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Article history: An overview of innovations introduced in the field of flat solar thermal collectors is presented using
Received 12 June 2014 information from different literature sources. Despite the large number of publications available about
Received in revised form this specific issue, this review is focused on the last ten years period, to underline the actual trend of the
1 December 2015
scientific and technologic world so far. Bearing in mind this choice, in this study a selection of the most
Accepted 17 December 2015
Available online 8 January 2016
valuable papers has been done, considering different points of view and aspects. Even if this work cannot
be considered exhaustive of the complete literature about this field, it can be taken into account as a
Keywords: quick reference to have an overview about new materials, geometries, heat transfer fluids etc., available
Flat solar thermal collector and tested in the last decade.
Materials & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Geometry
Nanofluids
Hybrid collector
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141
2. Innovative materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
3. Innovative geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
4. Integrated solar thermal collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
5. Heat-pipe collectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
6. Innovative heat transfer fluids in solar flat thermal collectors: nanofluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1153
7. Hybrid pv-solar thermal collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
8. Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
1. Introduction
Abbreviations: TCO, Transparent conductive oxides; PVD, Plasma vapor deposi-
tion; FTIR, Fourier transform infrared; CR, Concentration ratio; SAR, Specific area
ratio; SAH, Solar air heater; ICS, Integrated collector storage; OT, Ogival transverse; Energy production, efficiency and savings are key factors for
OIF, Ogival inclined folded; WT, Waisted tube; WDL, Waisted delta lengthways; the social and economic development of a country. The last ten
WOL, Waisted ogival lengthways; TL, Transverse-Longitudinal obstacles; MSTC,
years have seen the development of many different technologies
Massive solar-thermal collector; TSC, Transpired solar collector; UTC, Unglazed
transpired collector; ICSSWH, Integrated collector storage solar water heater; ISR, in the field of renewable energy, due to the input given by a new
Integral solarized roof; FPTU, Flat plate thermosiphonic unit; SWC, Solar water political and economic view of the sustainable development of the
collector; ISC, Integrated solar collector; SWC, Solar water collector; SWHS, Solar
world. Flat solar thermal collectors are not exceptions. This tech-
water heating system; ISSC, Integrated solar storage collector; CFD, Computational
fluid dynamic; MHPA, Micro-channel heat pipe; CEOHP, Closed-end oscillating heat nology is widely used all over the world because of the low-cost
pipe; DGVHP, Double glass vacuum heat pipe; MWCNT, Multi walled carbon and easy and cheap maintenance. The exploitation of flat panel
nanotube; PV, Photovoltaic
n solar thermal collectors has assumed a great importance not only
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 390832297752, fax: þ 390832297777.
E-mail address: gianpiero.colangelo@unisalento.it (G. Colangelo). in residential applications, but also in industrial and commercial
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.142
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1142 G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159
buildings, where low temperature-hot water is required and par- 2. Innovative materials
ticularly for hot climates [1].
Even if this device has reached good technological develop- The aim of this paragraph is to study different innovative
ment and diffusion, the scientific and technological world has materials, developed or used in the last ten years, in flat solar
shown a constant attention to the optimization of the existing thermal collectors field.
technologies or the introduction of new and more effective ones In order to increase the efficiency of flat solar thermal collec-
[2]. On the other hand new perspectives and revolutionary tors, some innovative materials have been investigated for differ-
ent applications as coverage, selective absorbers, outer box etc.
inventions are not easy to introduce in this field, because of the
Ehrmann et al. [7] investigated the optical proprieties of
cost constrains of such a product. Very often, the debut of a new
transparent conductive oxides (TCOs), used as antireflective coat-
technology or discover in the field of flat solar thermal collectors
ings, deposited with a physical deposition technique, called mag-
has to face with economic evaluations that, despite of the intro-
netron sputtering. It is a Plasma Vapor Deposition (PVD) process in
duced advantages, make the novelty more or less successful in the which plasma is created and positively charged ions are acceler-
market. However, it is worth of consideration the fact that what ated and, by means of an electrical field, are deposited on the
the market does not consider economically advantageous today, target, condensing on surfaces and thus creating a thin film. The
may become very convenient after few years. These considerations advantages of this deposition method are: high adherence, wear
have been the guide for the selection of the works developed in resistance and smoothness. After a parametric study of different
last decade, that could have a good impact on the development of target materials as ZnO, Al2O3, target-substrate distance, pressure
flat solar thermal collectors and could become a cutting edge in before and during deposition, substrate temperature and so on,
the next years. In past years, the development of new technologies morphological investigations have been made by means of scan-
has been applied to improve the thermal efficiency of the solar ning electron microscope and optical properties, as reflectance and
collector, to increase the assorbance of the absorber plate, to transmittance, determined using a Fourier Transform Infrared
enhance the heat transfer area, to stabilize the heat transfer fluid, (FTIR) spectrometer. The solar transmittance of these selective
layers is about 85%, that is higher than other conventional ones
to optimize the geometry of solar thermal collectors in relation to
(71%). By using low-e coating on the surface of the covering, the
costs, lightness and easy maintenance [3].
efficiency of this flat solar collector increases (it is about 77% at a
In the past some authors have presented some reviews on
temperature difference of 20 °C), compared to the traditional one.
different typologies of solar thermal collectors as Shukla et al. [4],
The results, presented in this paper, are promising for the devel-
who described different types (stand alone, hybrid and building opment of highly efficient flat-plate collectors. Boudaden et al. [8]
integrated) of transpired solar collectors (TSCs) and their operation investigated the optical proprieties of two dielectric materials as
principle. TiO2 and SiO2, deposited by sputtering technique, for antireflective
Moreover Shukla et al. [5] suggested a review on the storage coatings for solar thermal applications. From spectroscopic results,
medium of solar water heaters, which is divided in two categories: it has been proved that the sputtered films could be successfully
latent and sensible. Smyth et al. [6] made a summary about the used in solar thermal applications because of low absorbance and
technological development of all components of ICSSWHs as ves- high reflectivity (up to 70%), high solar transmission (it is about
sel, glazing, insulation, reflectors, absorber, evacuation between 87% for the bilayer film and 70% for triple layer film); good
vessel and glazing and deflector in heat storage. Influence of some adherence, because the sputtering is a physical deposition
interesting materials on the performance of ICSSWHs has been technique.
