CVG4184/6305: Rock Mechanics

Winter 2019

Chapter 3: Rock Properties

and Laboratory Testing

Course Instructor:
Rozalina Dimitrova
Office: A-333A(CBY)
E-mail: rdimitro@uottawa.ca
Tel: (613) 562-5800 Ext. 6133
Introduction
• Rock mass consists of intact rock blocks, separated by
various discontinuities.
• Rock fragments and rock cores used in laboratory tests
are generally all intact rocks.
• The intact rock itself is a non-homogeneous,
anisotropic and inelastic material.
• The engineering performance of a rock mass under
external loadings is very often governed by the
strength and orientation of the discontinuities rather
than the properties of the intact rock.
• Other factors that influence rock behavior are the
presence of water and the in-situ stresses within the
rock mass.

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Index properties of intact rocks
• The index properties of intact rocks can help describe
rocks quantitatively and can be used for estimating
mechanical and hydraulic properties of rocks.
• Porosity, n

Vv V  Vs
n  Where:
V V V = total volume; Vv = pore volume; Vs = volume of solids

 Porosity varies significantly for different rocks and

even for the same rock due to different factors such
as grain size distribution, grain shape, and depth
and overburden stress.
 Porosity generally decreases with increasing depth
or vertical effective stress.

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Index properties of intact rocks
• Density: depends on the mineral composition, the
porosity and the filling material in the voids.
 Bulk density, 
M  Gs  Se 
   w
V  1 e 
 Dry density, d
M s  Gs 
d    w
V 1 e 
 Saturated density, sat

M s  M w  Gs  e 
 sat    w
V  1 e 

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 4

Index properties of intact rocks
• Density

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Index properties of intact rocks
• Wave velocity (ultrasonic testing): ultrasound
compression (P-wave) and shear (S-wave) waves are
transmitted through homogeneous isotropic rock
specimens.
• The ultrasonic elastic constants are calculated from the
measured travel time and distance of compression and
shear waves in a rock specimen.
• Useful for rock classification purposes and the
evaluation of static and dynamic properties at small
strains.
• Ultrasonic results provide an index of the degree of
fissuring within the rock mass.
• Test is inexpensive to perform and is nondestructive.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 6

Index properties of intact rocks
• Samples may be prepared in a variety of shapes and
sizes as long as they have two flat, parallel surfaces
for transducer coupling.
• Commonly they will be cylinders or blocks with
thicknesses ranging from 50 mm to 250 mm in the
direction of measurement.

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Index properties of intact rocks
• Wave velocity (ultrasonic testing):

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 8

Types of laboratory tests
• Characterization
 Porosity, density, water content
 Absorption
 Point load strength index
 Uniaxial compressive strength and deformability
 Swelling and slake-durability
 Wave velocity
• Engineering design
 Triaxial strength and deformability test
 Tensile strength test
 Permeability

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Soils versus rocks
• Soils versus rocks
 A commonly used cut-off is the uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) of 1 MPa.
 Soils have their UCS and E generally reported in
kPa and MPa, respectively.
 In rocks, they are orders of magnitude greater and
are reported in MPa and GPa, respectively.
• Specimen preparation
 Laboratory tests such as UCS, triaxial and point
load tests require cylindrical specimens that have
their ends cut parallel and flat, such that they are
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
specimen.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 10

Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
• Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
 A cylindrical rock specimen is subjected to an axial
load, without any lateral confinement.
 The axial load is increased gradually until the
specimen fails and the vertical normal stress at
failure is known as the unconfined compressive
strength or uniaxial compressive strength (c).
 Test is also used to compute the elastic (Young’s)
modulus (E) and the Poisson’s ratio ().

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 11

Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
• Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
 Cylindrical test specimens having a height to
diameter ratio of 2.5–3.0 and a diameter preferably
of not less than NX core size (54 mm).

