ELEC3105 – ELECTRICAL

ENERGY

Transformers
Outline of today
today’ss lecture
• Basic working principle of ideal transformer
• Impedance transformation
• Non-ideal
Non ideal or practical transformer
• Equivalent circuit
• Ph
Phasor di
diagram
• Determination of parameters of equivalent circuit.
Various types of transformers
Transformers
• Changes
g AC ppower at one voltageg level to ac ppower at
another voltage level through magnetic field.
• |Indispensible in energy conversion systems.
systems
• A simple device: consist of two or more coils coupled by a
common magnetic ti circuit.
i it
Ferromagnetic core provides high flux density B
g magnetic
and tight g coupling.
p g

Two winding Transformer

Types of transformer
• Core type • Shell type
Ideal Transformer
Assumptions:
• Ferromagnetic core has infinite permeability (i.e. μ of the
core material
t i l is
i infinite).
i fi it )
• No leakage flux hence, same flux links all the windings.
• Zero
Z magnetizing
ti i currentt to
t establish
t bli h the
th flux
fl in
i the
th core.
• Negligible core/iron loss.
• Negligible
N li ibl winding
i di resistance.
i
Ideal transformer equations
• AC source v1(t) in primary winding, a
time varying flux  establish in the core
time-varying  I2
which induces a voltage(EMF) e1(t). I1
N1
V1 E1 N2 E2 V2 ZL
d 
v1  e1   N1  2 fN1max cos t   Emax sin(t  )
dt 2
E
4 44 fN1max
E1  max  4.44
2  (t )  max sin t
  2 f
• The core flux  also links secondaryy
winding and induces a voltage (EMF) 
e2(t) which is equal to terminal voltage
v2(t).
() V1 or E1
d 
v2  e2   N 2  2 fN 2max sin(t  )
dt 2
E2  4.44 fN 2max

• From
F above
b equations,
ti e1 E1 V1 N1
   a
e2 E2 V2 N 2 a : turns ratio
Ideal transformer current relation
• When secondary terminal  I2
V2
connects to load I 2  flows. I1
N1
ZL V1 E1 N2 E2 V2 ZL

• By Lentz’s Law, N1I1  N 2 I 2

I1 N 2 1 I1 I2
• Hence,  
I 2 N1 a
V1 E1 E2 V2

• Also, E1I1  E2 I 2 and V1I1  V2 I 2

Schematic of ideal transformer
(()) Indicates positive direction of current
current-
polarity marking
Polarity marking is important to know if you
need to connect transformers in parellel.
parellel
Polarity and Parallel connection of transformer

I2 I1 I2
I1

E2 V1 E1 E2 V2
V1 E1 V2

I2 I1 I2
I1

E2 V1 E1 E2 V2
V1 E1 V2

Wrong Parallel connection

Correct Parallel connection
Example
• A ideal transformer has 90 turns on the primary and 2250
turns on the secondary and is connected to a 240V, 50 Hz
source. Find induced rms voltage g across secondary
y and
instantaneous induced secondary voltage e2(t) when the
instantaneous voltage across the primary is 37 V.V
Ans: 6kV and 925V.
• Same
S id
ideall transformer
t f off above
b is
i now connected
t d to
t
200V, 50Hz source. The load across the secondary draws
2A at a PF of 0.80 lagging. Find primary rms current and
ppeak flux linked by y the secondaryy windingg
Ans: 50A, 10 mWb
Step-up
Step up and step-down
step down transformer
• A transformer that increases voltage from primary to
secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary
windingg turns)) is called a step-up
p p transformer. ((more
secondary winding turns than primary winding turns)
11kV 66kV

• Conversely, a transformer designed to do just the opposite

is called a step-down transformer. (less secondary winding
turns than primary winding turns)
230V 110 V
Impedance transformation
I1 I2

