Central Dogma of The Discovery of DNA as the Genetic Material

Molecular Genetics

1. Griffith’s transformation experiment

DNA mRNA Protein

a) Frederick Griffith studied 2 strains of a

bacterium:
Genotype Phenotype
i. Harmless R-strain
ii. Pathogenic S-strain
b) He observed that all the descendants of the
next bacterial generation inherited the
newly acquired pathogenic ability.
c) Griffith concluded that something had
passed from the heat-killed S strain into the
live R strain and transformed it into the
DNA Structure: pathogenic S strain, and he called this the
transforming factor. These experiments are
now famously known as Griffith’s
transformation experiments.
 Gregor Mendel established the basic principles
of heredity d) Nucleic acid is the genetic material

 Introduced the idea of genetics e) Hereditary material can pass from one
bacterial cell to another
 Talks about probability: phenotype, genotype

 Today, it is known that the genetic material is

2. Avery’s DNA Experiment
found in chromosomes
a) Avery’s work showed that DNA was the
heredity material that transfers information
between bacterial cells
b) They wanted to determine which molecule
in the heat-killed bacteria from the
experiment is responsible for the
transformation. They reasoned out that if
they are able to find the molecule, they will
be successful in finding the chemical nature
of the genetic material.
c) They extracted a mixture from the
heat-killed bacteria and treated it with
enzymes to destroy other components such
as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
(including the RNA).
d) They found out that transformation still
occurred, leading them to conclude that
 none of those components are responsible
for the transformation.
e) They repeated the experiment but they
used enzymes that would break the DNA
instead. In this experiment, transformation
occurred. This showed that DNA is
responsible for storing and transmitting
genetic information from one generation of
an organism to the next.
3. Hershey’s-Chase Blender Experiment
a) 1952, 2 american biologists, Alfred
Hershey, and Martha Chase, performed
a series of experiments using an
ordinary kitchen blender in identifying
DNA as the genetic material.
b) Involves the use of a virus T2 that
infected the bacterium Escherichia coli.
i. T2 is a bacteriophage, a virus that
infects bacteria.
c) They used radioactive isotopes. One
contains bacteriophages whose DNA
were stained with radioactive
phosphorous, and the other contains
phages whose protein coating were
stained with radioactive sulfur.
d) The radioactive phosphorous
transferred to the cytoplasm of the
bacteria.-- DNA, and not protein was the
genetic material that carried the
instructions to the host cell to produce
more viruses.
4. The Elucidation of DNA Structure
a) Watson and Crick unveiled the structure
of DNA
5. Levene’s Nucleotides
a) Phoebus Levene analyzed the
components of DNA. He established the
fact that DNA is composed of four
nitrogenous bases (cytosine, guanine,
adenine, thymine), a deoxyribose sugar,
and a phosphate group.
b) Nucleotide -- consists of base attached
to a sugar, and a phosphate molecule.
6. Chargaff Rules
a) Erwin Ghargaff analyzed the proportion
of the nitrogenous bases in the DNA of
various species.
b) People’s number of nitrogenous bases:
31% adenine, 31% thymine, 19%
cytosine, 19% guanine
i. DNA contains A,T,G, and C in
proportions that vary from species
to species.
ii. A=T, G=C
7. Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray Diffraction v. Adenine pairs with thymine using
two hydrogen bonds, while guanine
a) Studied the structure of the DNA using
pairs with cytosine using three
the technique oknown as x-ray,
hydrogen bonds (base
crystallography.
complementarity)
i. Types of DNA
vi. 10 bases every turn
1. Type A: dry form
vii. 34 angstrom in every turn
2. Type B: wet form
viii. Double-helix diameter is 20
b) Phosphate units in a DNA are located in angstrom
the external part of the molecule.
ix. DNA follows a semi-conservative
c) Photo 51, an x-ray diffraction mode of replication
photograph of DNA
9. RNA and DNA
8. The Watson-Crick DNA Model: A double Helix
DNA RNA
a) “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acid”:
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose (C5H10O5)
described the DNA as a double helix
(C5H10O4)
b) Amalgamations of numerous findings
Strand Double Stranded Single-stranded
from various scientists. (Rosalind
Franklin, Raymond Gosling) Nitrogen Adenine Adenine
-ous
c) The pairing of the DNA bases, where Thymine Uracil
bases
adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine
pairs with guanine, were based of Cytosine Cytosine
Chargaff experiments. Guanine Guanine
d) 2 strands that make up a DNA molecule Location Mostly in the Moslty in the
are wound around each other, forming nucleus but may cytoplasm but
a double spiral molecule. also be found in may also be
e) The backbone of the helix has cytoplasm and found in the
alternating sugars and phosphates, and mitochondria nucleus.
the ladder are made up of nitrogenous functions Blueprint of Assists in
base pairs. biologcal carrying out
f) Key features of DNA: guidelines that DNA’s blueprint
living organisms guidelines
i. Helix turns clockwise must follow to
ii. The backbones of the helix are in exist and
opposing directions function