described in their work. Kalogirou et al. [9] evaluated the performance and practical
This paper has been focused on six specific topics, that are applications of different colored absorbers of solar thermal flat
collectors to reduce environmental impact in buildings. From
considered the most interesting and promising, and structured
experimental and theoretical analysis, the collectors with black
consequently in: innovative materials, innovative geometries,
absorber have higher efficiency (83% for black absorber with
integrated solar thermal collectors, heat-pipe collectors, innova-
absorbance of 95% and emittance of 10% and 76% for colored layer
tive heat transfer fluids and hybrid pv-solar thermal collectors.
with absorbance of 85% and emittance of 10%) compared to the
The objective of this paper is to give to the scientific commu-
ones with colored absorber. This paper developed a numerical
nity a description of the actual and possible trend in the research model (with TRNSYS) to study the efficiency of solar thermal
in the field of solar collectors. This analysis, even if not exhaustive, collectors, with various colored absorbers, located at different
tries to be a useful tool for the reader who wants to have a view latitudes: Nicosia, Cyprus, Athens and Madison.
of the last ten years technological development of solar thermal Abbas et al. [10] investigated the effect of deposition time on
collectors, with a particular overview on the experimental the optical characteristics of chemically deposited nanostructured
results. PbS thin films. These nanocrystalline films have been created with
G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159 1143
chemical bath deposition technique, which is one of the cheapest estimated using a theoretical model. In order to obtain a high
and scalable methods to deposit thin films. Such technique could value of working temperature and a low value of stagnation
be employed for large area batch processing or continuous temperature, polymers with thermotropic proprieties could be
deposition [11]. It has been made a comparison among three applied on the glazing and on the absorber. The solar transmit-
samples, deposited at different deposition times and hence at tance of these thermotropic layers is in the range from 76% to 87%
different thicknesses (500 nm, 600 nm and 660 nm). The authors and from theoretical model, we can deduce the values of the
have investigated nanocrystalline PbS thin films optical propri- collectors’ efficiency at a temperature difference of 20 °C, with
eties, such as transmittance and reflectance as candidates to be thermotropic glazing ( 70%) and without ( 80%) and, at the
used for antireflective coatings in the field of thermal flat solar same temperature difference, with thermotropic absorber ( 70%)
collectors. The solar transmittance decreases and the reflectance and without ( 80%). The low solar transmittance of these mate-
increases with increasing of the thickness. The high reflectance rials decreases the efficiency of collectors, characterized by ther-
property (R ¼21.24 nm) confirmed the film of 660 nm as good motropic glazing and absorber.
material for thermal solar applications. Reim et al. [16] investigated the performance of flat solar
Ienei et al. [12] and Dudita et al. [13] studied the character- thermal collectors with granulate and spherical silica aerogel
ization of solar absorbers, obtained with spray pyrolysis. Spray material as thermal insulation. The aerogel is a nanostructured
pyrolysis is a process in which a thin film is deposited by spraying material that has low thermal conductivity ( o0.005 W/mK) and
a solution on a hot surface, where the constituents react to form a high solar transmission (53% for semi-translucent spheres and 88%
chemical compound. The chemical reactants are selected in such a for highly translucent granulate). In this paper, thermal con-
way that the products, other than the desired compound, are ductivity values of evacuated solar collector with aerogel as insu-
volatile at the temperature of deposition. This process is particu- lation are compared with those of conventional solar thermal
larly useful for the deposition of oxides and it is very simple and collectors. The aerogel material reduces the thickness of the
low cost. After the experimental study on deposition parameters of insulation inside the solar thermal collector and it reduces heat
thin films, structural and morphological characterizations have losses of 40% compared to conventional insulation.
been carried out, in order to optimize selective coatings for solar Table 1 shows a comparison among optical proprieties (emis-
absorbers applications. The emissivity and solar absorption index sivity and absorbance) of different solar coatings and thermal
of deposited films have been correlated with the chemical com- efficiencies of solar thermal collectors with different types of solar
position, crystalline structure and morphology. In the former absorbers.
paper the results demonstrate that coatings with high spectral Table 2 shows a comparison among thermal efficiencies of solar
selective properties (absorbance of 92% and thermal emittance of thermal collectors with innovative materials.
3%) can be obtained with spray pyrolysis. The samples are influ- Data about the thermal efficiency are not complete, but it is
enced by the annealing treatments at 500 °C and by addition of possible to have an idea on the effectiveness of the results
additives. obtained in this field of research. The new materials have excellent
Dudita et al. [13] have experimentally analyzed the influence of perspectives and this will be in the next future one of the main
solvents on the properties of solar selective coatings, obtained aspect to explore to increase thermal efficiency. In particular, the
with spray pyrolysis. From experimental results, values of solar coating of Cindrella [14] exhibits very promising properties with
absorbance are high (92%) and thermal emittance is 3%, with a excellent results. Aerogel as thermal insulation material (Reim
concentration of 40% of solvent, due to physical processes as et al. [16]) is an excellent example of how a new material could
internal absorption of incident photons and multiple reflections improve the actual technology without much effort.
that occur when thin films are deposited.
