RADAR RECEIVERS

Introduction

1. The radar receiver has a central role in any radar system; it is responsible for
detecting the extremely weak target echoes and extracting target information. With
accurate target information, a target can be tracked and destroyed. An
understanding of receiver techniques, processing and tracking is essential in order to
counter the use of radar or protect friendly radar against enemy Electronic
Countermeasures (ECM).

Radar Receiver Function

2. The function of a radar receiver is to amplify the echoes of the transmitted

pulse and to process it in such a manner that will provide the maximum
discrimination between desired echoes and undesired interference. Remember,
echo signals detected at the antenna may range from 1 mW to 0.000,000,000,000,1
mW (10 trillion times smaller). Filtering removes any out-of-band signals, (such as
signals from other radars) and attempts to remove any signals created by the
receiver’s own electronic components (internal noise).

The Receive Process

3. The radar receiver process involves amplification, filtering and demodulation

of detected signals. The majority of radar receivers use superheterodyne (superhet)
techniques. A generic superhet receiver layout is given at Figure 1.

Figure 1: Superheterodyne Receiver

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4. A superhet receiver has the following components:

a. A RF Pre-Amplifier. This amplifies the weak RF signals and may limit

very strong signals that could saturate the receiver and processor circuits.

b. A Local Oscillator and Mixer. These components are responsible for

mixing the incoming radio frequency (RF) with a stable local oscillator to
produce an intermediate frequency (IF). This process is called
superheterodyning and depending upon the IF selected may require a number
of mixing stages.

c. An IF Amplifier. This amplifies limits and filters the IF signal.

Amplification at the IF frequency is more stable and less costly than
amplification at RF frequencies.

d. A Detector or Signal Demodulator. This component demodulates

the IF signal into a form required by the digital signal processor. This is also
identified as the Analogue to Digital Conversion stage (ADC) as the analogue
signal is converted to digital form for processing in later stages, two distinctive
forms of demodulation are:

(1) Video Demodulation. This recovers the amplitude of the signal,

(plus interference) and is often referred to as the video signal

(2) In-Phase/Quadrature (I/Q) Demodulation. This recovers the

signal-plus-interference amplitude and full signal phase information.

e. Digital Signal Processor. These module processes detected signals

to increase the strength of wanted signals (targets), in comparison to
unwanted signals (noise). It also determines the noise and gain levels within
the receiver. Following this it determines whether or not a target is present
and computes range and Doppler shift information. Data is then forwarded
antenna, to enable automatic target tracking and the display processor. In
more modern radar Target recognition is undertaken at this stage of the
receive process.

f. Data Processor. The data processor stores and processes the

location of detected targets. It smoothes target data and may provide a track-
while-scan capability. Data that is held in registers within the data processor
are then fed to the display.

g. Display. The radar display shows the processed data in an easily

assimilated form for users. The display will depend upon the function of the
radar for example a scope displays may be used for Analysis and Plan
Position Indicator (PPI) for Air Defence whilst tabular displays will provide
amplifying data for the user.

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Signal Processing

5. Receiver gain is defined as the ratio of the receiver’s output power to its input.
Since detected signals are very weak, the radar receiver may need to amplify signals
10 x 109 times. This amplification must be variable to prevent strong signals from
saturating sensitive circuits. This is achieved through a number of control techniques
implemented at the Signal Processor stage:

a. Pre-set Gain. The receiver gain is set according to the mode of radar
operation, for example long-range detection or air-to-air gun mode.

b. Manual Gain Control. The user controls the level of receiver gain.

c. Automatic Gain Control (AGC). AGC is used to maintain the desired

level of noise at the ADC stage. The module uses a circuit to monitor the output
of the amplifier and adjust the gain level for optimum detection. The gain may
be set after averaging many signals (or pulses) and may not follow rapid
changes in signal amplitude.

6. An important term in considering radar’s ability to detect very weak echoes is

its sensitivity. A receiver’s sensitivity refers to the minimum detectable signal energy
that can produce an output in the receiver (see Figure 2). Receiver sensitivities
depend upon the function of the radar and vary with the required maximum range
and detection of a specific target size. So great is the range of power of reflected
echoes that that they would exceed the dynamic range of any fixed gain receiver

7. Sensitivity Time Control (STC) causes the receiver's sensitivity to vary with
time in such a way that the amplified radar echo is independent of range. This
technique involves gradually increasing the receiver's sensitivity in order to detect
weaker echoes from long-range targets.