iii. Nitrogenous bases aree flat Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics

sturctures inside the helix 1. Main Idea: The sequence of bases in a gene
iv. Bases are 3.4 angstrom units apart forms a code that informs the cell what protein
to produce
2. Protein synthesis: Replication, transcription, when damaged by harmful
translation radiation or toxic chemical
3. Replication: e) It is needed to ensure that all body cells
carry the same genetic material and that
a) It is needed for material growth and
instructions are copied exactly for the
repair
next generation.
b) It happens before cell division because
each new cell is required to have an
exact copy of the parent cell’s DNA.
DNA helicase
c) Process: (replication fork)

i. During the replication, the two

DNA strands connected by
hydrogen bonds separate from Leading strand Lagging Strand
each other. Each old strand of the
parent DNA is then used as a
template for the building of a new DNA Primase Okazami fragment
strand in the daughter DNA. This (primer and RNA (portion by portion)
process is called a base)
semiconservative replication
because one of the complementing
DNA Polymerase DNA primase, Primer
strands is conserved in either (DNA Bases, 5 to 3) RNA base
daughter DNA.
d) Steps:
DNA polymerase 5 to
i. Unwinding, base pairing, joining 3

ii. it starts when an enzyme and DNA

helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds
between the nucleotides.
iii. It will now divide from two strands.
As the helix unwinds, new
nucleotides are added to the parent
strands by the enzyme DNA
primase.
iv. The DNA polymerase then
continues to add more
complementary base pairs such as
that A binds to T, and C to G.
v. At the end, the enzyme DNA ligase
seals any breaks in the new DNA
strand.
vi. Both DNA polymerase and DNA
ligase also repair the DNA strands

4. Transcription
a) It is the RNA’s job to make blueprint
copies of the DNA’s instructions
b) mRNA rRNA tRNA
c) The mRNA copies specific instructions
from the DNA in the nucleus so that it
can bring the information to the
cytoplasm for the next step
d) It begins inside, when the DNA unzips
between its base pairs. A portion of the
DNA transcription, ensures that the
right sequence are transcribed, and
produces a complementary strand. To
form the RNA strand, mRNA bases pair
up with the existing DNA bases.
5. Translation
a) Formation of protein
b) To create amino acids and the
corresponding proteins
c) The mRNA attaches to a ribosome to
provide the code for the specific protein
that will be made. The three-base code
in the mRNA is called a codon.
d) The ribosomes move along the mRNA
strand where the codons will be read
and translated.
e) The tRNA attaches to the mRNA inside
the ribosome.
f) The bases on the tRNA called anticodon,
read and translate the message by
pairing up an equivalent three-letter
code to the codons of the mRNA.
g) As the codon is read, tRNA brings the
appropriate amino acid to the ribosome.
Ach amino acid is represented by
certain codons
Genetic Mutations
Mistakes in genetic information are called
mutations. A permanent alteration in the DNA
sequence that makes up a gene
a) Chromosomal aberrations
1. Based on chromosome number: 2 types
a) Euploidy: whole genome. The loss of an
entire set of chromosomes or the gain
of one or more complete sets of
chromosomes
b) Aneuploidy: changes in chromosome
number can occur by the addition of all
part of a chromosome
i. Klinefelter’s syndrome (2n=47, 44
autosomes+xxy)
ii. Turner’s syndrome (2n=47, 44
autosomes+x)
iii. Down syndrome/trisomy 21 (2n=47)
iv. Metafemale (2n=47, 44
autosome+xxx)
c) Nondisjunction: inability of the
homologous sex chromosomes to
segregate during meiosis
2. Based on chromosome structure:
a) Deletion-loss f a segment
 b) Duplication- a chromosome pair in
excess of the normal amount
c) Inversion- rotation of a chromosome
segment
d) Translocation- transfer of a
chromosome part to a nonhomologous
chromosome
3. Based on a nucleotide sequence:
a) Deletion or insertion of one nucleotide
pair(microlesion or point mutation)
b) Deletion or insertion of a number of
nucleiotides in the DNA sequence
(frameshift mutation)
c) A chain of a purine to a pyrimidine and
vice versa (transverse mutation)
d) Somatic mutation- affect only the part
of the genetic sequence of one
defective cell and the succeeding
daughter cells
e) Sex cells mutation- can be passed on to
next generation

Sources: ppt, reviewers, books