Cindrella [14] numerically studied the efficiency of the solar
selective coatings with various values of optical properties (the 3. Innovative geometries
range of the absorbance was from 91% to 96% and the range of the
thermal emittance was from 6% to 17%) and their impact on the In the last decade many different geometries have been pro-
performance of solar thermal systems, with different concentra- posed for flat solar thermal collectors.
tion ratios (CR). From obtained results, it has been highlighted that Fernández et al. [17] developed the concept called “channels”,
the coating Co–Cd–BA, with a combination of low emissivity (6%) based on three elements:
and high solar absorption index (96%), exhibits higher efficiency
(91% at a temperature difference of 60 °C) than other coatings. reflecting housing: parabolic channels;
Another important parameter proposed in this paper is specific black collecting pipes;
area ratio (SAR), which is the ratio of base area of the heat transfer glass.
fluid bed in function of absorber area receiving solar radiation. For
systems with factor of concentration of 1 and specific area ratio After the optimization of the concept, the authors of the paper
Z1, the optical proprieties of selective coating are negligible. designed and made the main components: the absorbing part, in
Actually, at CR ¼10, the coating Co–Cd–BA at 100 °C and 150 °C has which the tubes are removed and rectangular plates placed in the
the highest efficiency (95%) and at CR ¼100, the same layer at middle of the absorber. The operation of the solar collector has
100 °C, 150 °C and 250 °C shows the highest efficiency (96%). been studied, that means how water circulates through the
Instead, for system with solar flat plate collector, in which the channels, which are divided by the absorbers. After the develop-
value of CR ¼1 and SARo 1, the internal component of the solar ment of the prototype manufacturing, its thermal efficiency has
system, as selective absorber coating, is the main responsible to been measured by means of a methodology based on the standard
increase the efficiency of the system. UNI.ISO 9806-1:1994. From experimental data, the prototype has
Resch et al. [15] analyzed the effect of polymeric layers on shown efficiency between 41% and 57% and the instantaneous
overheating protection properties and application in a solar col- efficiency of about 98%.
lector. These polymers have thermotropic properties, which means Ma et al. [18] made an experimental and theoretical study on
that materials are able to change phase in function of temperature. the efficiency of a dual-function solar collector, that is able to
The attitude of selected thermotropic resins to avoid overheating provide both hot water and air. The design of this new solar
of all solar collectors, made of polymeric layers, has been thermal collector is represented in Fig. 1.
1144 G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159
Table 1
Comparison among optical properties of selective coatings and thermal efficiencies of solar thermal collectors with different solar absorbers.
Reference Deposition technique Emissivity of selective absorber Absorbance of selective absorber Solar Transmittance Thermal efficiency
Table 2
Comparison among thermal efficiencies of thermal solar collectors with innovative
materials.
1. low cost;
2. high durability;
3. high thermal efficiency, due to high heat transfer coefficient
even at lower air mass flow rates and low heat losses;
4. flexibility in applications of fin-pins.
Fig. 3. Schematic drawings of a double pass solar air heater (SAH) (a), side profile of the double pass SAH (b), side profile of the single pass SAH (c).
A constant value of irradiance (1063.5 W/m2) has been con- circulation. Therefore, the better solution is to build ICS with one
sidered to measure the efficiency. Collectors with obstacles OT, tube and a symmetric (or asymmetric) CPC or involute reflector
OIF1, WT, WDL1 and WOL1 have efficiency of 50% with air flow trough. A disadvantage of this solution is the larger depth than
rates of 47 m3/h, 34.5 m3/h, 35.5 m3/h, 32 m3/h and 33 m3/h (per traditional solar flat panel.
unit collector area) and temperature differences of 35.5 °C, 52.5 °C, D’Antoni et al. [29] presented a critical work on massive solar–
49.5 °C, 56.1 °C and 52.2 °C respectively. Comparing all these col- thermal collector, characterized by concrete as absorber, water as
lectors, the solar collector with WDL1 represents the best one. heat transfer fluid and plastic or metal as pipe material. The main
Another comparison is made between the solar collector with the advantage of these MSTCs is to have the capacity to store a big
TS obstacle and without. The first one offers good results (effi- quantity of thermal energy to compensate the needs of heating
ciency of 50% at air flow rate of 23 m3/h (for unit collector area), at water in all the periods of the year.
an output temperature of 97 °C) and the second one has an effi- Researchers described thermo-physical and technological
ciency of about 25% at the same conditions. Tripanagnostopoulos aspects related to different models of MSTC: detached, partially
et al. [28] proposed an Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) system to integrated and building integrated. Massive materials as concrete
reduce costs of solar systems. It contains a flat or cylindrical water have a lower thermal conductivity, but a greater heat storing effect
storage tank, as Fig. 4 shows, and it can be mounted in horizontal than metals. With a value of 0.66 kWh/m3K of volumetric heat
or vertical position. From experimental data, we can observe that capacity, the concrete has a water capacity of 60%. Compared to
the solar system proposed in horizontal version (at values of mean traditional collectors, MSTC have the same thermal efficiency
storage water temperature/irradiance in the range between 0.01 K/ (40%) in low temperature range (temperature fluid is less than
Wm2 and 0.06 K/Wm2, the mean daily efficiency is between 0.36 50 °C).
and 0.62) is more efficient than that in vertical position (in the Badache et al. [30] investigated, experimentally and theoreti-
same conditions, the mean daily efficiency is between 0.32 cally, the thermal performance of unglazed transpired collectors
and 0.58). (UTC). Influence of the air mass flow rates, of the solar irradiation
Obviously the cost of an ICS is directly proportional to the and of plenums thickness on the performance of the solar thermal
number of tubes, because they need to be connected for water collectors have been studied, as shown in Table 3.
G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159 1147
it can reach the temperature of 50 °C with an irradiance of selective absorber (absorbance coefficient is 90% and emissivity
980 W/m2; is 0.9);
it can be obtained a power of 1.5 kW with a surface of 5 m2 with single transparent glazing;
an efficiency of 30%. air gap;
the building insulation.
