostly
water, can transfer heat from deep in the body to the surface,
where the heat is released. In addition, when water evaporates, it
changes from a liquid to a gas; because heat is required for that
process, the evaporation of water from the surface of the body rids
the body of excess heat.
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Protection
Water is an effective lubricant that provides protection against
damage resulting from friction. For example, tears protect the
surface of the eye from rubbing of the eyelids. Water also forms a
fluid cushion around organs, helping protect them from trauma.
The cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the brain is an example.
Chemical Reactions
Many of the chemical reactions necessary for life do not take place
unless the reacting molecules are dissolved in water. For example,
sodium chloride must dissociate in water into Na+ and Cl−, which
can then react with other ions. Water also directly participates in
many chemical reactions. As previously mentioned, a dehydration
reaction is a synthesis reaction that produces water, and a hydro-
lysis reaction is a decomposition reaction that requires water (see
figure 2.9).
Mixing Medium
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances physically
blended together, but not chemically combined. A solution is any
mixture of liquids, gases, or solids in which the substances are
uniformly distributed with no clear boundary between them. For
example, a salt solution consists of salt dissolved in water, air is a
solution containing a variety of gases, and wax is a solid solution
composed of several fatty substances. Solutions are often described
in terms of one substance dissolving in another: The solute (sol′ūt)
dissolves in the solvent. In a salt solution, water is the solvent and
the dissolved salt is the solute. Sweat is a salt solution in which
sodium chloride and other solutes are dissolved in water.
A suspension is a mixture containing materials that separate
from each other unless they are continually, physically blended
together. Blood is a suspension—that is, red blood cells are sus-
pended in a liquid called plasma. As long as the red blood cells
and plasma are mixed together as they pass through blood vessels,
the red blood cells remain suspended in the plasma. However, if
the blood is allowed to sit in a container, the red blood cells and
plasma separate from each other.
A colloid (kol′oyd) is a mixture in which a dispersed (solute-
like) substance is distributed throughout a dispersing (solventlike)
substance. The dispersed particles are larger than a simple molecule
but small enough that they remain dispersed and do not settle out.
Proteins, which are large molecules, are common dispersed par-
ticles; proteins and water form colloids. For instance, the plasma
portion of blood and the liquid interior of cells are colloids con-
taining many important proteins.
In living organisms, the complex fluids inside and outside
cells consist of solutions, suspensions, and colloids. Blood is an
example of all of these mixtures. It is a solution containing dis-
solved nutrients, such as sugar; a suspension holding red blood
cells; and a colloid containing proteins.
Water’s ability to mix with other substances enables it to act
as a medium for transport, moving substances from one part of
the body to another. Body fluids, such as plasma, transport nutri-
ents, gases, waste products, and a variety of molecules involved in
regulating body functions.
van03636_ch02.indd 37
CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 37
Solution Concentrations
The concentration of solute particles dissolved in solvents can be
expressed in several ways. One common way is to indicate the
percent of solute by weight per volume of solution. A 10% solu-
tion of sodium chloride can be made by dissolving 10 g of sodium
chloride into enough water to make 100 mL of solution.
Physiologists often determine concentrations in osmoles
(os′mōlz), which express the number of particles in a solution. A
particle can be an atom, an ion, or a molecule. An osmole (Osm) is
Avogadro’s number of particles of a substance in 1 kilogram (kg)
of water. The osmolality (os-mō-lal′i-tē) of a solution reflects the
number, not the type, of particles in a solution. For example, a
1 Osm glucose solution and a 1 Osm NaCl solution both contain
Avogadro’s number of particles per kg of water. The glucose solu-
tion has 1.0 Osm of glucose molecules, whereas the NaCl solution
has 0.5 Osm of Na+ and 0.5 Osm of Cl− because NaCl dissociates
into Na+ and Cl− in water.
Because the concentration of particles in body fluids is so low,
physiologists use the measurement milliosmole (mOsm), 1/1000
of an osmole. Most body fluids have a concentration of about
300 mOsm and contain many different ions and molecules. The
concentration of body fluids is important because it influences the
movement of water into or out of cells (see chapter 3). Appendix C
contains more information on calculating concentrations.
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
24. What is the difference between inorganic and organic chemistry?
25. What two properties of water are the result of hydrogen
bonding, and how are these two properties different?
26. List and briefly describe the four functions that water performs
in living organisms.
27. Using the terms solute and solvent, summarize the properties
of solutions, suspensions, and colloids.
28. How is the osmolality of a solution determined? What is a
milliosmole?
Acids and Bases
The body contains many molecules and compounds, called acids
and bases, that can alter body functions by releasing and binding
protons. A normal balance of acids and bases is maintained by
homeostatic mechanisms involving buffers, the respiratory system,
and the kidneys (see chapter 27).
For most purposes, an acid is defined as a proton donor. A
hydrogen ion (H+) is a proton because it results when an electron
is lost from a hydrogen atom, which consists of a proton and an
electron. Therefore, a molecule or compound that releases H+ is
an acid. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) forms hydrogen ions (H+) and
chloride ions (Cl−) in solution and therefore is an acid:
HCl H+ + Cl−
A base is defined as a proton acceptor, and any substance that
binds to (accepts) H+ is a base. Many bases function as proton accep-
tors by releasing hydroxide ions (OH−) when they dissociate. The
base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissociates to form Na+ and OH−:
NaOH Na+ + OH−
12-10-01 11:45 AM
 38 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

The OH− are proton acceptors that combine with H+ to Concentration in moles/liter
form water: [OH – ] [H +] pH Examples
OH− + H+ H2O
10 –14 — — 10 0 — 0 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Acids and bases are classified as strong or weak. Strong acids
or bases dissociate almost completely when dissolved in water.
10 –13 — — 10 –1 — 1 Stomach acid
Consequently, they release almost all of their H+ or OH−. The more
completely the acid or base dissociates, the stronger it is. For exam-
10 –12 — — 10 –2 — 2 Lemon juice
ple, HCl is a strong acid because it completely dissociates in water:

Increasing acidity
HCl H+ + Cl− 10 –11 — — 10 –3 — 3 Vinegar, cola, beer
Not easily reversible
Weak acids or bases only partially dissociate in water. 10 –10 — — 10 –4 — 4 Tomatoes
Consequently, they release only some of their H+ or OH−. For
example, when acetic acid (CH3COOH) is dissolved in water, some 10 –9 — — 10 –5 — 5 Black coffee
of it dissociates, but some of it remains in the undissociated form.
An equilibrium is established between the ions and the undissoci- 10 –8 — — 10 –6 — 6 Urine
Saliva (6.5)
ated weak acid:
10 –7 — Neutral — 10 –7 — 7 Distilled water
CH3COOH CH3COO− + H+ Blood (7.4)
Easily reversible
10 –6 — — 10 –8 — 8 Seawater
For a given weak acid or base, the amount of the dissociated
ions relative to the weak acid or base is a constant. 10 –5 — — 10 –9 — 9 Baking soda

Increasing alkalinity (basicity)

The pH Scale 10 –4 — — 10 –10 — 10 Great Salt Lake
The pH scale is a means of referring to the H+ concentration in
a solution (figure 2.12). The scale ranges from 0 to 14. A neutral 10 –3 — — 10 –11 — 11 Household ammonia
solution has equal concentrations of H+ and OH−; pure water is
considered a neutral solution and has a pH of 7. Solutions with a 10 –2 — — 10 –12 — 12 Soda ash
pH less than 7 are acidic and have a greater concentration of H+
than OH−. Solutions with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline (al′kă- 10 –1 — — 10 –13 — 13 Oven cleaner
līn), or basic, and have fewer H+ than OH−.
A change in the pH of a solution by 1 pH unit represents a 10 0 — — 10 –14 — 14 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
­10-fold change in the H+ concentration. For example, a solution
of pH 6 has a H+ concentration 10 times greater than a solution of
Figure 2.12  The pH Scale
pH 7 and 100 times greater than a solution of pH 8. As the pH A pH of 7 is considered neutral. Values less than 7 are acidic (the lower  
value becomes smaller, the solution has more H+ and is more the number, the more acidic). Values greater than 7 are basic (the higher  
acidic; as the pH value becomes larger, the solution has fewer H+ the number, the more basic). Representative fluids and their approximate  
and is more basic. Appendix D considers pH in greater detail. pH values are listed.
The normal pH range for human blood is 7.35 to 7.45.
­Acidosis results if blood pH drops below 7.35, in which case
the nervous system becomes depressed and the individual may Typically, when salts such as sodium chloride dissociate in ­water,
become disoriented and possibly comatose. Alkalosis results if they form positively and negatively charged ions (see ­figure 2.8).
blood pH rises above 7.45. Then the nervous system becomes
overexcitable, and the individual may become extremely nervous Buffers
or have convulsions. Both acidosis and alkalosis can be fatal. The chemical behavior of many molecules changes as the pH of
the solution in which they are dissolved changes. For example,
Salts many enzymes work best within narrow ranges of pH. The
A salt is a compound consisting of a cation other than H+ and ­survival of an organism depends on its ability to maintain homeo-
an anion other than OH−. Salts are formed by the interaction of stasis by keeping body fluid pH within a narrow range. Deviations
an acid and a base in which the H+ of the acid are replaced by from the normal pH range for human blood are life-threatening.
the positive ions of the base. For example, in a solution in which One way body fluid pH is regulated involves the use of buffers.
hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with the base sodium hydroxide Buffers are chemicals that resist changes in pH when either acids or
(NaOH), the salt sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed: bases are added to a solution. For example, when an acid is added
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O to a buffered solution, the buffer binds to the H+, preventing these
(Acid) (Base) (Salt) (Water) ions from causing a decrease in the pH of the solution (figure 2.13).