V2
E1 E2 Z2
V1

V2
• Load impedance Z2 
I2
V1 aV2
• Input impedance Z1  
I1 I 2 a
 a 2 Z 2  Z 2

• Similarly, Z1 
Z1 Z'1 and Z'2 are called referred or reflected
a2 p
impedance

• Transfer of impedance from primary to secondary or vice

versa is possible.
Exercise
• Find the total input impedance
seen by the source when load
impedance
p ZL = 10 30o in a stepp
down transformer i.e. turns ratio a
1/ 4.
=1/ 4

Z1  a 2 Z 2  0.54
0 54  j 0.313
0 313
 Z i _ Total  4  j 2  0.54  j 0.313
 4.54  j1.69

• Ans:
A 4.54
4 54 –j1.69
1 69
Non-ideal
Non ideal Transformer
•Presence of winding resistances R1 and R2
▫Both
B th windings
i di are made
d off copper andd have
h certain
t i
length and cross-sectional area.
▫ Resistive drop
p (IR)
( ) needs to be added or subtracted
from induced emf E to get the terminal voltage V
i.e. E ≠ V.
• Requirement of magnetizing current Im
▫Permeability of the core in not infinite, magnetizing 
current Im is needed to set up core flux I1
I2

N1 I1  N 2 I 2  0  N1 I1  N 2 I 2   H c .dl N1
E2 V2 ZL
V1 E1 N2
▫ Im can be found from Hc c

•Presence
Presence of Iron losses Pc (Hysteresis and eddy
current loss)
Pc
▫It is represented by an additional currentI c  and a
V1
resistance
it Rc
• Presence of leakage inductances L1 and L2
▫ Flux of the windings leaks to air which is
represented by leakage inductance.
Circuit of non
non-ideal
ideal transformer
Id ea l
Ip R1 L1 I1 Tra nsformer R2 L2 I2
Ic
Inl E1
Ic Im nl
V1 E1 E2 V2 Load
RC Lm

Im Inl

• Ic and Im flow regardless of whether the secondary is connected

to load or not. Sum of these two currents is called as no-load
current Inl or excitation current.
current
P
• No load Power factor of the transformer PF 
EI
 cos  nl
c

1 nl
nl

dim
• Primary
Pi induced
i d d voltage
lt e1 (t )  Lm
dt
• Operates in the linear region of the BH characteristic of core
material, hence Im is sinusoidal (assumed).
• In a typical power transformer, Inl is 5% of full load current
and Im may have non-sinusoidal part up to 40% of the Inl.
Leakage inductances
N1L1 N 2L 2
L1  , L2 
I1 I2
• Flux that links both windings (mutual flux),
flux)
m  1  L1  2  L 2
Example
• The secondary winding of transformer has 180 turns.
When the transformer is connected to a load, secondary
draws a current 18A. Supply
pp y frequency
q y is 60 Hz. The
mutual flux has peak value of 20 mWb and secondary
leakage flux 3mWb.
3mWb Find the secondary leakage reactance
and induced voltage due to mutual flux.

Hint first find the induced voltage due to leakage flux by

Faraday’s law and dividing this voltage by current will
ggive yyou the reactance.
Equivalent circuit
;

;
Ideal
Ip R1 L1 I1 Transformer R2 L2 I2 Ip R1 L1 I1 R’2 L’2 I’2
Inl Inl
Ic Im Ic Im
V1 E1 E2 V2 Load V1 V’2 Load
RC Lm RC Lm

Exact equivalent circuit

Ip I1 R1 R’2 L1 L’2
L I’2
N1 N I N
V2'  V2  aV2 I 2'  2 I 2  2 E2'  1 E2  aE2
Inl N2 N1 a N2
Req Leq 2 2
Ic Im
V1 V’2
V Load N  N 
RC Lm R2'   1  R2  a 2 R2 L'2   1  L2  a 2 L2
 N2   N2 

Ip I1 R1 a2R2 jX1 ja2X2 I’2

Approximate equivalent circuit Inl
Req jXeq
Ic Im Load
V1 R V’2
Req  R1  R2'  R1  a 2 R2 C jXm Zeq RL+jXL