Motte et al. [33] designed and proposed a theoretical model for
a new patented integrated thermal solar collector. It is a concept of The advantages of the façade solar collector are:
a solar water collector (SWC), schematically shown in Fig. 5. Inside
the collector, there are “hot” and “cold” tubes together, where to protect the building against atmospheric conditions;
water flows, a glass cover, a selective absorber and the thermal
high aesthetics, because the façade solar system, often char-
acterized by wooden frame, is assembled on the building walls;
insulation. This typology of solar water collector can be perfectly
reduced heat transfer coefficient;
integrated in south and in north walls because the collector is
improvement in thermal properties for high insulation, because
inserted into gutter, which sorrounded all the house. The imple-
it is directly mounted on the insulation of the building.
mented thermal model has been validated with experimental
results of temperatures of the solar collector, water outlet and The paper deals with a simulation with TRNSYS to study the
inlet. The results showed that, compared to standard solar col- thermal performance of this innovative system. The results put in
lector, the proposed design has the following advantages: evidence that the façade solar area could increase by 30% com-
pared to conventional solar thermal one tilted at 45 °C and façade
it is aesthetically invisible;
solar system could capture 60% of solar fraction.
it can be placed in south and north walls;
the modules of the collector are mounted in parallel;
the efficiency is up to 60%.
Table 4
Comparison among thermal efficiencies of thermal solar collectors with innovative
geometries.
Table 5
Comparison between thermal efficiencies of integrated thermal solar collectors and conventional ones.
Reference Thermal efficiency increase (%) of integrated solar collec- Cost ($) Cost back (years)
tors compared to conventional one
The authors of the paper examined the prototype by means of promising giving to this solution good prospective advantages
numerical and experimental models during the discharge phase. versus the traditional one.
Measurements of the temperature variation inside the solar col-
lector were performed by means of draw-off method and they
validated the theoretical results. 5. Heat-pipe collectors
A series of experimental data are based on the variation of the
temperature (for three days with different solar irradiations of In a conventional solar collector, heat transfer fluid (water or
715 W/m2, 868 W/m2 and 803 W/m2) as a function of variation of mixture of ethylene glycol and water) circulates inside pipes,
discharged volume. The day with the lowest value of solar irra- attached to the absorber, under natural convection conditions or
diation (715 W/m2) shows the lowest value of temperature of the through a pump. Some of the disadvantages of traditional solar
water (13 °C), instead a strange behavior is shown for the other collector are both pressure drops and corrosion inside the pipes,
solar irradiations of 868 W/m2 and 803 W/m2 (12 °C and 15.5 °C effect of the water flow. To overcome these drawbacks, heat pipe
respectively). This fact could be casual. The solar radiation and solar collectors are employed. They consist in a sealed tube, where
stratification influence the efficiency of solar system. From a working fluid is placed. By evaporating of the working fluid, heat
obtained results it has been conceived an interesting integrated is transferred in a cooling zone where the vapor condenses and
collector storage. returns to the heating zone through a capillary structure.
Summarily, the concept of integrated solar collector is common In the last decade several studies have been carried out on
to all mentioned papers, that is that storage tank is included geometry and efficiency of heat pipe. Typically a heat pipe solar
directly inside the collector. collector is made of a set of sealed and separate heat pipes, each of
Aste et al. [41] presented the results about energy efficiency one has a condenser zone. Efficiency of a heat pipe also depends
and economic analysis of a solar integrated roof. The solar inte- on the area of condenser section surface. For this purpose Wei at
grated roof consists of three sections: solar system for heating al. [42] proposed a new design for heat pipe solar collectors, that
water, air and photovoltaic system. This solar system has an area of consists to connect all pipes through both upper and bottom tube,
390 m2 divided in: as Fig. 9 shows.
With this solution area of condenser section is higher than that
104 modules for solar system for water heating; of a traditional heat pipe solar collector. System shown in Fig. 9
104 modules for solar system for air heating; was tested with ethanol as working fluid, with a mass flow rate of
26 modules for photovoltaic system with a power of 3.9 kW. 0.2 kg/s and a maximum efficiency of 66% was reached.
An innovative heat pipe solar collector, in order to study effi-
From energy evaluation, the produced electric energy is 7% ciency of many heat pipes and heated length-cooled length ratio,
higher than that of a traditional solar system. Energy of a SWH was designed and built by Azad [43]. Condenser section consists in
(solar water heating) system is 30% higher compared to the esti- a copper pipe, wrapped around heat pipe, as Fig. 10 shows.
mated one, instead energy of a SAH (solar air heating) system is 7% Ethanol was used as working fluid and water flow rate was
higher compared to the estimated one. The main parameters that 0.03–0.032 kg/s. With an experimental investigation and thermal
characterized them are: overall heat loss coefficient (4 W/m2 K for analysis for this configuration, efficiency of heat pipe solar col-
standard collector and 3.5 W/m2 K for TIS); collector efficiency lector was observed to be inversely proportional to the number of
factor (0.8 for standard collector and 0.9 for TIS); and effective heat pipes, because water temperature increases from inlet to
transmittance-absorbance product (0.75 for standard collector and outlet section and, therefore, heat loss in each condenser too.
for 0.8 TIS). Besides the optimum heated length-cooled length ratio was 8.25.