van03636_ch02.indd 38 12-10-01 11:45 AM


Acidic Acidic
solution solution
Increased H+ Buffer removes H+
Decreased pH Resists change in pH
H+ B B
H+
H+ H+ H+ B H2PO4−
H+ B
H+
H+ H+
B H+ B H+
(a) (b)
Figure 2.13  Buffers
(a) The addition of an acid to a nonbuffered solution results in an increase of
H+ and a decrease in pH. (b) The addition of an acid to a buffered solution
results in a much smaller change in pH. The added H+ bind to the buffer
(symbolized by the letter B).
Important buffers in living systems are composed of bicar-
bonate, phosphates, amino acids, and proteins. Buffers prevent
large changes in pH values by acting as ­conjugate acid-base pairs.
A conjugate base is what remains of an acid after the H+ (proton)
is lost. A conjugate acid is formed when a H+ is transferred to the
conjugate base. Two substances related in this way are a conjugate
acid-base pair.
A major buffer in our body fluids is the bicarbonate system.
A bicarbonate ion (HCO3−) is formed by the dissociation of car-
bonic acid (H2CO3).
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3−
Carbonic acid and bicarbonate are a conjugate acid-base pair.
The sodium salt of bicarbonate, also known as baking soda, is an
active ingredient in some antacids taken to reduce stomach acidity.
In the forward reaction, H2CO3 loses a H+ to produce HCO3−,
which is a conjugate base. In the reverse reaction, a H+ is trans-
ferred to the HCO3− (conjugate base) to produce H2CO3, which
is a conjugate acid.
For a given condition, this reversible reaction results in
an equilibrium, in which the amounts of H2CO3 relative to the
amounts of H+ and HCO3− remain constant. The conjugate acid-
base pair can resist changes in pH because of this equilibrium. If
an acid is added to a buffer, the H+ from the added acid can com-
bine with the base component of the conjugate acid-base pair. As
a result, the concentration of H+ does not increase as much as it
would without this reaction. If H+ is added to a H2CO3 solution,
many of the H+ combine with HCO3− to form H2CO3.
On the other hand, if a base is added to a buffered solution, the
conjugate acid can release H+ to counteract the effects of the added
base. For example, if OH− are added to a H2CO3 solution, the OH−
combine with H+ to form water. As the H+ are incorporated into
water, H2CO3 dissociates to form H+ and HCO3−, thereby main-
taining the H+ concentration (pH) within a normal range.
van03636_ch02.indd 39
CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 39
The greater the buffer concentration, the more effectively it
can resist a change in pH; however, buffers cannot entirely prevent
some change in the pH of a solution. For example, when an acid
is added to a buffered solution, the pH decreases, but not to the
extent it would have without the buffer.
Predict 7
Dihydrogen phosphate ion (H2PO4−) and monohydrogen phosphate ion
(HPO42−) form the phosphate buffer system. Identify the conjugate acid
and the conjugate base in the phosphate buffer system:
H+ + HPO42−
Explain how they function as a buffer when either H+ or OH− are added to
the solution.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen (O2) is an inorganic molecule consisting of two oxygen
atoms bound together by a double covalent bond. About 21% of the
gas in the atmosphere is oxygen, and it is essential for most living
organisms. Humans require oxygen in the final step of a series of
reactions that extract energy from food molecules (see chapter 25).
Carbon dioxide (CO2) consists of one carbon atom bound
to two oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom is bound to the carbon
atom by a double covalent bond. Carbon dioxide is produced
when organic molecules, such as glucose, are metabolized within
the cells of the body (see chapter 25). Much of the energy stored
in the covalent bonds of glucose is transferred to other organic
molecules when glucose is broken down and carbon dioxide is
released. Once carbon dioxide is produced, it is eliminated from
the cell as a metabolic by-product, transferred to the lungs by the
blood, and exhaled during respiration. If carbon dioxide is allowed
to accumulate within cells, it becomes toxic.
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
29. Define acid and base, and describe the ph scale.
30. What is the difference between a strong acid or base and a
weak acid or base?
31. The blood ph of a patient is 7.30. What condition does this
patient have, and what are the symptoms?
32. How are salts related to acids and bases?
33. What is a buffer, and why are buffers important in the body?
34. What is a conjugate acid-base pair?
35. What are the functions of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
living systems?
2.4  Organic Chemistry
Learning Outcomes
After reading this section, you should be able to
A. Describe the structural organization and major functions
of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
12-10-01 11:45 AM
 40 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

Table 2.5 Major Functional Groups of Organic Compounds

Name and Structural Formula* Functional Significance
Hydroxyl Alcohols contain a hydroxyl group, which is polar and hydrophilic. Hydroxyl groups greatly increase the
solubility of molecules in water.
R O H

Sulfhydryl Thiols have a sulfhydryl group, which is polar and hydrophilic.The amino acid cysteine contains a sulfhydryl
group that can form a disulfide bond with another cysteine to help stabilize protein structure.
R S H

Carbonyl Ketones and aldehydes have a carbonyl group, which is polar and hydrophilic. Ketones contain a carbonyl
O group within the carbon chain. Ketones are formed during normal metabolism, but they can be elevated in
the blood during starvation or certain diabetic states. Aldehydes are similar to ketones, but they have the
R C R carbonyl group at the end of the carbon chain.

Carboxyl Carboxylic acids have a carboxyl group, which is hydrophilic and can act as an acid by donating a hydrogen
O ion. All amino acids have a carboxyl group at one end. At physiological pH, the amino acid carboxyl group  
is predominantly negatively charged.
R C OH

Ester Esters are structures with an ester group, which is less hydrophilic than hydroxyl or carboxyl groups.
O Triglycerides and dietary fats are esters. Other types of esters include the volatile compounds in perfumes.

R C O R

Amino Amines have an amino group, which is less hydrophilic than carboxyl groups. Amines can act as a base by
H accepting a hydrogen ion. All amino acids have an amine group at one end. At physiological pH, the amino
acid amine group is predominantly positively charged.
R N

Phosphate Phosphates have a phosphate group, which is very hydrophilic due to the double negative charge. Phosphates
O are used as an energy source (adenosine triphosphate), in biological membranes (phospholipids), and as
intracellular signaling molecules (protein phosphorylation).
R O P O-

O-

*R = variable group.