Leq  L1  L2  L1  a 2 L2
X eq  j2 fL1  j2 fa 2 L2  j L1  a 2 L2  
X m  j Lm
Z eq  Req  jX eq
Referred approximate equivalent circuit
Ip I1 R1 R’ 2 jX 1 jX ’2 I’2
I nl
R eq jX eq
Ic Im Load
V1 R V ’2
C
jX m Z eq R L + jX L

Referred to primary side

I’p I’1 R ’1 R2 jX’ 1 jX 2 I2

II’n l
R eq jX eq
I’c I’ m Load
V’ 1 R’ V2
C
jjX’ m Z eq R L + jX L

Referred to secondary side

Phasor diagram(Referred to primary side)
Ip I1 R1 a2R2 jX1 ja2X2 I’2 V1
Inl
I '2 Xeq
L
Req jXeq
Ic Im Load
V1 R
C jXm Zeq
V’2
RL+jXL s V2'
Inl I '2 I 2' Req
 X eq 
Z eq  2
Req  2
X eq l  tan 1   IP
R
 eq 
I1  I 2 L  tan 1 
 XL 

 RL 
I P  I 2  I nl
V1  V200  I 2   L  Z eq   l
V1  V200  I 2   L  ( Req  jjX eq )
Measurement of Transformer Parameter
• Parameters - RC, R1, R2, L1, L2, and Lm
• Determined by two simple tests-
▫ Open circuit test
test- RC , Lm
▫ Short circuit test- R1, R2, L1, L2 (Req,Xeq)

Ip I1 R1 a2R2 jX1 ja2X2 I’2

Inl
Req jXeq
Ic Im Load
V1 R V’2
C jXm Zeq RL+jXL
Open circuit test
• One side of the transformer supplied with its rated voltage
V while the other side is open circuited.
• Thee transformer
t a s o e draws
d aws no-load
o oad current
cu e t Inl app
appropriate
op ate for
o
the winding (primary or secondary) and power, Pnl. The
input voltage V,
V power Pnl, and current Inl are then
measured. I
V Inl
Rc 
V2 Ic  Ic
Rc Im
P V P Lm
RC
I m  I 2  I c2
V
Xm  Since it is convenient to measure low-voltage, OC test is usually
Im
done on low voltage side of the transformer . If the LV side of the
Xm t
transformer
f is
i secondary
d side,
id then
th these
th formula
f l give
i Rc and d Lm
Lm 
2 f referred to the secondary. These values can be easily converted
back to primary by multiplying with a2
Short circuit test
• One winding of the transformer is short circuited while the
other winding is supplied with a small voltage enough to
let rated current to flow on either winding.
g
• The input voltage V, power P and currents I in both sides
are measured
measured. The turns-ratio a is found from the
measured currents in both sides of the transformer.
P Req I jXeq
Req  2 A
I
V V A
Z eq  P
I

X eq  Z eq
2
 Req
2

R1 andd a2R2 can nott be

b separated
t d from
f this
thi test.
t t Usually,
U ll R1
and a2R2 are of equal values. Similarly, X1 (or L1) and a2X2
(or a2L2 ) can not be separated but are of equal value.
Example
• A large transformer is operating at no-load and drawing a
current of 5 A from a voltage source of 120V,60Hz. Power
consumed during g this condition is 180W(core
( loss).
)
What is the value of Rc and Xm and value of ic and , im?
Ans: 80 ohm,
ohm 25.2
25 2 ohm,
ohm 1.5A
1 5A and 4.8A.
4 8A
 Lecture 6

Rukmi Dutta
Out line
• Rating of transformer
• The Per Unit (PU) system
• Performance
▫ Voltage regulation
▫ Efficiency
• Special type : Instrument transformers
Cut out of transformers
Power Transformer

core
Ratings
• Four major ratings:
▫ Apparent power in VA/kVA/MVA
▫ Voltage E1  4.44 fN1max  4.44 fN1 Bmax Sc
▫ Current E1
▫ Frequency max 
4.44 fN
• Function of Voltage rating:
1