Table 5 shows a comparison between thermal efficiencies of Rassamakin et al. [44] investigated on a heat pipe for building
integrated solar collectors and conventional ones. The only work integration without welds, but with fin and sealed tube built as
that gives data about cost and return of investment is that of one aluminum part through extrusion method. This guarantees a
Hazami et al. [35]. The data reported in this work are very negligible thermal resistance between tube and fin. Inner wall of
G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159 1151
the tube was longitudinally grooved. Aluminum heat pipe pro- with three tube passes (Fig. 11). The second one (Type II) is the
posed by authors was tested at different tilt angles, between 0° solar collector proposed by Azad [45] and the third type (Type III)
and 90°. Thermal power between 210 W and 300 W and thermal has four tubes heat exchanger (Fig. 11).
resistance between 0.02 and 0.07 °C/W were measured respec- Efficiencies of the three types of solar collectors were calcu-
tively. Besides, a flat plate solar collector and evacuated tube solar lated and compared. Experimental results show that efficiencies of
collector prototypes, with aluminum heat pipe, were built and both Type II and Type III are higher than Type I when reduced
their efficiency was calculated. Experimental results were com- temperature is less than 0.038. Finally Type I and Type III, are built
pared to efficiency curves of commercial solar collectors. Flat plate with interconnected heat pipes, and this allows an easy produc-
collector (FPC), with 8 heat pipes, an absorber area of 1.98 m2 and tion and lower costs (Fig. 12).
a diameter of heat pipe of 14.0 mm was compared to a Vitosol 100- Thermal performance of a micro-channel heat pipe (MHPA)
F. Evacuated tube collector (ETC), with 14 heat pipes, an absorber was studied by Deng et al. [46]. MHPA consists in a thin aluminum
area of 2.0 m2 and a diameter of heat pipe of 8.0 mm was com- plate with independent micro-channel heat pipes, as Fig. 13a)
pared to a copper HPs (MT 58-1800). A good agreement between shows. Typical MHPA thickness is 3 mm and width is 60 mm. A
efficiencies of solar collectors with aluminum heat pipe and those heat pipe solar collector with MHPA was built (Fig. 13b) and effi-
of commercial solar collectors was observed, to demonstrate high ciency was calculated and compared to Chinese Standard GB/
efficiency of the aluminum extruded heat pipe. With FPC, effi- T6424-2007, where the minimun efficiency must be at least as the
ciency between 0.65 and 0.45 for reduced temperature difference following linear relation in Eq. (2):
between 0.02 and 0.06 has been obtained. With ETC, efficiency
T T T T
between 0.6 and 0.4 for reduced temperature between 0.06 and η ¼ F R ðταÞe F R U L wi a ¼ 0:80 4:72 wi a ð2Þ
I I
0.11 has been observed.
Three types of heat pipe solar collectors were installed in par- Where Twi, Ta and I are inlet water temperature, room tem-
allel and tested under the same conditions. The first type (Type I) perature and the solar radiation intensity respectively, FR(τα)e
consists in a set of finned heat pipes, welded to an heat exchanger should be not less than 0.72 and FRUL no more than 6.0. From the
experimental results, efficiency was higher than Chinese Standard
GB/T6424-2007 values. Precisely efficiency equation is the fol-
lowing:
T T
η ¼ 0:80 4:72 wi a ð3Þ
I
pulsation of the working fluid guarantees heat transfer from eva- conduction heat loss. On outer surface of the inner pipe a selective
porator section to condenser section. CEOHP was analyzed at a tilt coating is placed. DGVHP can be used for producing a higher
angle of 18°, dimensions were 2.00 0.97 m2. Material, inner temperature fluid, since it has an high stagnation temperature
diameter and length of capillary tube were copper, 0.003 mm and (about 230 °C), that can be used in thermodynamic energy con-
70 m respectively. By using R134a as working fluid an efficiency of version systems. For this purpose Fiaschi et al. [48] proposed a
62% has been obtained, for a solar radiation of 902 W/m2, an model to investigate the design parameters, which influence the
ambient temperature of about 43 °C and a plate temperature of performance of this innovative heat pipe. Commercial DGVHPs
86 °C. At this conditions, water temperature within the tank was have efficiency between 0.58 and 0.42 for X ¼ ðT I T a Þ between 0.01
45 °C. These results are comparable to that of conventional heat and 0.1, where T is fluid temperature, Ta is ambient temperature
pipe solar collectors. However CEOHP are easier to build. Another and I is the intensity of solar radiation.
type of heat pipe solar collector is built with a double glass system A study on the influence of cross section shape of heat pipe was
and called Double Glass Vacuum Heat Pipe (DGVHP) [48]. Also in carried out by Hussein et al. [49]. They analyzed three groups of
this case no wick structure is used, the circulation of working fluid heat pipe having circular, elliptical and semi-circular cross section.
is controlled by gravity and by surface tension on interface Systems were tested using water as working fluid at filling ratio of
between glass and liquid. The evaporator section consists in a 10%, 20% and 35%. Two groups of experiments were carried out:
double glass with vacuum inside, in order to avoid convection and the first one, at fixed mass flow rate of cooling water and low inlet
temperature, in order to investigate on instantaneous performance
of the wickless heat pipe solar collectors during a day; the second
group of experiments regarded efficiency, at two mass flow rates
and different inlet cooling water temperatures, at quasi-steady
state condition around solar noon. From the first group of
experiments, it was possible to note that, for a constant filling ratio
of 20%, better rates of thermal energy gain have been obtained
with elliptical cross section wickless heat pipe. This is due to its
higher surface area to volume ratio compared to the circular and
semi-circular wickless heat pipe. Besides, the optimum filling ratio
of elliptical cross section heat pipe is 10%. This behavior can be
attributed to the increase of heat capacity of the collector with the
increase of filling ratio. Finally, second group of experiments
confirmed that higher efficiencies could be reached with elliptical
cross section wickless heat pipe and a filling ratio of 10% in a wide
range of inlet temperature and mass flow rate of cooling water.
Fig. 14 shows a comparison among curves fitting of efficiencies of
heat pipe solar collectors, analyzed in this review. For each solar
collector water mass flow rate is also indicated. Different x-axes
were used because temperature differences used in the paper are
Fig. 11. Finned heat pipe solar collector. different. In particular in Fig. 14a, Tp indicates temperature of the
Fig. 12. Heat pipe solar collector with four tubes for water.