B. Explain how enzymes work. Carbohydrates

C. Describe the roles of nucleotides in the structures and
functions of DNA, RNA, and ATP.
Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms makes
possible the formation of the large, diverse, complicated molecules
necessary for life. Carbon atoms bound together by covalent
bonds constitute the “backbone” of many large molecules. Two
mechanisms that allow the formation of a wide variety of mol-
ecules are (1) variation in the length of the carbon chains and
(2) the combination of the atoms involved. For example, some
protein molecules have thousands of carbon atoms bound by
covalent bonds to one another or to other atoms, such as nitrogen,
sulfur, hydrogen, and oxygen. Selected major functional groups of
organic compounds are listed in table 2.5.
The four major groups of organic molecules essential to
living organisms are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids. In addition, a high energy form of a nucleic acid building
block, called ATP, is an important organic molecule in cellular
processes. Each of these groups and ATP have specific structural
and functional characteristics.
Carbohydrates are composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms and range in size from small to very large. In most
carbohydrates, there are approximately two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom for each carbon atom. Note that this two-to-one
ratio is the same as in water (H2O). The molecules are called car-
bohydrates because carbon (carbo) atoms are combined with the
same atoms that form water (hydrated). The large number of oxygen
atoms in carbohydrates makes them relatively polar molecules.
Consequently, they are soluble in polar solvents, such as water.
Carbohydrates are important parts of other organic molecules,
and they can be broken down to provide the energy necessary for
life. Undigested carbohydrates also provide bulk in feces, which
helps maintain the normal function and health of the digestive tract.
Table 2.6 summarizes the role of carbohydrates in the body.
Monosaccharides
Large carbohydrates are composed of numerous, relatively simple
building blocks called monosaccharides (mon-ō-sak′ă-rīdz; mono-,
one + saccharide, sugar), or simple sugars. Monosaccharides

van03636_ch02.indd 40 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 41

people with diabetes, the body is unable to regulate glucose levels

Table 2.6 Role of Carbohydrates in the Body
Role Example
Structure Ribose forms part of RNA and ATP molecules, and  
deoxyribose forms part of DNA.
Energy Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) can be
used as energy sources. Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose,
maltose) and polysaccharides (starch, glycogen) must
be broken down to monosaccharides before they can
be used for energy. Glycogen is an important energy-
storage molecule in muscles and in the liver.
Bulk Cellulose forms bulk in the feces.
commonly contain 3 carbons (trioses), 4 carbons (tetroses), 5 car-
bons (pentoses), or 6 carbons (hexoses).
The monosaccharides most important to humans include
both 5- and 6-carbon sugars. Common 6-carbon sugars, such as
glucose, fructose, and galactose, are isomers (ī′sō-merz), which
are molecules that have the same number and types of atoms
but differ in their three-dimensional arrangement (figure 2.14).
Glucose, or blood sugar, is the major carbohydrate in the blood
and a major nutrient for most cells of the body. Blood glucose
levels are tightly regulated by insulin and other hormones. In
properly. Diabetics need to monitor their blood glucose carefully
to minimize the deleterious effects of this disease. Fructose and
galactose are also important dietary nutrients. Important 5-carbon
sugars include ribose and deoxyribose (see figure 2.24), which are
components of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), respectively.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides (dī-sak′ă-rīdz; di-, two) are composed of two
simple sugars bound together through a dehydration reaction.
Glucose and fructose, for example, combine to form a disaccharide
called sucrose (table sugar) plus a molecule of water (figure 2.15a).
Several disaccharides are important to humans, including sucrose,
lactose, and maltose. Lactose, or milk sugar, is glucose combined
with galactose; maltose, or malt sugar, is two glucose molecules
joined together.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (pol-ē-sak′ă-rīdz; poly-, many) consist of many
monosaccharides bound together to form long chains that are
either straight or branched. Glycogen, or animal starch, is a poly-
saccharide composed of many glucose molecules (figure  2.15b).
Because glucose can be metabolized rapidly and the resulting

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O
HO
HO OH OH
HO CH2OH HO OH OH

OH OH OH

H H H

H C OH C O C O
Structural isomer Stereoisomer
C O H C OH H C OH

HO C H HO C H HO C H

H C OH H C OH HO C H

H C OH H C OH H C OH

H C OH H C OH H C OH

H H H

Fructose Glucose Galactose

(C6H12O6) (C6H12O6) (C6H12O6)

Figure 2.14  Monosaccharides

These monosaccharides almost always form a ring-shaped molecule. Although not labeled with a C, carbon atoms are located at the corners of the ring-shaped
molecules. Linear models readily illustrate the relationships between the atoms of the molecules. Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose because it has identical
chemical groups bonded in a different arrangement in the molecule (red shading). Galactose is a stereoisomer of glucose because it has exactly the same groups
bonded to each carbon atom but located in a different three-dimensional orientation (yellow shading).

van03636_ch02.indd 41 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 42 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O
+
OH HO OH HO
O
HO OH HO CH2OH HO CH2OH
H2O
OH OH OH OH
(a) Glucose Fructose Sucrose

Glycogen
granules

O
OH

CH2OH
OH

Branch
O
OH

CH2OH

Nucleus
OH

TEM 32000x
(c)
O

CH2OH CH2 CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O O

O OH O OH O OH O OH O OH O

OH OH OH OH OH
(b)

Glycogen main chain

Figure 2.15  Carbohydrates

(a) Sucrose, a disaccharide, forms by a dehydration reaction involving glucose and fructose (monosaccharides). (b) Glycogen is a polysaccharide formed by combining
many glucose molecules. (c) The transmission electron micrograph shows glycogen granules in a liver cell.

ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS

energy can be used by cells, glycogen is an important energy-
storage molecule. A substantial amount of the glucose that is
metabolized to produce energy for muscle contraction during
exercise is stored in the form of glycogen in the cells of the liver
and skeletal muscles.
Starch and cellulose are two important polysaccharides
found in plants, and both are composed of long chains of glucose.
Plants use starch as an energy-storage molecule in the same way
that animals use glycogen, and cellulose is an important struc-
tural component of plant cell walls. When humans ingest plants,
the starch can be broken down and used as an energy source.
Humans, however, do not have the digestive enzymes necessary
to break down cellulose. Cellulose is eliminated in the feces, where
it provides bulk.
36. Why is carbon such a versatile element?
37. What is the building block of carbohydrates? What are isomers?
38. List the 5- and 6-carbon sugars that are important to humans.
39. What are disaccharides and polysaccharides, and what type of
reaction is used to make them?
40. Which carbohydrates are used for energy? What is the function
of starch and cellulose in plants? What is the function of
glycogen and cellulose in animals?
Lipids
Lipids are a second major group of organic molecules common to
living systems. Like carbohydrates, they are composed principally
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but some lipids contain small

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 CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 43

amounts of other elements, such as phosphorus and nitrogen.

Lipids have a lower ratio of oxygen to carbon than do carbohydrates,
which makes them less polar. Consequently, lipids can be dis-
solved in nonpolar organic solvents, such as alcohol or acetone,
but they are relatively insoluble in water.
Lipids have many important functions in the body (table 2.7).
They provide protection and insulation, help regulate many physi-
ological processes, and form plasma membranes. In addition, lipids
are major energy-storage molecules and can be broken down and
used as a source of energy. Several kinds of molecules, such as fats,
phospholipids, eicosanoids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins, are
classified as lipids.
Fats are a major type of lipid. Like carbohydrates, the fats
humans ingest are broken down by hydrolysis reactions in cells
to release energy for use by those cells. Conversely, if fat intake
exceeds need, excess chemical energy from any source can be
stored in the body as fat for later use. Fats also provide protection
by surrounding and padding organs, and under-the-skin fats act
as an insulator to prevent heat loss.
Triglycerides (trī-glis′er-īdz) constitute 95% of the fats in
the human body. Triglycerides consist of two different types of
building blocks: one glycerol and three fatty acids. Glycerol is a
3-­carbon molecule with a hydroxyl group attached to each ­carbon
atom, and each fatty acid consists of a straight chain of carbon
atoms with a carboxyl group attached at one end (figure 2.16). A
carboxyl (kar-bok′sil) group (   COOH) consists of both an oxy-
gen atom and a hydroxyl group attached to a carbon atom:
O O
C OH or HO C acids, and triglycerides have three fatty acids bound to glycerol.
Table 2.7 Role of Lipids in the Body
Role Example
Protection Fat surrounds and pads organs.
Insulation Fat under the skin prevents heat loss. Myelin surrounds
nerve cells and electrically insulates the cells from  
one another.
Regulation Steroid hormones regulate many physiological processes.
For example, estrogen and testosterone are the  
reproductive hormones responsible for many of the  
differences between males and females. Prostaglandins
help regulate tissue inflammation and repair.
Vitamins Fat-soluble vitamins perform a variety of functions.  
Vitamin A forms retinol, which is necessary for seeing  
in the dark; active vitamin D promotes calcium uptake
by the small intestine; vitamin E promotes wound  
healing; and vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis  
of proteins responsible for blood clotting.
Structure Phospholipids and cholesterol are important components
of the membranes of cells.
Energy Lipids can be stored and broken down later for energy;
per unit of weight, they yield more energy than  
carbohydrates or proteins.
The carboxyl group is responsible for the acidic nature of the
molecule because it releases hydrogen ions into solution. Glycerides
can be described according to the number and kinds of fatty
acids that combine with glycerol through dehydration reactions.
Monoglycerides have one fatty acid, diglycerides have two fatty