1
1. Protect the winding insulation(dielectric) from break-down
break down due to
excessive applied voltage.
2. Limit the magnetization current in the core. If the core is allowed to
go to deep
d iin saturation,
i a vary peaky
k magnetization
i i current will ill be
b
required to maintain the Bmax.
• Higher
g e than
t a the
t e rated
ated frequency
eque cy results
esu ts in higher
g e voltage
vo tage if flux
u iss
maintained same. Opposite of this is also true i.e lower frequency
results in lower voltage.
• The apparent po
powerer rating with
ith voltage
oltage rating determines how
ho much
m ch
current flows in the winding.
• Amount of current flow determines copperpp loss (I2R) and heating g of
the winding due this loss.
Summery of Rating
• Rated values:
▫ The safe maximum value of frequency, voltage, current and
p(
volt-amp(kVA) ) at which the transformer can operate
p
continuously.

• V1 and f determines flux in the core and also iron loss

• Currents determine copper loss (I2R) of the winding

• Total power loss P  P  I R  I R must be such that

L c 1
2
1
2
2 2

temperature rise due to it , is within the safe withstanding

limit of insulation of the transformer.
transformer
Problem of inrush current
• if the applied voltage is v1 (t )  Vmax sin t    , the maximum
flux on the first half cycle of the applied voltage depends
on its p
phase angle
g θ.
• It can be easily shown that if   900 , max  Vmax and if
N1
2Vmax
2V
  0 , max
0

N1
• Doubling of maximum flux for θ =0, results in a very large
magnetizing
g g current. This excess current flow during
g the
first start up of transformer is known as inrush current.
This usually settles down after a few cycles, once θ
increases by the load.
Nameplate of a three phase transformer
Per Unit (PU) system
• By using PU, impedance transfer from one side to other can be
avoided – it happens automatically.
automatically
• Quantity in per unit = Actual value in SI unit/ base value
• Process –
▫ First select rated voltage and VA as the base voltage and base VA.
▫ The base current and impedances are then calculated from them.
Let consider P’base and V’base are the rated VA and voltage rating in
the primary side,

Pbase 
Vbase Z eq
 
I base 
; Z base  
;  Z eq , pu 

Vbase 
I base 
Z base
In terms of secondary
y base values,,

Pbase 
Vbase Z eq
 
I base  
; Z base ;  Z eq , pu 

Vbase 
I base 
Z base
N
Now, Z eq a 2 Z eq
Z eq , pu   2  Z eq , pu

Z base 
a Z base

Rated quantities have 1pu value.

Example
• A power system contains a generator of10kVA,
480V,50Hz, 1:10 step up transformer, a transmission line
of impedance
p 20+j60
j , 20:1 stepp down transformer and
load of 1030o ohm. The base value of the system are
chosen to be the voltage and power rating of the generator.
generator
(i) Find base quantities at every points
(ii) Convert
C t the
th system
t tot its
it per-unit
it (pu)
( ) equivalent
i l t circuit
i it
(iii) Find the power supplied to the load
(iv) Find power loss in the line.
Solution
• In generator region,
Vbase  480V , Pbase  10kVA
Pbase
 I base   20.83 A
Vbase
Vbase
Z base   23.04
I base

• In transmission line region •Load region

a  10 a  20
480V 480V
Vbase _ T   4800V , Pbase _ T  10kVA Vbase _ L   240V , Pbase _ L  10kVA
a a
Pbase _ T Pbase _ L
 I base _ T   2.083 A  I base _ L   41.67 A
Vbase
b _T Vbase
b _L

Vbase _ T Vbase _ L
Z base _ T   2304 Z base _ L   5.76
I base _ T I base _ L
Solution contd..
• Converting to pu system
4800o
VG , pu   10o pu
480
20  j 60
Z line, pu   0.0087  j 0.0260 pu
2304
1030o
Z load , pu   1.73630o pu
5.76