1  
2  3  0
L
a 
L
D
l 
D

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 12

Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
• Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS)
 The specimen is loaded axially at a constant rate of
strain or stress such that it fails in 5–15 minutes.
Pmax
c 
A

Unlike saturated undrained

clays, the friction angle of a rock
specimen is not zero, and hence,
the Mohr–Coulomb failure
envelope is not horizontal:
2c cos 
c 
1  sin 

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 13

Elastic Constants
• Elastic (Young’s) modulus (E): both axial (or vertical)
and lateral (or diametral) strains are measured during
compression.

E


Young’s modulus: (a) tangent modulus, (b) secant modulus, and

(c) average modulus.

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Elastic Constants
Example 1
A 50.5 mm-diameter, 129 mm-long rock specimen is
subjected to a uniaxial compression test. The load–axial
displacement plot is shown below. Determine the UCS
and Young’s modulus of the intact rock specimen.

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Elastic Constants
Example 1 – Solution

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Elastic Constants
• Poisson’s ratio ()

Lateral strain l
  
Axial strain a

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Elastic Constants
Example 2
The stress-strain plots obtained from a uniaxial
compression test on rock are shown below. Determine
the tangent, secant and average moduli of elasticity and
the corresponding values of the Poisson’s ratio.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 18

Elastic Constants
• Bulk modulus (K)
E
K
3(1  2 )

• Shear modulus (G)

E
G
2(1   )

• Volumetric strain
 v   a  2 l

• Modulus ratio: the ratio of the Young’s modulus (E) to

the uniaxial compressive strength (σc).

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Typical values of UCS
• Typical values of UCS of common rock types

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Indirect Tensile Strength
• Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) Test (Brazilian test):
 The tensile strength of a rock is required in design
and analysis of excavations, tunnels, and slopes.
 Test provides indirect way of measuring the tensile
strength of a cylindrical rock specimen having the
shape of a disc (T/D=0.5).

Failure plane

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Indirect Tensile Strength
• Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) Test (Brazilian test):
 The test specimen diameter should be at least of
NX core size (54 mm).
 The loading rate should be selected such that the
specimen fails in 1–10 minutes.
 The tensile strength of the rock (σt) is given by
2P
t 
 dt
Where:
d = specimen diameter
P = the load at failure
t = specimen thickness

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 22

Indirect Tensile Strength
• Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) Test (Brazilian test):
 In the absence of measurements, σt is assumed to
be 1/5 to 1/20 of σc.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 23

Point Load Strength
• Point Load Strength Test
 Oldest index test for strength classification of rocks.
 Quick test (10-60s) that can be conducted on
regular rock cores or irregular rock fragments.

Possible specimen shapes and loading directions: (a) diametrical, (b) axial,
(c) block and (d) irregular.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 24

Point Load Strength
• Point Load Strength Test
 The load is increased to failure and the point load
strength index Is is calculated based on the failure
load and the distance D between the cone tips:
P
Is  2
De
Where:
De = equivalent specimen diameter;
De = D for diametrical test;
In axial, block or irregular tests:

4A 4WD
De  
 

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 25

Point Load Strength
• Point Load Strength Test
 The index, Is, varies with De and so size correction
must be applied to obtain a unique point load
strength index for a particular rock sample for use
for strength classification;
 The size-corrected point load strength index, Is(50),
is defined as the value of Is that would have been
measured in a diametrical test with D = 50 mm.

0.45
 De 
I s (50)  Is   where De is in mm.
 50 

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 26

Point Load Strength
• Point Load Strength Test
 Correlation between Is(50) and c:
 c  (22  24) I s (50 )
 Correlation between Is(50) and t:
 t  1.25 I s (50 )
 Point load strength anisotropy index Ia(50): the ratio
of Is(50) obtained when testing perpendicular and
parallel to the planes of weakness.
I s (50) 
I a (50 ) 
I s (50 ) //

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 27

Point Load Strength
• Point Load Strength Test – typical test results
Note1: the highest and the lowest
values are discarded and the
average of the remaining values is
reported as the point load strength
index, Is(50).