H O H H H H H H O H H H H H

H–C–OH HO – C – C – C – C – C – C – H H–C–O C – C – C –C – C – C– H

H H H H H H H H H H

O H H H H H O H H H H H
Enzymes
H–C–OH HO – C – C – C – C – C – C – H H–C–O C – C – C –C – C – C– H

H H H H H 3 H2O H H H H H

O H H H H H O H H H H H

H–C–OH HO – C – C – C – C – C – C – H H–C–O C – C – C –C – C – C– H

H H H H H H H H H H H H
Fatty acids

Glycerol Triglyceride molecule

Figure 2.16  Triglyceride

A triglyceride is produced from one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules. One water molecule (H2O) is given off for each covalent bond formed ­between
a fatty acid molecule and glycerol.

van03636_ch02.indd 43 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 44 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

between carbon atoms. Polyunsaturated fats,

O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
such as safflower, sunflower, corn, and fish oils,
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
HO— C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C —H have two or more double covalent bonds between
carbon atoms. Unsaturated fats are the best type of
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H fats in the diet because, unlike saturated fats, they
Palmitic acid (saturated) do not contribute to the development of cardio-
(a)
vascular disease.
Trans fats are unsaturated fats that have been
O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H chemically altered by the addition of H atoms. The
process makes the fats more saturated and hence
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
HO— C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — C — — C — C — C— — C — C — C— — C — C — C —H more solid and stable (longer shelf-life). However,
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

H H H H H H H H H
Linolenic acid (unsaturated)
(b)
Figure 2.17  Fatty Acids
(a) Palmitic acid is saturated (having no double bonds between the carbons). (b) Linolenic acid is
unsaturated (having three double bonds between the carbons). For clarity, the kinks at the double
covalent bonds are not shown.
Fatty acids differ from one another according to the length
and the degree of saturation of their carbon chains. Most naturally
occurring fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms,
with 14- to 18-carbon chains the most common. Saturation refers
to the number of hydrogen atoms in the carbon chain. A fatty
acid is ­saturated if it contains only single covalent bonds between
the carbon atoms (figure 2.17a). Sources of saturated fats include
beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, butter, eggs, coconut oil, and palm
oil. The carbon chain is unsaturated if it has one or more double
covalent bonds between carbon atoms (figure 2.17b). The double
covalent bond introduces a kink into the carbon chain, which
tends to keep them liquid at room temperature. Monounsaturated
fats, such as olive and peanut oils, have one double covalent bond
—
—
the double covalent bonds that do not become satu-
H H
rated are changed from the usual cis configuration
(H on the same side of the double bond) to a trans
configuration (H on different sides.) This change in
structure makes the consumption of trans fats an
even greater factor than saturated fats in the risk for
cardiovascular disease.
Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides,
except that one of the fatty acids bound to the
glycerol is replaced by a molecule ­containing
phosphate and, usually, nitrogen (figure 2.18). A phospholipid is
polar at the end of the molecule to which the phosphate is bound
and nonpolar at the other end. The polar end of the molecule is
attracted to water and is said to be hydrophilic (water-loving).
The nonpolar end is repelled by water and is said to be hydro-
phobic (water-fearing). Phospholipids are important structural
components of the membranes of cells (see figure 3.2).
The eicosanoids (ī′kō-să-noydz) are a group of important
chemicals derived from fatty acids. They include prostaglan-
dins (pros′tā-glan′dinz), thromboxanes (throm′bok-zānz), and
­leukotrienes (loo-kō-trī′ēnz). Eicosanoids are made in most cells
and are important regulatory molecules. Among their numer-
ous effects is their role in the response of tissues to injuries.

Nitrogen
Polar (hydrophilic) region
(phosphate-
Phosphorus containing region)

Oxygen

Carbon

Hydrogen
Nonpolar (hydrophobic) region
(fatty acids)

(a) (b)

Figure 2.18  Phospholipids

(a) A molecular model of a phospholipid. The bent carbon chain indicates a kink from a double covalent bond. (b) A simplified depiction of a phospholipid.

van03636_ch02.indd 44 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 45

Prostaglandins have been implicated in regulating the secretion of
certain hormones, blood clotting, some reproductive functions, and
many other processes. Many of the therapeutic effects of aspirin and
other anti-inflammatory drugs result from their ability to inhibit
prostaglandin synthesis.
Steroids differ in chemical structure from other lipid mol-
ecules, but their solubility characteristics are similar. All steroid
molecules are composed of carbon atoms bound together into
four ringlike structures (figure 2.19). Important steroid molecules
include cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen, progesterone, and tes-
tosterone. Cholesterol is an especially important steroid because
other steroid molecules are synthesized from it. For example, bile
salts, which increase fat absorption in the intestines, are derived
from cholesterol, as are the reproductive hormones estrogen, pro-
gesterone, and testosterone. In addition, cholesterol is an impor-
tant component of plasma membranes. Although high levels of
cholesterol in the blood increase the risk for cardiovascular dis-
ease, a certain amount of cholesterol is vital for normal function.
Another class of lipids is the fat-soluble vitamins. Their
structures are not closely related to one another, but they are non-
polar molecules essential for many normal body functions.
ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
41. State six roles of lipids in the body, and give an example of each.
42. What is the most common fat in the body, and what are its basic
building blocks?
43. What is the difference between a saturated fat and an unsaturated
fat? What is a trans fat?
44. Describe the structure of a phospholipid. Which end of the
molecule is hydrophilic? Explain why.
45. What are three examples of eicosanoids and their general
functions?
46. Why is cholesterol an important steroid?
Proteins
All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
bound together by covalent bonds, and most proteins contain
some sulfur. In addition, some proteins contain small amounts of
phosphorus, iron, and iodine. The molecular mass of proteins can
be very large. For the purpose of comparison, the molecular mass
of water is approximately 18, sodium chloride 58, and glucose 180,
but the molecular mass of proteins ranges from approximately
1000 to several million.
Proteins regulate body processes, act as a transportation
system, provide protection, help muscles contract, and provide
structure and energy. Table 2.8 summarizes the role of proteins in
the body.
Protein Structure
The basic building blocks for proteins are the 20 amino (ă-mē′nō)
acid molecules. Each amino acid has an amine (ă-mēn′) group
( NH2), a carboxyl group ( COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a
side chain designated by the symbol R attached to the same carbon
atom. The side chain can be a variety of chemical structures, and
the differences in the side chains make the amino acids different
from one another (figure 2.20).

CH3
CH3
CH CH2CH2CH2CH OH
CH3 CH3 CH3

CH3

Cholesterol

HO HO
Estrogen (estradiol)

CH3
O
CH CH2CH2 C NH CH2 C OH
OH
CH3 O– CH3
O

CH3 CH3

HO OH O
Bile salt (glycocholate) Testosterone

Figure 2.19  Steroids

Steroids are four-ringed molecules that differ from one another according to the groups attached to the rings. Cholesterol, the most common steroid, can be modified to
produce other steroids.

van03636_ch02.indd 45 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 46 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

TABLe 2.8 Role of Proteins in the Body

Role example
Regulation enzymes control chemical reactions. Hormones regulate many physiological processes; for example, insulin aff ects glucose transport into cells.
Transport Hemoglobin transports oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. Plasma proteins transport many substances in the blood. Proteins in plasma 
membranes control the movement of materials into and out of the cell.
Protection Antibodies protect against microorganisms and other foreign substances.
Contraction Actin and myosin in muscle are responsible for muscle contraction.
Structure Collagen fi bers form a structural framework in many parts of the body. Keratin adds strength to skin, hair, and nails.
energy Proteins can be broken down for energy; per unit of weight, they yield as much energy as carbohydrates do.

