ANIMAL SCIENCE 12

(Introduction to Livestock and Poultry Production)

BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

A. OVERVIEW OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY

 The beef cattle industry is one of the least develop among the livestock and poultry
industries in the country.

Inventory

The total cattle inventory in the country as of January 1, 2016 stood at 2.553 million heads. This
was 0.75 percent higher than last year’s record of 2.534 million heads. Of the total inventory, about
2.39 million heads or 94.0 percent were raised in backyard farms. The remaining six percent or
about 0.16 million heads were raised in commercial farms.

In 2015, the total production of cattle in the country was 266.90 thousand metric tons liveweight.
It expanded 2.13 percent from last year’s production of 261.32 thousand metric tons liveweight.

In 2015, the annual average farmgate price of live cattle in the country was P92.09 per kilogram
which was 1.86 percent higher than last year’s P90.40 per kilogram.

At the wholesale level, Metro Manila represents the benchmark for the country as it is the demand
area for beef. The annual average price in 2015 in Metro Manila was P215.00 per kilogram. It
increased by 21.13 percent from last year’s P177.50 per kilogram. The annual average retail price
of beef rump in the country in 2015 was P240.83 per kilogram which was slightly higher by 0.33
percent from last year’s P240.04 per kilogram.

INVENTORY
Table 1. Cattle Inventory by Farm Type and by
Age Classification,

Philippines, as of January 1,
2014-2016P (Number of Head)

P- Preliminary
1/ Male and female 1 year old and below including calves
2/ Include castrated male and ready to breed bull
The total cattle inventory in the country as of January 1, 2016 was 2,553,303 heads which was
0.75 percent higher than last year’s record of 2,534,243 heads. Inventory in commercial farms
decreased by 1.90 percent while inventory in backyard farms increased by 0.94 percent compared
their last year’s record.

Of the total cattle inventory in the country, cows accounted for 42.69 percent, yearlings with 18.90
percent, heifers with 16.87 percent, bulls with 11.13 percent, and others with 10.41 percent.

Figure 1. Distribution of Cattle Inventory, by Age Classification, Philippines, as of January

1, 2016

TOP PRODUCING REGIONS

Table 2. Cattle Inventory of Top Producing Regions by Farm Type,
Philippines, as of January 1, 2016P

(Number of Head)

P- Preliminary
1/ Including Negros Oriental
2/ Include Negros Occidental
 The top five cattle producing regions in backyard and commercial farms as of January 1,
2016 were Ilocos Region, Central Visayas (including Negros Oriental), CALABARZON,
Northern Mindanao, and Western Visayas (including Negros Occidental). The combined
inventory of these five regions was 52.98 percent of the total cattle inventory in the country.
Ilocos Region had the highest share of 12.51 percent to the total backyard
population. Bicol Region, on the other hand, ranked first with 20.35 percent share to the
total commercial cattle population.

Figure 2. Share in the Inventory of Top Producing Regions, Philippines, as of January 1, 2016

B. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. Ranching or Extensive System
a. Cow-calf operation
Aim: to produce stockers or feeders.
 The initial and the most fundamental step in the beef enterprise is the production
of the calves and raising it to weaning age.
b. Purebred Program or Breeder Farm Operation
Aim: to produce breeder stocks to be sold to other ranchers.
 Highly specialized form of beef production
2. Feedlot Fattening Operation
Objective: to add weight to the animal and increase its value.
 Important to the livestock industry of the Philippines for three mains reasons:
1. It provides the farmer with extra income.
2. It gives him year-round work and allow the use of cheap, plentiful farm by
products such as corn stovers, hay, silage, rice straw, copra meal, rice bran
and sugarcane top which might otherwise be wasted.
3. It helps meet the urgent demand for high-protein foods in the Filipino diet.
 3. Backyard Cattle Raising or semi-subsistence or small holder
Backyard sector: 94% of the total cattle population.

Backyard cattle raising is characterized by the following:

a. 1 or 2 heads of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised on a farmer’s spare time.
b. Farmers usually tethers animals to graze around the home lot and then supplements this
with farm wastes like rice straw or corn stover/stalks when back in pain.
c. Other practice soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), as
source of protein, and rice bran, corn bran, copra meal at 1-2 kg/animal and,
d. In Batangas, force feeding (supa or supak) of feed mixture is a common practice among
backyard cattle raisers.

C. BEEF CATTLE BREEDS, BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION

1. Breeds of Beef Cattle
Origin of Modern Cattle:
Aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius)
 India thought to be the homeland of primitive cattle which later expanded to
Eurasia and North Africa.

Some species related to the Aurochs also under went domestication

Yak (Poephagus grunnins)
 From mountain of Tibet
 Some regions of middle Asia
 South Siberia
Genus Bibos
 (B Banteng) or Ban cattle
 (B frontails) or gayal
 From India, Malay archipelago and Indochina, particularly Burma.

Probably first domesticated during the Stone Age, within 10,000 BC from the wild ox or Bos
primigenuis.