G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159 1153
plate of the solar collector. In Fig. 14b Ti is the inlet temperature of respectively. An increase of thermal conductivity up to 21.76% was
the water flow. obtained with Cu nanoparticles. Besides, it was possible to observe
Applications of heat pipes are much wider than traditional that thermal conductivity of diathermic oil based nanofluids is
solar flat thermal collectors, in fact it is possible to reach high inversely proportional to particle size. Heat transfer coefficient of
temperatures and to use various heat transfer fluids. However, nanofluids has been also analyzed [55,56]. Hwang et al. [57] stu-
design and manufacture of heat pipe must be very careful, because died the convective heat transfer coefficient of water–Al2O3
evaporation/condensation mechanisms strongly depend on geo- nanofluids flowing in a stainless steel tube. The nanoparticles,
metry and dimensions of components. used in this investigation, had an average diameter of 30 nm and
they obtained an increase up to 8.0% at a concentration of solid
phase of 0.3%. Heyhat et al. [58] measured heat transfer coefficient
6. Innovative heat transfer fluids in solar flat thermal collec- of the water based nanofluids with Al2O3 nanoparticles with an
tors: nanofluids. average diameter of 40.0 nm and a volume fraction from 0.1 to
2.0% in a circular tube, with constant wall temperature, under
Water or mixture of water and ethylene glycol are heat transfer turbulent flow conditions. Results showed an enhancement up to
fluids generally used in flat solar thermal collectors. Their thermal 23.0%, compared to base fluid.
conductivity is a limiting factor, because it is lower than thermal Nanofluids can be employed in flat solar panels in order to
conductivity of heat exchange solid surface. Innovative heat increase efficiency of the systems. However, it is necessary to take
transfer fluids have been proposed to enhance efficiency of energy into account that solid phase of these suspensions could yield
systems, based on mixing of solid nanoparticles (o 100 nm) of sedimentation phenomenon and, therefore, a decrease of thermal
metal or metal oxide with traditional heat transfer fluids as water,
properties of nanofluids and clogging. For this purpose Colangelo
ethylene glycol, oil. These suspensions are called nanofluids, word
et al. [55,59] proposed a modified flat solar panel to avoid sedi-
used by Choi for the first time [50]. Thermal conductivity
mentation. The modification consists in a variation of the cross
enhancements have been obtained by several authors. Minsta et al.
section both for top and bottom header, through a shaped ele-
[51] measured thermal conductivity of water based nanofluids
ment. To study sedimentation phenomenon, two flat solar panels
with CuO nanoparticles with an average dimension of 29 nm and
with transparent tubes were designed and built. The first one has
Al2O3 nanoparticles, with an average dimension of 47 nm and
the dimensions and shape of a commercial collector. In the second
37 nm respectively. An enhancement between 2.0% and 24.0% was
one, cross variation along both top and bottom header, through a
observed using CuO nanoparticles at a volume fraction between
shaped element, maintains a constant heat transfer fluid velocity.
1.0% and 14.0%. With Al2O3 nanoparticles they obtained an
In fact, in a conventional flat solar panel, velocity varies because
increase of the thermal conductivity up to 30.0%, in a range of
volume fraction from 1.0% to 18.0%. Yu et al. [52] obtained an the heat transfer fluid is distributed to the riser tubes by a collector
increase of thermal conductivity of 26.5% for 5.0 vol% of ZnO dis- pipe having a constant cross section. Water-Al2O3 nanofluids with
persed in ethylene glycol. Murshed et al. [53] measured ethylene 1 vol% and 3 vol%, were used to study sedimentation inside two
glycol–TiO2 nanofluids and ethylene glycol–Al nanofluids thermal panels with transparent tubes. Nanofluids flow rate was 1.2 l/min.
conductivity. They obtained enhancements of 18% with 5.0 vol% of In order to simulate the working condition of a solar system, the
TiO2 and 45% with 5.0 vol% of Al, respectively. Colangelo et al. [54] pump run for 12 h and was turned off for other 12 h. By optical
measured thermal conductivity of diathermic oil-based nano- investigation it was possible to note that inside flat solar panel,
fluids, with Al2O3, CuO, ZnO and Cu nanoparticles respectively, in a without shaped element, sedimentation was inversely propor-
temperature range between 20 °C and 60 °C and a volume fraction tional to the mean velocity of the fluid along top and bottom
between 0.1% and 2.0%. They used CuO and Al2O3 nanoparticles header and directly proportional to the solid phase of nanofluid.
with a spherical shape and particle size with average diameters of Instead, inside modified flat solar panel, variation of the cross
30 nm and 45 nm, ZnO, with an elongated shape and an average section area along top and bottom header avoids sedimentation
dimension of 60 nm, and three types of Cu nanoparticles, with phenomenon.
spherical shape and average diameters of 100 nm, 50 nm and This modification is an easy and cheap solution, the additional
25 nm. They obtained a thermal conductivity enhancement up to pressure drop is concentrated in the collector and it is negligible if
12.9%, 10.7% and 8.29% with ZnO, CuO and Al2O3 nanoparticles, compared to the case of an increased flow rate.