R
H R H R O
The general structure of an amino acid H2N C C OH O
showing the amine group ( NH2), N C C N C C
carboxyl group ( COOH), and hydrogen H O OH
atom highlighted in yellow. The R side H H H H OH
chain is the part of an amino acid that
makes it different from other amino acids. Amine Carboxyl Amino acid 1 Amino acid 2
group group
H H2O

H2N C C OH
Glycine is the simplest amino acid. The H R O R
side chain is a hydrogen atom. H O O
N C C N C C
*O\FLQH OH
H H H H
OH

Peptide bond
(joins two amino acids together)
Tyrosine, which has a more complicated
side chain, is an important
component of thyroid hormones. CH2
FiguRe 2.21 Peptide Bond
H2N C C OH
A dehydration reaction between two amino acids forms a dipeptide and
H O a water molecule. The covalent bond between the amino acids is called a 
peptide bond.
Tyrosine

Improper metabolism of
phenylalanine in the genetic disease
phenylketonuria (PKU) can cause
mental retardation.
Aspartic acid combined with
phenylalanine forms the artificial
sweetener aspartame (NutrasweetTM and
EqualTM).
FiguRe 2.20 Amino Acids
Covalent bonds formed between amino acid molecules during
CH2 protein synthesis are called peptide bonds (figure 2.21). A dipeptide
H2N C C OH is two amino acids bound together by a peptide bond, a tripeptide
is three amino acids bound together by peptide bonds, and a
H O polypeptide is many amino acids bound together by peptide bonds.
Phenylalanine Proteins are polypeptides composed of hundreds of amino acids.
O OH The primary structure of a protein is determined by the
C sequence of the amino acids bound by peptide bonds (figure 2.22a).
The potential number of different protein molecules is enormous
CH2
because 20 different amino acids exist and each amino acid can
H2N C C OH be located at any position along a polypeptide chain. The char-
acteristics of the amino acids in a protein ultimately determine
H O
the three-dimensional shape of the protein, and the shape of the
Aspartic acid
protein determines its function. A change in one or a few amino
acids in the primary structure can alter protein function, usually
making the protein less functional or even nonfunctional.

van03636_ch02.indd 46 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 FUNDAMeNTAL Figure

H H
N Amino acids Peptide bond

HO O
(a) Primary structure — the amino acid
sequence. A protein consists of a chain C
of different amino acids (represented by
different colored spheres).

C C
H N C O H
C
C N
C O H N
C
C C H HO
N C
N H O C
N C C
O C N H
O
C
H O
C C
C H
H N C O
N C
(b) Secondary structure results from C N
O
hydrogen bonding (dotted red lines). The C O H N
C
hydrogen bonds cause the amino acid H HO
C C
chain to form pleated (folded) sheets or N C
N H O C N C
helices (coils). C O
O C N H C
HO
C C C H
N C
H N C O C N
O
Pleated sheet C O H N Helix O
C C

(c) Tertiary structure with secondary folding

caused by interactions within the polypeptide
and its immediate environment

(d) Quaternary structure — the relationships

between individual subunits

FiguRe 2.22 Protein Structure

47

van03636_ch02.indd 47 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 48 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

Molecule A Molecule B
The secondary structure results from the folding or bending
of the polypeptide chain caused by the hydrogen bonds ­between
amino acids (figure 2.22b). Two common shapes that result are
pleated (folded) sheets and helices (sing. helix, coil). If the hydrogen Enzyme
bonds that maintain the shape of the protein are broken, the protein
becomes nonfunctional. This change in shape is called denaturation,
and it can be caused by a­ bnormally high temperatures or changes in
the pH of body fluids. An everyday example of denaturation is the
change in the proteins of egg whites when they are cooked.
The tertiary structure results from large-scale folding of
the protein driven by interactions within the protein and with the
immediate environment (figure 2.22c). These interactions allow the
pleated sheets and helices of the secondary structure to be arranged
and organized relative to each other. Some amino acids are quite
polar and therefore form hydrogen bonds with water. The polar New molecule AB
portions of proteins tend to remain unfolded, maximizing their
contact with water, whereas the less polar regions tend to fold into
a globular shape, minimizing their contact with water. The formation
of covalent bonds between sulfur atoms located at different locations
along the polypeptide chain produces disulfide bridges that hold
different regions of the protein together in the tertiary structure. Figure 2.23  Enzyme Action
The enzyme brings the two reacting molecules together. After the reaction, the
The tertiary structure determines the shape of a domain, which is unaltered enzyme can be used again.
a folded sequence of 100–200 amino acids within a protein. The
functions of proteins occur at one or more domains. Therefore,
To be functional, some enzymes require additional, nonprotein
changes in the primary or secondary structure that affect the shape
substances called cofactors. A cofactor can be an ion, such as
of the domain can change protein function.
magnesium or zinc, or an organic molecule. Cofactors that are
If two or more proteins associate to form a functional unit,
organic molecules, such as certain vitamins, may be referred to as
the individual proteins are called subunits. The quaternary structure
coenzymes. Cofactors normally form part of the enzyme’s active
results from the spatial relationships between the individual sub-
site and are required to make the enzyme functional.
units (figure 2.22d).
Because an enzyme’s active site can bind only to certain
reactants, each enzyme catalyzes a specific chemical reaction and
Enzymes no others. Therefore, many different enzymes are needed to cata-
Proteins perform many roles in the body, including acting as enzymes. lyze the many chemical reactions of the body. Enzymes are often
An enzyme is a protein catalyst that increases the rate at which a named by adding the suffix -ase to the name of the molecules on
chemical reaction proceeds without the enzyme being permanently which they act. For example, an enzyme that catalyzes the break-
changed. The three-dimensional shape of enzymes is critical for their down of lipids is a lipase (lip′ās, lī′pās), and an enzyme that breaks
normal function because it determines the structure of the enzyme’s down proteins is a protease (prō′tē-ās).
active site. According to the lock-and-key model of enzyme action, a Enzymes control the rate at which most chemical reactions pro-
reaction occurs when the reactants (key) bind to the active site (lock) ceed in living systems. Consequently, they control essentially all cel-
on the enzyme. This view of enzymes and reactants as rigid structures lular activities. At the same time, the activity of enzymes themselves is
fitting together has been modified by the induced fit model, in regulated by several mechanisms within the cells. Some mechanisms
which the enzyme is able to change shape slightly and better fit the control the enzyme concentration by influencing the rate at which the
reactants. The enzyme is like a glove that does not achieve its func- enzymes are synthesized; others alter the activity of existing enzymes.
tional shape until the hand (reactants) moves into place. Much of our knowledge about the regulation of cellular activity
At the active site, reactants are brought into close proximity and involves understanding how enzyme activity is controlled.
the reaction occurs (figure 2.23). After the reactants combine, they
are released from the active site, and the enzyme is capable of ASSESS YOUR PROGRESS
catalyzing additional reactions. The activation energy required for a
chemical reaction to occur is lowered by enzymes (see figure 2.11) 47. What are the building blocks of proteins? What type of bond
because they orient the reactants toward each other in such a way chemically connects these building blocks? What is the
that a chemical reaction is more likely to occur. importance of the R group?
Slight changes in the structure of an enzyme can destroy 48. What determines the primary, secondary, tertiary, and
the active site’s ability to function. Enzymes are very sensitive quaternary structures of a protein?
to changes in temperature or pH, which can break the hydrogen 49. What is denaturation? Name two factors that can cause it.
bonds within them. As a result, the relationship between amino 50. Compare the lock-and-key and the induced fit models of enzyme
acids changes, thereby producing a change in shape that prevents activity. What determines the active site of an enzyme? State the
the enzyme from functioning normally. difference between a cofactor and a coenzyme.

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 CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 49

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Pyrimidines Purines

The nucleic (noo-klē′ik, noo-klā′ik) acids are large molecules H H

O
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. N
Deoxyribonucleic (dē-oks′ē-rī′bō-noo-klē′ik) acid (DNA) is H C H C N
C N N C
the genetic material of cells, and copies of DNA are transferred C H
from one generation of cells to the next generation. DNA con- C C H C C
N
H N O N N
tains the information that determines the structure of proteins.
H
Ribonucleic (rī′bō-noo-klē′ik) acid (RNA) is structurally related H H
to DNA, and three types of RNA also play important roles in pro- Cytosine Guanine
tein synthesis. Chapter 3 describes the means by which DNA and (DNA and RNA) (DNA and RNA)
RNA direct the functions of the cell. H H
O
Both DNA and RNA consist of basic building blocks called N
nucleotides (noo′klē-ō-tīdz). Each nucleotide is composed of a H 3C C H
C
C N N
monosaccharide to which a nitrogenous base and a phosphate N C
C H
group are attached (figure 2.24). The 5-carbon monosaccharide C C
C C
H N O N
is deoxyribose for DNA; it is ribose for RNA. The nitrogenous H N
bases consist of carbon and nitrogen atoms organized into rings. H H
They are bases because the nitrogen atoms tend to take up H+ Thymine Adenine
(DNA only) (DNA and RNA)
from solution. The nitrogenous bases are cytosine (sī′tō-sēn),
thymine (thī′mēn, thī′min), and uracil (ūr′ă-sil), which have a O
single ring, and guanine (gwahn′ēn) and adenine (ad′ĕ-nēn),
H C H
which have two rings each. Single-ringed bases are called pyrimi- C N
dines (pī-rim′i-dēnz), and double-ringed bases are called purines
C C
(pūr′ēnz; figure 2.25). H N O
DNA has two strands of nucleotides joined together to form
H
a twisted, ladderlike structure called a double helix (figure 2.26).
The sides of the ladder are formed by covalent bonds between Uracil
(RNA only)
the deoxyribose molecules and phosphate groups of adjacent
nucleotides. The rungs of the ladder are formed by the bases of
Figure 2.25  Nitrogenous Bases
the nucleotides of one side connected to the bases of the other The organic bases found in nucleic acids are separated into two groups.
side by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide of DNA contains one ­Pyrimidines are single-ringed molecules, and purines are double-ringed  
of the organic bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine. molecules.
Complementary base pairs are bases held together by hydrogen