Note2: Point load test results are not

acceptable if the failure plane lies
partially along a pre-existing fracture
in the rock, or is not coincident with
the line between the platens.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 28

Point Load Strength
Example 3
Point load tests were carried out on two sedimentary
rock specimens of 54 mm diameter (NX core), as shown
the following figure The loads P⊥ and P// at failure are
6.28 kN and 4.71 kN, respectively. Find the point load
strength index Is(50) in the two directions and compute
the point load strength anisotropy index Ia(50).

a) b)

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 29

Direct Shear Strength
• Direct Shear Strength Test
 A rock specimen is placed in the lower half of the
shear box and encapsulated in either synthetic
resin or mortar.
 The specimen must be positioned so that the line
of shear force lies in the plane of the discontinuity
to be investigated.
 The specimen is then mounted in the upper shear
box and the normal load (N) and shear force (T)
are applied.
 Used to assess peak and residual shear strength of
discontinuity.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 30

Direct Shear Strength
• Direct Shear Strength Test

N
n 
Ac

T

Ac

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 31

Direct Shear Strength
• Direct Shear Strength Test
 Usually three tests are performed and plots of
shear stress versus shear displacement and normal
displacement versus shear displacement are
prepared.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 32

Triaxial compression
• Triaxial Test
 Cylindrical rock specimen having a height to
diameter ratio of 2.0–3.0 and a diameter preferably
of not less than NX core size (54 mm).
 The specimen is encased in a flexible impervious
membrane to prevent the confining fluid (oil) from
entering the specimen pores.
 The vertical stress (Δσ) is increased at a constant
stress/strain rate until failure occurs (5–15 min).
 The vertical stress at failure (σ1) is given by σ1+Δσ.
 Axial load and axial deformation are measured, but
pore water pressure or drainage are not.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 33

Triaxial compression
• Triaxial Test

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 34

Triaxial compression
• Behaviour of isotropic rock material in triaxial
compression

Complete axial stress– axial strain curves

obtained in triaxial compression tests on
Tennessee Marble

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 35

Triaxial compression
• With increasing the confining pressure,
 the peak strength increases;
 there is a transition from typically brittle to fully
ductile behaviour;
 the region incorporating the peak of the σa–εa
curve flattens and widens;
 the post-peak drop in stress to the residual strength
reduces and disappears at high values of σ3.
 The confining pressure at which the post-peak
reduction in strength disappears and the behaviour
becomes fully ductile is known as the brittle–ductile
transition pressure and varies with rock type.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 36

Triaxial compression
Example 4
The following table shows data obtained Total Axial Load,  Sample Height,  Sample Diameter, 
P L D
from a single-stage triaxial compression (kN) (mm) (mm)
test on a cylindrical rock sample, 19.79 100.84 50.200

conducted at a confining stress of 10.0

39.68 100.8 50.201
59.39 100.77 50.203
MPa. The pore water pressure was not 83.20
108.47
100.74
100.71
50.205
50.208
measured during the test. Estimate: 135.98 100.68 50.212
164.48 100.65 50.216
a) The peak strength; 181.81 100.63 50.222

b) The residual strength;

205.05 100.58 50.236
210.45 100.56 50.246

c) The tangent Young's modulus Etan at

211.82 100.54 50.253
200.06 100.52 50.258
50% peak stress; and 157.40 100.49 50.265
135.64 100.46 50.271
d) The tangent Poisson's ratio at 50% 121.78 100.43 50.277
117.83 100.4 50.283
peak axial stress. 116.84 100.37 50.283

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 37

Triaxial compression
Example 4 – Solution

Total Axial Load,  Sample Height,  Sample Diameter,  Axial Stress,  Deviator Stress,  Axial Strain,  Lateral Strain, 