1154 G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159
Yousefi et al. [60] investigated the effect of nanofluids on effi- For wide range of temperature differences, precisely for
ðT i T a Þ
ciency of flat solar panel. They used water-Al2O3, with and without GT o0:018,
experimental results showed that efficiency at
surfactant, as working fluid. The weight fraction of solid phase was 0.2 wt% was higher than that at 0.4 wt%. For higher temperature
0.2% and 0.4% respectively and Triton X-100 was used as surfac- differences efficiency at 0.4 wt% was greater than that at 0.2 wt%.
tant. Average diameter of nanoparticles was 15 nm. Mass flow rate This behavior has been explained by authors through weight
of nanofluid varied between 1 and 3 l/min. Efficiency was calcu- fraction. At high concentration particles tend to agglomerate,
lated through Eq. (4): reducing stability of nanofluids. At high temperature Brownian
motion of agglomerates leads to an increase of thermal con-
ðT i T a Þ
ηi ¼ F R ðταÞ F R U L ð4Þ ductivity of nanofluid and therefore to an enhancement of effi-
GT
ciency of solar flat panel. However, the mechanisms of heat
Eq. (4) is based on ASHRAE method and Ti, Ta, F R ðταÞ and F R U L transfer within the nanofluids are not yet clear.
are the collector inlet fluid and ambient temperatures, absorbed Effect of surfactant was investigated through a water–Al2O3
energy parameter and removed energy parameter respectively. 0.4 wt%, with 0.21 wt% of Triton-X100. Efficiencies were calculated
G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159 1155
and compared to those obtained with nanofluid without surfac- operating temperature. Similarly, flat solar thermal collectors
tant. It was obtained a negligible variation of absorbed energy guarantee hot water or air with acceptable temperature for
parameter, , from 0.6194, without surfactant, to 0.6086, with sur- domestic uses. For this purpose, it is possible to combine both PV
factant. Removed energy parameter, , increases from 22.376, and flat plate solar thermal collector technologies in order to
without surfactant, to 24.672, with surfactant. Therefore, Triton X- reduce temperature of PV module, collecting thermal energy in
100 enhances collector efficiency. Lastly, for water–Al2O3 0.4 wt% the form of hot air (PVT/AIR) or hot water (PVT/WATER). Systems
with surfactant, it was observed efficiency directly proportional to based on this principle are known as Hybrid photovoltaic/thermal
mass flow rate. solar systems [64], designed for low temperature applications [65].
Yousefi et al. [61] also investigated efficiency of the same solar Erdil et al. [66] studied a PVT/WATER system composed of two
collector for water based nanofluids with Multi Walled Carbon modules and a warm water storage tank and tested it in Cyprus. It
Nanotubes (MWCNT). In this case, as well, surfactant effect was has been seen that electrical energy loss, depending on absorption
observed, by using Triton X-100 – to – MWCNT. Ratio between and reflection by the glass cover and water, was 11.5%. However, a
solid phase and MWCNT was of 1:350. For this purpose, 0.2 wt% PV system to supply a traditional household in Cyprus is composed
and 0.4 wt% water-MWCNT was prepared. Particularly, nanofluid of ten PV modules. Therefore, energy loss will be less than 1%, if
at 0.2 wt% was prepared with and without surfactant. Efficiencies two modules of PV system are hybrid. Besides, by economic ana-
were calculated with ASHRAE method on a mass flow rate lysis, it was obtained that pay-back period is 1.7 years for hybrid
between 0.0167 kg/s and 0.05 kg/s. Efficiency of flat plate solar system, which is employed to heat water for domestic utilization.
collector with water-MWCNT 0.2 wt% without surfactant was Another system was investigated with both natural and forced
lower than that with water with surfactant. With 0.4 wt% water- circulation mode by Chow et al. [67] in Hong Kong. Natural cir-
MWCNT an increase of efficiency was observed. In fact absorbed culation was used to calculate efficiency of PVT/WATER system
energy parameter, , increases from 39.53, for 0.2%wt, to 45.27, for without water consumption. Test data were recorded during early
0.4%wt. Removed energy parameter, , increase from 0.549, for 0.2% September 2005 and thermal efficiency of 38.9% at zero reduced
wt, to 0.912, for 0.4%wt. Adding surfactant to water, efficiency of temperature and an electricity conversion efficiency of 8.56%,
solar collector decreases, because Triton X-100 creates foam, that during late summer, were obtained. Forced and natural circula-
reduces heat transfer from pipe to liquid. Instead, with water- tions were used to evaluate efficiency of the system with a water
MWCNT 0.2 wt% with surfactant, efficiency is higher than that consumption of 0.46 m3 per day. Measurements were done from
observed with nanofluid without surfactant. In particular the July to December 2005. In this case efficiency was from 24.3% to
values of absorbed energy parameter, , and removed energy 30.9% for natural circulation and from 25.3% to 28.6% for forced
parameter, , were 0.8142 and 53.3 respectively. circulation.
Effect of nanofluids on performance of solar systems was also Touafek et al. [68] investigated on a new PVT/WATER system to
investigated by Liu et al. [62] through an evacuated tubular solar improve both thermal and electrical efficiency, through a new
air collector, integrated with simplified CPC and a special open design and with lower cost compared to conventional hybrid
thermosyphon, using water-CuO nanofluids. The mean evaporat- system. PVT system consists in a monocrystalline photovoltaic
ing heat transfer coefficient, he, in the spirally coiled tube was module having width of 0.33 m and length of 1.29 m. PV module is
calculated for water-CuO nanofluids, with a mass fraction between placed on a galvanized steel absorber that can contain water, air or
0.8 wt% and 1.5 wt%. Results were compared with heat transfer glycol. Hybrid system is insulated with glass wool. Thermal effi-
coefficient obtained by using water. It was obtained that heat ciency was investigated according to Standard ASHRAE 93-86 and
transfer coefficient was directly proportional to the mass fraction determined by following Eq. (5):
of solid phase for values up to 1.2 wt%.
mp ðT s T e Þ
Chougule et al. [63] studied efficiency of heat pipe solar col- ηth ¼ ð5Þ
ðAGÞ
lector, with water and water-CNT nanofluid respectively. For this
purpose, two identical setups were built and the working fluid was where m _ is the mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat capacity, Te
water in one setup and water-CNT 0.15 vol% nanofluid in the other and Ts are the inlet and the outlet temperature of the fluid, A is the
one. Effects of a solar tracker and tilt angle were investigated and surface of the collector and G is the solar radiation intensity. A
good results were obtained with 50° tilt angle for both water and thermal efficiency between 50% and 80% was observed during
nanofluid as working fluid. Besides solar tracker increases effi- measurements.