Figure 2: Receiver Thresholds

Noise

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8. Noise may be defined as any unwanted RF signal that includes interference
and clutter. It comes from a variety of sources and at constantly varying strengths
(see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Noises, Interference and Clutter

9. Noise may be divided into 2 general groups:

a. Natural sources of noise include:

(1) Galactic or Cosmic Noise depends on solar radiation from our

Sun and the stars, as well as meteors and space debris entering the
Earth’s atmosphere.

(2) Lightning causes atmospheric Noise.

(3) Thermal Noise is created by all objects above absolute zero as

a result of the conversion of thermal energy to electrical energy.

b. Man-made sources of noise include:

(1) Other Radar Transmissions. Often termed interference.

(2) All Electrical Equipment produces unwanted signals, which are

random in amplitude and frequency.

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 (3) Ignition Noise caused by the starting and continuous operation
of electro-mechanical motors.

(4) Radar Jamming will create a higher noise signal than the target
echo, in the radar receiver.

10. The noise level within the receiver affects the sensitivity or threshold of the
receiver (see Figure 4). As the first stage of the receiver process is to amplify the
detected signal it will include the real target echo and the external and internal noise.
The combination of external and internal noise detected by a receiver is called the
average noise level.

Figure 4: False Alarms

11. If the sensitivity is set too high weak echoes but also real targets, may go
undetected. Therefore it is important to reduce internal noise as low as possible but
to select an appropriate threshold to ensure the lowest probability of the production
of false targets. This is called the Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR) function.

12. Unfortunately the introduction of CFAR reduces the probability of detection. It

also results in a loss of signal to noise ratio and degrades range resolution. CFAR is
necessary when automatic tracking cannot handle large numbers of echo returns but
for the reasons stated above its use should be avoided if possible.

13. Interference is generally used to describe the interaction of 2 or more radar

signals on similar frequencies.

14. Clutter is the term used to describe any unwanted echoes that may appear on
a radar display. Different types of radar and different frequencies suffer from
different types of clutter. These may include:

a. Weather clutter (cloud and rain).

b. Sea clutter (from waves).

c. Ground clutter.

d. Flocks of birds.

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 e. Buildings or Trees.

15. The ease with which a radar receiver can detect a signal depends on the
signal-to-noise ratio, (SNR or S/N). For a signal to be detected above the average
noise level, the SNR must be greater than one. SNR is a critical parameter in
determining the probability of detection for a radar system.

Signal Processing

16. Good receiver design is based on maximising the SNR. The aim of signal
processing is therefore to improve the SNR, (and therefore the probability of
detection). It also extracts target information for range and velocity calculation.
Signal processors may be analogue or digital. The more modern the radar the more
likely it is to have digital processing. In general, signal processing will involve
Automatic Target detection and tracking this comprises a number of different
functions:

a. Automatic Target Detection is achieved by filtering a sequence of

returned signals into histograms. Each histogram has a number of small
discrete bins for range or Doppler frequency, (for velocity calculation). Range
bins are discrete quantities of time. Doppler bins are discrete bandwidths.
Filtering may lower the noise level at a particular range or Doppler frequency.

b. Signal integration improves radar’s probability of detection by basing

detection upon a number of pulses that are added over time, rather than a
single pulse. The pulses can be added in amplitude (non-coherent
integration), or in phase (coherent integration). Coherent integration produces
less noise and therefore a better SNR.

c. Target Tracking is achieved by the implementation of sophisticated

algorithms that take a sequence of target positions smooth them and predict
future track positions. The algorithms must take into account target fade, blind
speeds and propagation effects as well as platform velocities.

17. Particular types of radars, such as moving target indicator (MTI) and synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) carry out more specialised signal processing.

Target Range

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18. The range of a target is calculated by measuring how long the radio waves
take to reach the target and return. The time starts when the master timer sends a
synchronising pulse to the modulator and ends when the echo is detected in the
receiver/signal processor. In pulse radar, the time reference is usually the centroid of
the transmitted pulse, although the leading and trailing edges of the pulse can also
be used. The synchronising pulse is also sent from the master timer to the receiver
or display. The later is to initiate the display time-base. The target range is calculated
in the receiver/signal processor or passed directly to the display.

19. The Doppler effect is the change in frequency due to movement. A common
example is found in the roar of a racing car, which deepens as it passes by. The
velocity of the racing car compressing the sound waves ahead causes this, whilst the
sound waves spread out behind. This change in frequency is known as the Doppler
shift or Doppler frequency, and is proportional to the object’s (or target’s) relative
velocity and the transmitted frequency. (Relative velocity refers to the velocity
towards or away from the radar).