P L D 1 1 ‐ 3 a l
(kN) (mm) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
19.79 100.84 50.200 10.00 0.00 0.0000 0.0000
39.68 100.8 50.201 20.05 10.05 0.0397 ‐0.0020
59.39 100.77 50.203 30.01 20.01 0.0694 ‐0.0060
83.20 100.74 50.205 42.03 32.03 0.0992 ‐0.0100
108.47 100.71 50.208 54.79 44.79 0.1289 ‐0.0159
135.98 100.68 50.212 68.67 58.67 0.1587 ‐0.0239
164.48 100.65 50.216 83.05 73.05 0.1884 ‐0.0319
181.81 100.63 50.222 91.78 81.78 0.2083 ‐0.0438
205.05 100.58 50.236 103.45 93.45 0.2578 ‐0.0717
210.45 100.56 50.246 106.13 96.13 0.2777 ‐0.0916
211.82 100.54 50.253 106.80 96.80 0.2975 ‐0.1056
200.06 100.52 50.258 100.85 90.85 0.3173 ‐0.1155
157.40 100.49 50.265 79.32 69.32 0.3471 ‐0.1295
135.64 100.46 50.271 68.34 58.34 0.3768 ‐0.1414
121.78 100.43 50.277 61.34 51.34 0.4066 ‐0.1534
117.83 100.4 50.283 59.34 49.34 0.4363 ‐0.1653
116.84 100.37 50.283 58.84 48.84 0.4661 ‐0.1653

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 38

Triaxial compression
Example 4 – Solution

1 ‐ 3 (MPa)
120
Deviator stress vs axial strain
Deviator stress vs lateral strain

peak = 97 MPa
100

80

60
res = 49 MPa
peak /2
40

20

0
‐0.2 ‐0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
l (%) a (%) 

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 39

Slake Durability
• Slake Durability Test
 The slake durability index quantifies the resistance
of a rock to wetting and drying cycles and is a
measure of the durability of the rock.
 Test is mainly used for weak rocks (shales,
mudstones, claystones and siltstones).
 Dried fragments of rock are placed in a drum made
of wire mesh partially submerged in distilled water.
 The drum is rotated for 10 minutes, allowing for
disintegrated fragments to leave the drum through
the 2-mm sieve mesh. The remaining fragments in
the drum are dried and weighed.
 Test is repeated over a second cycle of slaking.
CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 40
Slake Durability
• Slake Durability Test

m2
I d1  100 Where:
m1 m1 = dry mass of the original lumps in the drum
m2 = dry mass of the material retained in the drum after the
m3 first cycle
Id 2  100
m1 m3 = dry mass of the material retained after the second cycle

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 41

Slake Durability Test – typical results
• Slake Durability Test – typical test results

Note1: The second-cycle slake durability index Id2 is the one that is commonly
used as a measure of rock durability. Only in rocks that are classified as very
low in durability with Id2 < 10%, it is recommended to include Id1 as well.
CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 42
Schmidt Hammer Test
• Schmidt Hammer Test
 To determine the rebound hardness value, R
(0<R<100) for intact rock specimens in the
laboratory or in-situ.
 Performed on rocks with UCS of 20–150 MPa
(ISRM,1978).
 Two types of Schmidt hammers are commonly
used: L-type with an impact energy of 0.735 N⋅m
and N-type with an impact energy of 2.207 N⋅m.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 43

Schmidt Hammer Test
• Schmidt Hammer Test
 The spring-loaded metal
piston is released when the
plunger is pressed against
the rock surface.
 The impact of the piston
onto the plunger transfers
the energy to the rock.
 How much of this energy is
recovered depends on the
hardness of the rock and is
measured by the rebound
height of the piston.
 The harder the surface, the
greater the rebound.

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 44

Empirical correlations
• Empirical correlations interrelating the intact rock
parameters:

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 45

Empirical correlations
• Empirical correlations interrelating the intact rock
parameters:

CVG4184/6305 Rock Mechanics 46