ciency of heat pipe solar collectors. Efficiency of heat pipe solar Robles-Ocampo et al. [69] analyzed the performance of a PTV/
collector versus reduced temperature differences was analyzed. WATER system with bifacial PV module and a set of plane reflec-
Result showed that water-CNT nanofluid increased efficiency up to tors. A transparent solar collector was placed on the front face of
10% compared to that obtained by using water. the PV module. Experimental results showed a thermal efficiency
It is evident that nanoparticles lead to an increase of both of 50%. However, a decrease of 10% of electrical efficiency for front
thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficient of traditional face of PV module was observed.
heat transfer fluids and therefore to an enhancement of efficiency Colangelo et al. [70] investigated a new type of combined
of the energy systems. Nanofluids is more stable than suspensions Photovoltaic–Thermal Solar Collector, with water as heat transfer
made with micrometer or millimeter particles, but it is necessary fluid, with two configurations (vertical and horizontal). The results
to make a right design and to choose hydraulic components in showed that available thermal energy was 691.04 kWh/m2 year for
order to avoid sedimentation. Solution proposed by Colangelo horizontal configuration and 675.46 kWh/m2 year for the vertical
et al. [55,59] is an example of how to reduce sedimentation of one, with PV gained efficiency respectively of 4.74% and 5.44%.
nanofluids. One of the disadvantages, when air is used as heat transfer
fluid, is low density, small volumetric heat capacity and small
thermal conductivity. Therefore a solution to improve heat trans-
7. Hybrid pv-solar thermal collectors fer mechanisms is to augment area of surface of heat transfer.
Tonui et al. [71] proposed an experimental study on performance
In the hot season, when solar radiation is high, photovoltaic achieved by a modified system compared to a typical PVT/AIR
systems work in unfavorable conditions, because energy conver- system. Fig. 15 shows the cross section of air channels for the
sion efficiency of PV modules is inversely proportional to typical system (REF) and the modified (TMS and FIN) PVT/AIR
1156 G. Colangelo et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 1141–1159
Fig. 16. Single-pass with double duct PVT/AIR solar collector with CPC and fins.
Table 6
Comparison among thermal efficiency of hybrid solar collectors.
Reference Fluid Flow rate [kg/s] Thermal efficiency Solar radiation [W/m2] Notes
Table 7
Future areas of possible investigation on innovative solar flat thermal collectors.
Innovative materials Increasing transmittance of the transparent cover and reducing its reflectance;
Improving performance of the colored absorber in order to use these components to reduce environ-
mental impact in building;
Studying cheaper and scalable fabrication methods.
Innovative geometries Increasing air outlet temperature or mass flow rate at the same temperature;
Studying solutions to simplify geometries to reduce manufacturing costs.
Integrated solar thermal collectors Studying solar tracking systems solutions;
Integrated solution with absorber and storage systems, obtained with traditional envelope building
materials.
Heat pipe collectors Improving heat transfer efficiency through new materials and geometry.
Innovative heat transfer fluids in solar flat thermal collectors: Improving stability of nanofluids;
nanofluids Improving heat transfer coefficient of nanofluids;
Solar thermal systems must be suitable to avoid sedimentation of solid phase inside piping.
Hybrid pv-solar thermal collectors Improving thermal efficiency of PVT/AIR systems;
Reducing manufacturing costs.
Even if the analyzed topics were very different, there is a This review has been focused on the recent developments (last
common line that join together the future trends of the research in 10 years) in the field of flat plate thermal solar collectors. These
the field of flat solar thermal collectors. All the efforts are focused types of solar collectors are the most widely used in the world
on the increasing the overall efficiency of the system, using dif- because of low cost and easy and cheap maintenance. From these
ferent strategies and with different results. The future trends will papers it is possible to deduce that the geometry of flat solar
be focused on the development of new materials, studied speci-
thermal collectors, in the last decade, has evolved. The main trend
fically for each field of application, bearing well in mind, the main
that we can appreciate is based on the presence of obstacles as
constraints of being cost effective, recyclable and with low envir-
aluminum cans, ogival elements, honeycomb slats etc. in order to
onment impact.
The research in the field of innovative heat transfer fluids such increase the heat exchange area, to reduce the heat losses and to
as nanofluids could give a good contribution to increase the effi- suppress natural convection. New models of solar collectors (as
ciency of these systems without much impact under the design cylindrical collector, double and single pass solar air heater, solar
and costs point of view. air collector of pin-fin integrated absorber, stationary V-trough
Another way to obtain at the same time increase in efficiency collector) have been designed to increase the thermal efficiency.
and costs optimization is the development of hybrid pv-solar The scientific works selected in this paper show how deep the
thermal collectors. The research in this field is very promising interest in this topic is and the directions the scientific and
and the use of this technology is able to reduce the need of industrial research are exploring for the next future. Despite of
building surface for the installation of the devices and yielding the economic considerations, that are out of the scope of this review,
not negligible effect to increase the efficiency of the pv-cells. there are some interesting and promising new technologies, that
To overcome the drawbacks of these systems is a not easy
have been explored particularly for what concerns: innovative
challenge for the research, also considering that these systems
materials, innovative geometries, integrated solar thermal collec-
have success only because they are easy to build and relatively
cheap if compared to the competitors. tors, heat-pipe collectors, innovative heat transfer fluids in solar
Table 7 shows some of the possible future areas of investigation flat thermal collectors and hybrid pv-solar thermal collectors.
to overcome technological barriers of the solar flat thermal These innovative improvements will show a new scenario for the
collectors. future solar market of the next years.
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