20. The Doppler effect applies to all waveforms. Radar that detects a moving
target will notice a change in frequency of the echo, related to the target’s relative
velocity. The same principle applies if the radar is moving, as in an air intercept (AI)
radar, and the target is not, such as the ground. The higher the transmitted
frequency or relative velocity, the higher the Doppler frequency or Doppler shift.
21. Doppler frequency is determined by the relative movement of the target as
follows:

a. Relative movement towards, (range decreasing), causes the Doppler

shift to increase.

b. Relative movement away, (range increasing), causes the Doppler shift

to decrease.

c. No relative movement, (constant range), causes no change in

frequency.

22. The Doppler effect gives a radar system the target's relative velocity. If the
range, angle and movement of a radar system are also fed to the signal processor,
an indication of the exact velocity of the target may be calculated. Radar that can
use the Doppler effect include:

a. Continuous wave (CW) radar.

b. Frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar.

c. Pulse Doppler (PD) radar.

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23. By sensing Doppler frequencies, a radar system can substantially reduce or
even eliminate clutter. The signal processor to enhance radar’s probability of
detecting targets can filter out weather clutter and ground clutter. Radar that uses
the Doppler effect include:

a. Moving Target Indication. This involves filtering out ground clutter by

its Doppler frequency, and can be used by airborne radar to spot moving
ground targets.

b. Look-Down-Shoot-Down. Again this involves filtering out ground

clutter, but this time to highlight low-flying aircraft. It is a technique used by all
modern fighter radar.

c. Doppler Navigation. This involves using the Doppler effect to

measure an aircraft’s own velocity. For this, the antenna beam is generally
pointed ahead and down at a shallow angle. The ground echoes are
measured in sequence at different azimuth and elevation angles. From this,
the aircraft’s ground speed and drift can be calculated and passed to the
aircraft’s navigation computer.

d. Doppler Mapping. The Doppler effect can be used by airborne radar

to improve their resolution for ground mapping by removing clutter. When the
beam is pointing directly ahead the radial velocity vectors of the clutter are
close to the Ground speed of the aircraft. However when the beam is pointing
to one side the radial velocities of the clutter decrease but the difference
across the beam increases. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and Doppler
beam sharpening (DBS) use this principle to provide high-resolution mapping.
Radar Tracking

24. Tracking is defined as the precise and continuous measurement of a target’s

range, angle and/or velocity to determine a target’s flight path and predict its future
position. The range resolution of the early warning, search and height finding radar is
not usually accurate enough to guide a missile or allow an anti-aircraft artillery (AAA)
system to shoot the target down. A high-resolution tracking radar is required to refine
the target position, so that it can be engaged and shot-down. The acquisition phase of
tracking radar begins when it searches for the target in the approximate position
passed by the low-resolution search and height finding radar.

25. Types of Tracking include:

a. Single Target Track occurs when radar follows a single target and
ignores all others. The majority of modern radar use single target track.

b. Spotlight Track occurs when radar follows one target for a period of
time and then switches to a second target and further targets, before returning
to the first target at the end of the cycle.

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 c. Track-While-Scan involves sampling the position of several targets
once per scan and uses sophisticated smoothing calculations to estimate the
position of the targets between scan samples. Typical target updates are
between once per second and once per 15 seconds.

d. Multiple Target Tracking involves sampling the position of several

targets many times per second. This requires very fast beam steering and
scans rates, which are normally possible only with electronically scanned
antennas.

26. Having detected the target, the tracking radar must have excellent range
resolution (short PW) and angle resolution (narrow beam widths) refine the target's
position. With pulse radar, a very high PRF is used to ensure a large number of
echoes are received from the target providing a high data rate to the tracking
computer. The high data rate increases the accuracy of the interception point for the
surface-to-air missile (SAM) or AAA system, particularly against a manoeuvring
target.

27. Target data from the receiver tracking circuits are fed to the antenna
servomotor this turns the antenna through the required angle so that the target is
constantly within its beam. Any error in the target position, generates angle error
signals to move the antenna in closed loop system.

Range Tracking

28. The main purpose of range tracking is to provide continuous range

information on a target. If there is more than one target appearing in the radar beam,
range tracking ensures that only the selected target is tracked.