bonds. Adenine and thymine are complementary base pairs

because the structure of these bases allows two hydrogen bonds
to form between them. Cytosine and guanine are complemen-
HOCH2 O OH HOCH2 O OH
tary base pairs because the structure of these bases allows three
H H H H hydrogen bonds to form between them. The two strands of a DNA
H H H H
molecule are said to be complementary. If the sequence of bases
OH H OH OH in one DNA strand is known, the sequence of bases in the other
(a) Deoxyribose (b) Ribose strand can be predicted because of complementary base pairing.
The two nucleotide strands of a DNA molecule are
­antiparallel, meaning that the two strands lie side by side but
O Nitrogen their sugar-phosphate “backbones” extend in opposite directions
–O P O CH2 O
base because of the orientation of their nucleotides (figure 2.26). A
nucleotide has a 5′ end and a 3′ end. The prime sign is used to
–O
Phosphate
Deoxyribose indicate the carbon atoms of the deoxyribose sugar, which are
group numbered 1′ to 5′.
OH
The sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA is a “code” that
(c) Deoxyribonucleotide stores information used to determine the structures and functions
of cells. A sequence of DNA bases that directs the synthesis of
Figure 2.24  Components of Nucleotides proteins or RNA molecules is called a gene (see chapter 3 for more
(a) Deoxyribose sugar, which forms nucleotides used in DNA production.
(b) Ribose sugar, which forms nucleotides used in RNA production. Note
information on genes). Genes determine the type and sequence of
that deoxyribose is ribose minus an oxygen atom. (c) A deoxyribonucleotide amino acids in protein molecules. Because enzymes are proteins,
consists of deoxyribose, a nitrogen base, and a phosphate group. DNA structure determines the rate and type of chemical reactions

van03636_ch02.indd 49 12-10-01 11:45 AM

 FUNDAMeNTAL Figure

5' end
1 The building blocks of nucleic Phosphate group
acids are nucleotides, which 2
consist of a phosphate group, a Sugar
sugar, and a nitrogenous base. (deoxyribose) Nucleotide 1
O
2 The phosphate groups connect the Nitrogen base
–
sugars to form two strands of O P O (thymine)
nucleotides (purple columns).
O CH3
3 Hydrogen bonds (dotted red lines)
between the nucleotides join the CH2 O H 3' end
C H
two nucleotide strands together. H C
O C N
Adenine binds to thymine and T N N
cytosine binds to guanine. N H C
H H C C
H
H C H
O
N 4
4 Deoxyribose carbon atoms are H
O
A C
H 2' 3'
numbered. One end of a DNA H C N H H
H
strand has a 3' end because of N
O H 1' 4'
the orientation of its nucleotides. O
–
O 3
P O H
 The other end of a DNA strand N 5' CH2
has a 5' end. C
O O O
N C H
 The complementary strands are CH2 C
C H
N
G
O
antiparallel in that the 5' 3' P O–
O N H H
direction of one strand runs N C
counter to the 5' 3' direction C C O
H N
of the other strand. H H N C C
H
H H C H H
 The nucleotide strands coil to H N H
H O
H H
form a double-stranded helix. O
–
O
O P O
H H CH2
O C N O
N
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) CH2 N C H
C O
C P
Thymine (T) Adenine (A) O A N
O O–
CH3
N C
O
H H C H C H
H N
H H T C
H
T A C H
H
H
H H
N
G C 7 O O
O
–
A T O P O
H H
CH2
C G O N
C H O
H C
CH2 C O
C 3
O
N N O–
O N C
C H C C H O
N
H
H H O G C N
H
H C
N
H ' '
O H N H
H
H H
H ' O '
3' end
6 ' CH2
5
O
O
P O–
O

5' end

PROCeSS FiguRe 2.26 Structure of DnA

50

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 CHAPTeR 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 51

that occur in cells by controlling enzyme structure. Therefore,
the information contained in DNA ultimately defines all cellular
activities. Other proteins that are coded by DNA, such as collagen,
determine many of the structural features of humans.
RNA’s structure is similar to a single strand of DNA. Like
DNA, four different nucleotides make up the RNA molecule, and
the nitrogenous bases are the same, except that thymine is replaced
with uracil (see figure 2.25). Uracil can bind only to adenine.
Adenosine Triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ă-den′ō-sēn trī-fos′fāt; ATP) is an
especially important organic molecule in all living organisms. It
consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with the nitrogenous base
adenine) and three phosphate groups (figure 2.27). The potential
energy stored in the covalent bond between the second and third
phosphate groups of ATP is important to living organisms because
it provides the energy used in nearly all of the chemical reactions
within cells. Removal of the third phosphate generates adenosine
diphosphate (ADP), which has only two phosphate groups.
The catabolism of glucose and other nutrient molecules results
in chemical reactions that release energy. Some of that energy is
used to synthesize ATP from ADP and an inorganic phosphate
group (Pi):
ADP + Pi + Energy (from catabolism) ATP
The transfer of energy from nutrient molecules to ATP
involves a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in which a
high-energy electron is transferred from one molecule to the next
molecule in the series. In chapter 25, the oxidation-reduction reac-
tions of metabolism are considered in greater detail.
NH2
Once produced, ATP is used to provide energy for other
chemical reactions (anabolism) or to drive cell processes, such as
muscle contraction. In the process, ATP is converted back to ADP
and an inorganic phosphate group:
ATP ADP + Pi + Energy (for anabolism and other cell processes)
ATP is often called the energy currency of cells because it is
capable of both storing and providing energy. The concentration
of ATP is maintained within a narrow range of values, and essen-
tially all energy-requiring chemical reactions stop when the ATP
levels become inadequate.
ASSeSS YOuR PROgReSS
51. Name two types of nucleic acids, and state their functions.
52. What are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids? What kinds
of sugars and bases are found in DNA? In RNA?
53. DNA is like a twisted ladder. What forms the sides of the ladder?
The rungs?
54. Name the complementary base pairs in DNA and RNA.
55. What is meant by the statement “DNA strands are antiparallel”?
56. Define gene, and explain how genes determine the structures
and functions of cells.
57. Describe the structure of ATP. Where does the energy to synthesize
ATP come from? What is the energy stored in ATP used for?
Clinical
IMPACT
Cyanide Poisoning

C
N C
CN yanide compounds can be lethal to humans because they
H C Adenine
C C interfere with the production of ATP in mitochondria
N N H
O O O (see chapter 25). Without sufficient ATP, cells die because
there is inadequate energy for anabolic chemical reactions, active
CH2 O P O P O P O– transport, and other energy-requiring cell processes. The heart
O and brain are especially susceptible to cyanide poisoning. The
O– O– O–
Ribose
most common cause of cyanide poisoning is inhalation of smoke
H H Phosphate groups released by the burning of rubber and plastic in household fires.
H H
Cyanide poisoning by inhalation or absorption through the skin can
OH OH also occur in certain manufacturing processes, and cyanide gas
Adenosine was used to kill people during the Holocaust. Deliberate suicide by
ingesting cyanide is rare but was made famous by suicide capsules in
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) spy movies. In 1982, seven people in the Chicago area died after
taking Tylenol that someone had laced with cyanide. Subsequent
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
copycat tamperings occurred and led to the widespread use of
tamper-proof capsules and packaging.
FiguRe 2.27 Structure of an Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP) Molecule