V pu
 I pu   0.569  30.6o pu
Z line , pu  Z load , pu
PLoad , pu  I pu
2
Z Load , pu  0.487  j 0.281 pu
ea power
Real 0. 87 pu  0.487
powe =0.487 0. 87  Pbase _ L  4.87
.87 kW

Find the loss in the line byy yourself

y
Performance
• Voltage regulation
• Efficiency
• Condition for maximum efficiency
Voltage regulation
• Load connected to transformer secondary may operate with a constant
voltage.
lt
• However, load terminal voltage can change because of the voltage drop
i the
in th impedance
i d off the
th transformer
t f .
• A large voltage change in the load terminal is undesirable.
• Voltage
V lt change
h can be
b kept
k t to
t minimum,
i i if it is
i designed
d i d for
f a low
l
value of Zeq.

Ip I1 R1 a2R2 jX1 ja2X2 I’2

R1 a2R2 jX1 ja2X2 Inl

Ip I1 Req jXeq
Ic Im Load
Inl V1 R V’2
jXm Zeq RL+jXL
Req jXeq C
Ic Im Load
V1 R V’2
C jjXm Zeq RL+jX
j L

At full load, V2,,FL  V2,, NNL  drop in the Zeq

At no load, V2, NL  V1 V2, rated  V1  I 2 Z eq
Voltage regulation contd.
• Percentage change in the magnitude of the secondary
voltage when load current change from no load to full
load.
V2, NL  V2, FL V1  V2, rated
% voltage regulation=  100%   100%

V2,FL 
V2,rated

• Voltage regulation also depends on PF of the load.

• V1 will be maximum when L  l  0     L l
V1
• Maximum regulation will happen I ’Z 2 eq
I '2 Xeq
when L  l :worst case L
s V' 2
Inl I '2 I 2' Req

Ip
Efficiency
• The energy efficiency of a transformer (or any equipment) is
d fi d as   Output Power  P   100
defined out
Input Power  P 
• P P
in

 out
 out
Pout  Losses Pout   Pc  Pcu 
Pc  Ph  Peddy current
Pcu  I12 Req1  I12 R1  I 22 R2
Pout  V2 I 2 cos 
V2' I 2' cos 
 ' '  100
V2 I 2 cos   Pc  I 2' 2 Req
'

• Transformers normally have high efficiency. Efficiency of 95%

i quite
is i common. Even E then,
h considering
id i thath on average the
h
generated power passes through four to five transformers
before reaching the user,
user an efficiency of 95% still means
(0.95)4 = 81.5% overall efficiency. This means that nearly 20%
of all electrical energy produced is dissipated in transformers!!
Condition for maximum efficiency
• The efficiency depends on the load, the core loss and the
copper loss.
l It also
l depends
d d on the
th power factor
f t angle l  off th
the
load.
• For constant values of the terminal voltage V2 and the load
power factor angle , the load current for which maximum
efficiency occurs can be found as,as
d
 0 V 2 I 2 cos 
' '
'
dI 2  ' '  100
V2 I 2 cos   Pc  I 2 Req
'2 '

Pc  I 2' 2 Req
'
 Pcu
• Thus, for maximum efficiency operation, the load current is
such that the core loss of the transformer must be equal to its
copper loss.
• Efficiency will also be the highest when load PF is unity (i.e.
(i e
resistive load).
Instrument Transformer
• Special purpose transformer:
▫ Potential transformer(PT)
Step-down
p transformer with low ppower rating.
g Sole ppurpose
p is
to provide a sample of the voltage to monitoring instruments.
Accuracyy of the measurement is the most important
p criterion
of such transformers. CT
PT

▫ Current
C t transformer(CT)
t f (CT)
Samples current and steps it down to a safer level for monitoring
i t
instrument.
t
 Lecture 7