29. Range tracking is achieved through the use of range gates. The process is as
follows:

a. After initial detection, a range gate is placed over the selected target.
This range gate is split into 2 halves; the first half called the early gate is
placed slightly short of the estimated position of the target. The other half,
called the late gate, is placed slightly beyond the estimated range.

b. Both gates output a signal that is passed to a subtraction circuit. If the

target is not positioned exactly under the range gates, the amplitudes from the
gates will be different and an error signal will be generated.

c. The error signal automatically moves the split gate until the amplitude
of the echo is equal in both halves. It also drives the servomotor to move the
antenna. This technique is known as a tracking loop.

d. The rate at which the range changes (range rate) is required by the
computer to predict the correct position for the range gate when the next echo
is due to arrive. Range rate is mathematically calculated.

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 Figure 5: Ranges Gate (Lock On)

30. Many modern radar systems use additional range gates known as guard
gates. Guard gates assist in track initiation, sensing separations from targets being
tracked (such as missile launches), and to counter certain types of deception ECM.

Velocity Tracking

31. If a target is moving relative to radar, the frequency in the reflected echoes will
be modified by the Doppler shift. Some tracking radar track targets in velocity by
using Doppler information. This can be achieved using a velocity gate. The method
of operation is as follows.

a. A velocity gate is a narrowband band pass filter. The radar adjusts the
tuning of the filter automatically in response to changes in target speed.

b. This may be done by a split-gate technique, very similar to that of

range tracking.

c. Two parallel band pass filters cover successive ranges of Doppler

shifts.

d. If the signals received in them are of unequal strengths, an error signal

will retune the filters until the signal strengths are equal.

e. The radar has now locked-on.

32. SAM radars that use semi-active guidance and air intercept (AI) radars use
velocity tracking.

Angle Tracking

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33. To accurately aim AAA or to guide a missile to its target, radar must measure
target angle both in azimuth and elevation. Angle errors must come from only one
target; otherwise the system will not accurately track the required target. When
many targets are present only the required target must be selected and all others
rejected. This is achieved through the process of gating. Targets can be selected
within a gate, based on time of arrival (range gating) or the Doppler shift of a target
(velocity gating).

34. To obtain accurate angle information, a pencil beam could be used.

Unfortunately this would illuminate only a small area and it would be difficult to locate
a target and then keep it in the tracking beam. To overcome this problem different
types of radar have been developed that maintain accurate angle tracking whilst
covering a relatively large area. 3 main types of angle tracking have been developed:
Sequential lobing, Conical scan, and Monopulse, these techniques are discussed
below.

Sequential Lobing

35. This method of angle tracking was developed during World War II and is also
known as lobe switching or lobe angle tracking. It is still used by some older fire
control radar, modern multi-mode radars and for satellite tracking.

36. In sequential lobing radar, a single pencil beam is switched between 2

positions that generate overlapping coverage to measure target angle in azimuth.
The displacement off of the central axis or boresight is known as the squint angle.
The signal strengths are compared, over time, from the different beam positions. If
the target is not on the boresight, the signal strengths will not be equal and an error
signal is generated. This moves the antenna radar boresight towards the stronger
echo. When the 2 echo strengths are equal, the target is on the boresight in azimuth.
By switching the pencil beam between 2 positions, one above the other, it is also
possible to track the target in elevation. By switching the beam between all 4
different positions, the target is tracked in both azimuth and elevation. Lobing rates
can be as high as 50 Hz. Sequential lobing is an old method of angle tracking and is
gradually being replaced by monopulse tracking.

37. Sequential lobing radar requires a train of pulses to achieve target tracking.
Additionally, power is wasted due to the squint angle (the target is not in the centre of
the beam). The measurement of signal strength in each beam position at slightly
different times means that the system is relatively easy to jam by transmitting noise
into one or more of the beam positions.

38. The Lobe-On-Receive-Only (LORO) technique overcomes the inherent

weakness in sequential lobing. LORO uses a non-scanning or floodlight transmitted
beam. Separate receive-only antennas are scanned to give the sequential lobing
comparison. Electronically scanned radars also use LORO. The AN/APG-66 in the
F-16 is an example.

Conical Scan

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39. A conical scanning (conscan) radar uses a single squinted pencil beam that is
rapidly rotated around the boresight of the radar. Typically, the radar may use a 2°
beam, rotated at 50 to 100 Hz, with a squint angle of 2°. The higher rotation rate
gives a higher data rate than sequential lobing radars.

40. There are 3 methods of achieving conical scan radar: Mechanically rotating
an offset waveguide feed to a parabolic reflector, mechanically wobbling the
parabolic dish. Changing the phase of the signal fed to the antenna.