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 52 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body
Learn to Predict From page 24
To understand the reactions occurring in the test tube, you will need
to ask yourself the following questions: (1) What was in the saliva
that changed the starch? (2) How do enzymes speed up chemical
reactions in the body? To answer these questions, let us determine
what important information was provided in the question. First, we
know that starch, which is a polysaccharide, is the primary material in
the test tube and that iodine stains starch a blue color. Also, saliva is
added to the test tube. Saliva contains digestive enzymes that break
down carbohydrates, such as starch. Finally, we are told that after
30 minutes the blue color disappeared. This indicates that starch is
Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of
substances and the reactions they undergo. Much of the structure and
function of healthy or diseased organisms can be understood at the
chemical level.
2.1  Basic Chemistry (p. 25)
Matter, Mass, and Weight
1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
2. Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
3. Weight results from the force exerted by earth’s gravity on matter.
Elements and Atoms
1. An element is the simplest type of matter having unique chemical
and physical properties.
2. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical
characteristics of that element. An element is composed of only one
kind of atom.
3. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
■ Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged,
and neutrons have no charge.
■ Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus; electrons are located
around the nucleus and can be represented by an electron cloud.
4. The atomic number is the unique number of protons in an atom.
The mass number is the sum of the protons and the neutrons.
5. Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different
mass numbers.
6. The atomic mass of an element is the average mass of its naturally
occurring isotopes weighted according to their abundance.
7. A mole of a substance contains Avogadro’s number (6.022 × 1023) of
atoms, ions, or molecules. The molar mass of a substance is the mass
of 1 mole of the substance expressed in grams.
Electrons and Chemical Bonding
1. The chemical behavior of atoms is determined mainly by their
outermost electrons. A chemical bond occurs when atoms share or
transfer electrons.
van03636_ch02.indd 52
Answer
no longer present in the test tube. We can therefore conclude that
digestive enzymes in the saliva catalyzed a decomposition reaction,
breaking down the starch to a different material.
Chapter 2 teaches us that enzymes are protein catalysts that
speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
Activation energy is the minimum energy that the reactants must
have to start the chemical reaction. Therefore, the digestive enzymes
in the saliva lowered the activation energy needed to break the
bonds in the starch molecules.
Answers to the rest of this chapter’s Predict questions are in Appendix G.
Summary
2. Ions are atoms that have gained or lost electrons.
■ An atom that loses 1 or more electrons becomes positively charged
and is called a cation. An anion is an atom that becomes negatively
charged after accepting 1 or more electrons.
■ An ionic bond results from the attraction of the oppositely charged
cation and anion to each other.
3. A covalent bond forms when electron pairs are shared between atoms.
A polar covalent bond results when the sharing of electrons is unequal
and can produce a polar molecule that is electrically asymmetric.
Molecules and Compounds
1. A molecule is two or more atoms chemically combined to form a
structure that behaves as an independent unit. A compound is two
or more different types of atoms chemically combined.
2. The kinds and numbers of atoms (or ions) in a molecule or com-
pound can be represented by a formula consisting of the symbols of
the atoms (or ions) plus subscripts denoting the number of each type
of atom (or ion).
3. The molecular mass of a molecule or compound can be determined
by adding up the atomic masses of its atoms (or ions).
Intermolecular Forces
1. A hydrogen bond is the weak attraction between a positively charged
hydrogen and negatively charged oxygen or other polar molecule.
Hydrogen bonds are important in determining properties of water
and the three-dimensional structure of large molecules.
2. Solubility is the ability of one substance to dissolve in another. Ionic
substances that dissolve in water by dissociation are electrolytes.
Molecules that do not dissociate are nonelectrolytes.
2.2  Chemical Reactions and Energy (p. 32)
Synthesis Reactions
1. A synthesis reaction is the chemical combination of two or more
substances to form a new or larger substance.
12-10-01 11:45 AM

2. A dehydration reaction is a synthesis reaction in which water is produced.
3. The sum of all the synthesis reactions in the body is called anabolism.
Decomposition Reactions
1. A decomposition reaction is the chemical breakdown of a larger
substance to two or more different and smaller substances.
2. A hydrolysis reaction is a decomposition reaction in which water
is depleted.
3. The sum of all the decomposition reactions in the body is called
catabolism.
Reversible Reactions
Reversible reactions produce an equilibrium condition in which the
amount of reactants relative to the amount of products remains ­constant.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the complete or partial transfer of
electrons between atoms.
Energy
1. Energy is the ability to do work. Potential energy is stored energy, and
kinetic energy is energy resulting from the movement of an object.
2. Chemical energy
■ Chemical bonds are a form of potential energy.
■ Chemical reactions in which the products contain more potential
energy than the reactants require the input of energy.
■ Chemical reactions in which the products have less potential
energy than the reactants release energy.
3. Heat energy
■ Heat energy is energy that flows between objects that are at differ-
ent temperatures.
■ Heat energy is released in chemical reactions and is responsible for
body temperature.
Speed of Chemical Reactions
1. Activation energy is the minimum energy that the reactants must
have to start a chemical reaction.
2. Enzymes are specialized protein catalysts that lower the activation
energy for chemical reactions. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions
but are not consumed or altered in the process.
3. Increased temperature and concentration of reactants can increase
the rate of chemical reactions.
2.3  Inorganic Chemistry (p. 36)
Inorganic chemistry is mostly concerned with non-carbon-containing
substances but does include some carbon-containing substances, such as
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide that lack carbon-hydrogen bonds.
Some inorganic chemicals play important roles in the body.
Water
1. Water is a polar molecule composed of one atom of oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen.
2. Because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other, water
is good at stabilizing body temperature, protecting against friction and
trauma, making chemical reactions possible, directly participating in
chemical reactions (e.g., dehydration and hydrolysis reactions), and
serving as a mixing medium (e.g., solutions, suspensions, and colloids).
3. A mixture is a combination of two or more substances physically
blended together, but not chemically combined.
4. A solution is any liquid, gas, or solid in which the substances are uni-
formly distributed, with no clear boundary between the substances.
5. A solute dissolves in a solvent.
6. A suspension is a mixture containing materials that separate from
each other unless they are continually, physically blended together.
van03636_ch02.indd 53
CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 53
7. A colloid is a mixture in which a dispersed (solutelike) substance is
distributed throughout a dispersing (solventlike) substance. Particles
do not settle out of a colloid.
Solution Concentrations
1. One measurement of solution concentration is the osmole, which
contains Avogadro’s number (6.022 × 1023) of particles (i.e., atoms,
ions, or molecules) in 1 kilogram of water.
2. A milliosmole is 1/1000 of an osmole.
Acids and Bases
1. Acids are proton (H+) donors, and bases (e.g., OH−) are proton
acceptors.
2. A strong acid or base almost completely dissociates in water. A weak
acid or base partially dissociates.
3. The pH scale shows the H+ concentrations of various solutions.
■ A neutral solution has an equal number of H+and OH− and is
assigned a pH of 7.
■ Acidic solutions, in which the number of H+ is greater than the
number of OH−, have pH values less than 7.
■ Basic, or alkaline, solutions have more OH− than H+ and a pH
greater than 7.
4. A salt is a molecule consisting of a cation other than H+ and an
anion other than OH−. Salts form when acids react with bases.
5. A buffer is a solution of a conjugate acid-base pair that resists changes
in pH when acids or bases are added to the solution.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen is necessary for the reactions that extract energy from food mol-
ecules in living organisms. When the organic molecules are broken down
during metabolism, carbon dioxide and energy are released.
2.4  Organic Chemistry (p. 39)
Organic molecules contain carbon and hydrogen atoms bound together
by covalent bonds.
Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharides are the basic building blocks of other carbohy-
drates. Examples are ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, fructose, and
galactose. Glucose is an especially important source of energy.
2. Disaccharide molecules are formed by dehydration reactions ­between
two monosaccharides. They are broken apart into monosaccharides
by hydrolysis reactions. Examples of disaccharides are sucrose,
lactose, and maltose.
3. A polysaccharide is composed of many monosaccharides bound
together to form a long chain. Examples include cellulose, starch,
and glycogen.
Lipids
1. Triglycerides are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. One, two, or
three fatty acids can attach to the glycerol molecule.
■ Fatty acids are straight chains of carbon molecules with a carboxyl
group. Fatty acids can be saturated (having only single covalent
bonds between carbon atoms) or unsaturated (having one or more
double covalent bonds between carbon atoms).
■ Energy is stored in fats.
2. Phospholipids are lipids in which a fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate-
containing molecule. Phospholipids are a major structural component
of plasma membranes.
3. Steroids are lipids composed of four interconnected ring molecules.
Examples are cholesterol, bile salts, and sex hormones.
4. Other lipids include fat-soluble vitamins, prostaglandins, throm-
boxanes, and leukotrienes.
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 54 PART 1    Organization of the Human Body