Dr Rukmi Dutta
Outline
• Special transformer : Auto Transformer
• Three-phase transformer
Auto Transformer
Auto-Transformer
• Special connection of winding to give variable voltage at
secondary terminals.
Main Features
• Primary and secondary both windings are mounted on the
same limb of the core.
• There is a physical connection between two windings unlike
two winding transformer.
• Basic workingg pprinciple
p is still same as two winding
g
I
transformer.
1

I 1
I2
The same flux links all the turns, NC
I2
V1 N1
  a, N1  N 2  N c V1
V2 N 2 V1
Amp-turns for the upper half, N1 N2 V2 N1 N2
 1 V2
N c I1   N1  N 2  I1  1   N1 I1 Ic
 a
Amp-turns for lower half, Two winding transformer Auto-transformer
N
N 2 I c   N 2  I1  I 2   N 2  I 2  I1   1  I 2  I1 
a
 1 N1  a 1  N1
For balance, c 1
N I  N I
2 c   1   11
N I   I 2  I1     11
N I   I 2  I1 
 a  a  a  a
I 1
  a  1 I1   I 2  I1   1 
I2 a
Step-up
Step up and down connections
I1 I2

NC
I1 Vs
I2
V1 V2
N2
N1 N2 V1
V2
Ic N1 Ic
Step-down
Step down connection St
Step-up connection
ti
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
g Disadvantages
g

Low leakage inductance Direct

Low losses connection
between primary
Low excitation current and secondary,
Higher KVA rating h
hence can not bbe
used for
Variable output voltage isolation.
Three phase transformer
• Used for transmission and distribution power
• It can be –
▫ bank of three single phase transformer (three separate
ferromagnetic cores)
▫ A composite three-lag ferromagnetic core
A a B b Np Np Np
Np Ns Np Ns
A’ a’ B’ b’
Ns Ns Ns

C c
Np Ns
C’ c’
Connections
• Three Primary and secondary windings may be connected
in either Y or ∆ configuration.
• Four
ou poss
possible
b e co
combinations
b at o s are-
ae
▫ Y-∆
▫ ∆ -Y
Y
▫ ∆-∆
▫ YY
Y-Y
Y- ∆ connection
Y
• Commonly used for step-down voltage in transmission
and distribution network.
• Because-
ecause
▫ Primary phase voltage is 1/ 3 of line–line voltage, hence
winding insulation can be for 1/ 3 of line voltage.
voltage
▫ Secondary phase current is 1/ 3 of rated line current.
▫ Neutral
N t l pointi t in
i the
th Y side
id can be
b grounded
d d which
hi h is
i
desirable in many cases.
3aI

V V
3 3a
∆-Y
∆ Y connection
• Preferred for step up voltage in transmission/distribution
network for the same reasons as in Y- ∆ connection.
I
A a
I aI
3 V
V 3 N2
a 3V
a
C N1

b
B c
Phase shift
• In Y- ∆ and ∆-Y connection there is phase shift of 30 deg
in secondary side voltage
3aI

V V
3 3a
∆- ∆ connection
∆
• Advantage is that one transformer (or phase) can be
removed for maintenance or repair while the remaining
two windings
g can continue to supply
pp y reduced ppower to the
load.

I aI I aI
A a A a
aI aI
I 3 V I 3 V
V 3 V 3
a a
N2 N2
C N1 C N1

b b

B c B c

Open Delta connection

Power relation in open delta connection
• Maximum power supplied when all three windings are
connected, P  P1  P2  P3  3Vp I p cos  ,

For a resistive load, P  3V p I p

In open delta for same resistive
resisti e load,
load I aI
A a
aI
I
Popen _   P1  P2  3V p I p
3 V
V 3 a
N2
C N1

Popen _  3V p I p 1
    0.577
0 577
b

c
3V p I p
B
P 3

The open delta connection supply load at a A

I
aI
aI
a

reduced rating of 57.7% of the original V

I 3 V
3
transformer. N2
a
C N1

B c
Y-Y
Y Y connection
• It is seldom used because of harmonics in the magnetizing
current and induced phase voltage.

aI
V V
3
3 3a V
a