41. Method of Operation. When the target is off boresight, the returning echoes
vary in amplitude at the conscan rate. The phase and depth of this amplitude
modulation depends on the angular difference between the target line-of-sight and
the boresight. By comparing the conical scan modulation with 2 reference signals
(azimuth and elevation), tracking error signals can be applied to an electro-
mechanical servo to position the boresight on the target. On boresight, the conical
scan gives a constant amplitude signal. The radar system is then locked-on.

42. Like sequential lobing, conscan radars do not achieve instantaneous tracking
and suffer from crossover losses. Additionally, conical scan radars are relatively
easy to jam by transmitting noise into one or more of the beam positions. Conical-
Scan-On-Receive-Only (COSRO) overcomes the problem by using 2 antennas; one
to transmit and the other to receive. The conical scan pattern is produced purely by
the receive antenna. This hides the conscan modulation rate from a jammer in the
same manner as LORO.

43. The Scan-With-Compensation technique is similar to conscan except that 2

pencil beams are rotated around a boresight instead of one. One beam is active
(that is transmits and receives); the other is passive and connected to a separate
receiver. The 2 beams are arranged such that they scan opposite sides of the circle.
The outputs of the 2 receivers, which are in anti-phase, are fed into a subtracting
circuit. This results in an enhanced error signal, which cannot be deceived by
jamming.

Figure 6: Monopulse Beams

Monopulse Tracking

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44. Unlike sequential and conical tracking, where several scans are required to
establish a target track, a monopulse tracking radar can theoretically obtain angle on
the basis of transmitting and receiving a single pulse. Monopulse tracking is also
known as simultaneous lobing.

45. With a monopulse tracking radar, a single beam is used to illuminate the
target. On receive, the echo is split into a number of separate overlapping receive
paths. These correspond to relative positions around the target, equivalent to
squinted, simultaneous lobes. This can be done by mechanical means, such as
having 4 feed horns within a single reflector antenna or, at a very basic level, having
4 separate antennas and receivers. Alternatively, a phased array antenna can be
used.

46. The received signals are passed to a waveguide hybrid junction, known as a
comparator, which separates the signal into Range, elevation and azimuth channels
(see Figure 7). The channels are compared and the sum (Σ ) and difference (∆ )
computed. The sum is used for detection and ranging. The elevation and traverse
differences are used for angle tracking.

47. If the target is not on radar boresight, an error signal is generated and the
antenna moved. When no error signal is generated, the target is exactly on the
radar boresight and no movement is required. Theoretically monopulse tracking can
achieve angle tracking from a single pulse. In reality, several pulses are used.

48. Most modern tracking radars use monopulse techniques. Pulse, continuous
wave and pulse Doppler waveforms can use monopulse tracking, as can phased
array radars.

49. Monopulse tracking is achieved in one of two ways:

a. Amplitude comparison monopulse radar compares the signal strength,

or amplitude of the target echo in 4 positions. If, typically, 4 feed horns are
used, the distance between the horns needs to be very small (a few
wavelengths across), so that the phases of signal fed to the 4 receive
quadrants are within a few degrees of one another. The sum and differences
are calculated as described above. Variations in target amplitude caused by
multipathing and other circuit measurement inaccuracies give rise to errors.
Consequently this represents the older method of monopulse tracking and
suffers from slightly more errors than phase comparison monopulse.

b. Phase comparison monopulse radar compares the difference in phase

of the target echo at each position, using typically 4 antennas, such as in a
phased array. The phase difference can be converted into an angle off-
boresight and this error signal used to move the boresight onto the target.
Phase comparison monopulse is more accurate than amplitude comparison
monopulse. All modern phased array tracking and multi-function Radars use
phase comparison monopulse.

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 Figure 7: Monopulse Calculations

50. Monopulse tracking generally offers the following advantages over sequential
lobing and conical scan radar:

a. It is difficult for the target to know that it is being tracked because there
is no variations in scan modulation.

b. Monopulse radar suffers less wear from mechanical vibration.

c. Higher data rates are generated, which can mean tracking is more
accurate.

d. Less susceptible to basic jamming.

51. Monopulse Tracking has the following major disadvantages:

a. The complexity of the monopulse system. Multiple receivers are

required, with accurate, balanced outputs. Gain and phase shifts in the 3
error channels must be tightly controlled.

b. They are more expensive than sequential lobing and conscan radar.

Summary

52. The radar receiver plays a major role in the detection of targets and
presenting usable information to the operator. An understanding of the above basic
receiver processing techniques will enable a radar operator to negate the effects of
false targets and clutter.

53. Knowledge of how a radar receiver works is also very important for EW, as it
provides a basis for exploiting the weaknesses of a radar system.

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