Proteins Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

1. The building blocks of a protein are amino acids, which are joined by 1. The basic unit of nucleic acids is the nucleotide, which is a mono-
peptide bonds. saccharide with an attached phosphate and a nitrogenous base.
2. The number, kind, and arrangement of amino acids determine the 2. DNA nucleotides contain the monosaccharide deoxyribose and
primary structure of a protein. Hydrogen bonds between amino acids the nitrogenous base adenine, thymine, guanine, or cytosine. DNA
determine secondary structure, and hydrogen bonds between amino occurs as a double strand of joined nucleotides. Each strand is
acids and water determine tertiary structure. Interactions between complementary and antiparallel to the other strand.
different protein subunits determine quaternary structure. 3. A gene is a sequence of DNA nucleotides that determines the struc-
3. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by ture of a protein or RNA.
lowering their activation energy. 4. RNA nucleotides are composed of the monosaccharide ribose. The
4. The active sites of enzymes bind only to specific reactants. nitrogenous bases are the same as for DNA, except that thymine is
5. Cofactors are ions or organic molecules, such as vitamins, that are replaced with uracil.
required for some enzymes to function.
Adenosine Triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores energy derived from catabolism. The
energy released from ATP is used in anabolism and other cell ­processes.

Review and Comprehension

1. The smallest particle of an element that still has the chemical charac- 9. Oxidation-reduction reactions
teristics of that element is a(n) a. can be synthesis or decomposition reactions.
a. electron. c. neutron. e. atom. b. have one reactant gaining electrons.
b. molecule. d. proton. c. have one reactant losing electrons.
2. 12C and 14C are d. can create ionic or covalent bonds.
a. atoms of different elements. e. All of these are correct.
b. isotopes. 10. Potential energy
c. atoms with different atomic numbers. a. is energy caused by movement of an object.
d. atoms with different numbers of protons. b. is the form of energy that is actually doing work.
e. compounds. c. includes energy within chemical bonds.
3. A cation is a(n) d. can never be converted to kinetic energy.
a. uncharged atom. e. All of these are correct.
b. positively charged atom. 11. Which of these descriptions of heat energy is not correct?
c. negatively charged atom. a. Heat energy flows between objects that are at different temperatures.
d. atom that has gained an electron. b. Heat energy can be produced from all other forms of energy.
4. A polar covalent bond between two atoms occurs when c. Heat energy can be released during chemical reactions.
a. one atom attracts shared electrons more strongly than another atom. d. Heat energy must be added to break apart ATP molecules.
b. atoms attract electrons equally. e. Heat energy is always transferred from a hotter object to a cooler
c. an electron from one atom is completely transferred to another atom. object.
d. the molecule becomes ionized. 12. Which of these statements concerning enzymes is correct?
e. a hydrogen atom is shared between two different atoms. a. Enzymes increase the rate of reactions but are permanently
5. Table salt (NaCl) is changed as a result.
a. an atom. c. a molecule. e. a cation. b. Enzymes are proteins that function as catalysts.
b. organic. d. a compound. c. Enzymes increase the activation energy requirement for a reaction
to occur.
6. The weak attractive force between two water molecules forms a(n)
d. Enzymes usually can only double the rate of a chemical reaction.
a. covalent bond. c. ionic bond. e. isotope.
e. Enzymes increase the kinetic energy of the reactants.
b. hydrogen bond. d. compound.
13. Water
7. Electrolytes are
a. is composed of two oxygen atoms and one hydrogen atom.
a. nonpolar molecules.
b. has a low specific heat.
b. covalent compounds.
c. is composed of polar molecules into which ionic substances
c. substances that usually don’t dissolve in water.
dissociate.
d. found in solutions that do not conduct electricity.
d. is produced in a hydrolysis reaction.
e. cations and anions that dissociate in water.
e. is a very small organic molecule.
8. In a decomposition reaction,
14. When sugar is dissolved in water, the water is called the
a. anabolism occurs.
a. solute. b. solution. c. solvent.
b. proteins are formed from amino acids.
c. large molecules are broken down to form small molecules. 15. Which of these is an example of a suspension?
d. a dehydration reaction may occur. a. sweat c. sugar dissolved in water
e. All of these are correct. b. water and proteins inside cells d. red blood cells in plasma

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 CHAPTER 2   The Chemical Basis of Life 55

16. A solution with a pH of 5 is and contains 21. A fatty acid has one double covalent bond between
H+ than (as) a neutral solution. carbon atoms.
a. a base, more d. an acid, fewer a. cholesterol c. phospholipid e. saturated
b. a base, fewer e. neutral, the same number of b. monounsaturated d. polyunsaturated
c. an acid, more 22. The structure of a protein results from the folding of
17. A buffer the pleated sheets or helices.
a. slows down chemical reactions. a. primary c. tertiary
b. speeds up chemical reactions. b. secondary d. quaternary
c. increases the pH of a solution. 23. According to the lock-and-key model of enzyme action,
d. maintains a relatively constant pH. a. reactants must first be heated.
e. works by forming salts. b. enzyme shape is not important.
18. A conjugate acid-base pair c. each enzyme can catalyze many types of reactions.
a. acts as a buffer. d. reactants must bind to an active site on the enzyme.
b. can combine with H+ in a solution. e. enzymes control only a small number of reactions in the cell.
c. can release H+ to combine with OH−. 24. DNA molecules
d. describes carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3−). a. contain genes.
e. All of these are correct. b. contain a single strand of nucleotides.
19. The polysaccharide used for energy storage in the human body is c. contain the nucleotide uracil.
a. cellulose. c. lactose. e. starch. d. are of three different types that have roles in protein synthesis.
b. glycogen. d. sucrose. e. contain up to 100 nitrogenous bases.
20. The basic units or building blocks of triglycerides are 25. ATP
a. simple sugars (monosaccharides). a. is formed by the addition of a phosphate group to ADP.
b. double sugars (disaccharides). b. is formed with energy released during catabolic reactions.
c. amino acids. c. provides the energy for anabolic reactions.
d. glycerol and fatty acids. d. contains three phosphate groups.
e. nucleotides. e. All of these are correct.
Answers in Appendix E

Critical Thinking
1. Iron has an atomic number of 26 and a mass number of 56. How
many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of iron? If an
atom of iron lost 3 electrons, what would be the charge of the resulting
ion? Write the correct symbol for this ion.
2. Why is the conversion of a triglyceride molecule to fatty acids and
glycerol a catabolic hydrolysis reaction? Would the reverse anabolic
reaction generate water?
3. A mixture of chemicals is warmed slightly. As a consequence, although
no more heat is added, the solution becomes very hot. Explain what
has occurred to make the solution so hot.
4. Two solutions, when mixed together at room temperature, produce
a chemical reaction. However, when the solutions are boiled and
allowed to cool to room temperature before mixing, no chemical
reaction takes place. Explain.
5. In terms of the potential energy in food, explain why eating food is
necessary for increasing muscle mass.
6. Solution A is a strong acid of pH 2, and solution B is an equally strong
base of pH 8. Each chemical can donate or receive a single proton. If
equal amounts of solutions A and B are mixed, is the resulting solu-
tion acidic or basic?
7. Carbon dioxide that accumulates in the blood can become toxic, in
part because it alters the blood pH. Some of the carbon dioxide mol-
ecules react with water to form carbonic acid (CO2 + H2O H2CO3).
Ned can swim across the swimming pool under water. Before diving
into the water, he breathes rapidly for a few seconds, and while he is
under the water he does not breathe at all. Explain how the pH of his
blood changes while breathing rapidly and while swimming under water.
Also explain why the pH of his blood does not change dramatically.
8. An enzyme (E) catalyzes the following reaction:
A+B C
However, the product (C) binds to the active site of the enzyme in
a reversible fashion and keeps the enzyme from functioning. What
happens if A and B are continually added to a solution that contains a
fixed amount of the enzyme?
9. Using the materials commonly found in a kitchen, explain how to
distinguish between a protein and a lipid.
Answers in Appendix F

Visit this book’s website at www.mhhe.com/seeley10 for chapter quizzes, interactive learning exercises, and other study tools.

anatomy & physiology

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