Modern cattle family Bovine, genus Bos

a. Bos taurus
 Of Europe origin such as Shorthorn or Jersey.
 Without humps and therefore of temperate origins.
b. Bos indicus
 Of tropical country origin such as the Brahman or Zebu of India or Afrikander of
Africa.
 Hump cattle.
 Adapted to tropical conditions (has survived through centuries exposure to
inadequate conditioned such as food supplies, insect pests, parasites/diseases and
extreme weather conditions).
c. Crosses of two, Sta. Gertrudis (5/8 Shorthorn, 3/8 Brahman) and Brangus (5/8 Brahman)
Characteristics of Zebu breeds as compared to temperate breeds;
 Large hump over top of shoulder and neck
 Large pendulous ears
 Dewlap having large amounts of excess skin
 Highly developed sweat glands (perspire more freely)
  Oily secretion from the sebaceous glands

Zebu Breeds Country Products

Brahman US Meat, Hardiness

Indu-Brazil Brazil Meat, Hardiness

Kankref India Draft, Meat, Milk

Krishna India Draft, Resistant to Tick Fever

Nellore Brazil Meat

Red sindhi Pakistan Milk

Sahiwal India Milk

Sta. Gertrudis US Beef Quality

Tharparkar India Milk, Draft

Temperate Breeds Country Products

Angus Scotland Meat

Chianina Italy Draft, Meat

Simmental Switzerland Milk, Butter, Cheese, Draft

Aryshire Scotland Milk, Butter, Cheese

Brown Swiss Switzerland Milk, Cheese

Guernsey France Milk, Highly Butterfat

Holstein Friesian Netherlands Highly producing Dairy cow

Jersey France Milk, Butterfat

There are 277 identifiable breeds worldwide

 33 as beef breeds
 18 as draft breeds
 39 as meat-draft
 54 meat dairy
 21 dairy-draft
 61 meat-dairy-draft
 51 dairy breeds
Beef Breeding

Breeding- the controlled propagation of cattle to improve qualities desirable man.

Breeding Systems
- Are defined as several types of mating to combine desirable qualitative and quantitative
characteristics through mating systems which are planned or non-random.
A. Random mating (or unplanned) – this means each possible mating inn a population has
the same probability or occurrence.
B. Inbreeding- mating of closely related individuals within a breed.
Effect of Inbreeding.
1. Marked decrease of infertility
2. Reduces vigor
3. Decrease in growth rate of offspring
4. Reduces viability of the offspring
B1. Close breeding- mating of close relatives e.g., father-daughter, son-mother, brother- sister.
B2. Line breeding- breeding of not so close relatives, ex, cousins. This is a form mild inbreeding
designed to concentrate the genes of a certain ancestor of the genetic constitution of the progeny.
B3. Strain breeding- a very mild form off inbreeding which leads to increase homozygousity
within the strain in the long term.
C. Crossbreeding- meeting of individuals from two or more established purebreds.
 To increase heterozygousity
 To take advantage of hybrid vigor or heterosis.
Hybrid vigor- the average quality of the first generation exceeding the average of the two parental
breeds.

Heterosis- is displayed mainly in the fitness traits, fertility and viability.

Types of Crossbreeding:
C1. Systematic crossbreeding- two or more breeds are involved in a breeding program lasting
several years. This way, a crossbred which may eventually stabilized into a breed, e.g, Brangus
(Brahman x Angus), Charbray (Charolsis x Brahman), may occur.
C2. Upgrading- the mating of purebred sires to nondescript or native female and their offspring
generation after generation.
Reproduction
Reproduction phenomenon
Sexual Maturity (bulls/heifer): 6-8 months
Estrus Cycle: 18-24 days (Ave: 21 days)
Estrus duration: Exotic/ European breeds- 14-18 hours
Indigenous/Zebu- 10-12 hours
Ovulation: 10-14 hours after end of estrus
Parturition: Ave. 283 days
Bull Ejaculate: 2-12ml of 500 or more sperm cells/ml
Sperm cells survive the oviduct up to a maximum of 48 hours

Sign of Estrus
a. Mount others
b. Reddening and swelling of the vulva
c. Mucous discharge
d. Isolates herself
 e. Seem sickly and has no appetite
f. Frequent urination, restlessness and sometime bellowing or mooing and
g. Standing still when mounted (the only reliable or true sign of estrus; estrus is defined as
the period of sexual receptivity of the female to the male.)

Breeding Method
1. Natural Method- conventional use of bull to impregnate a heifer or cow.
A. Handmating- a bull in good condition can serve 3-4 times/week or one service
every other day.
I. 18 months old – 1:12-15
II. 2 years old- 1:20-25
III. 3 years old- 1:40-50
B. Pasture mating (2-3 months old)
I. 2-3 years old bull- 10-15 cows
II. 9 years old bull- 20-25 cows
2. Artificial Insemination
 Process of including fertilization in female without the benefit of sexual contact
between male and female animals
AI Guideline:
“Females observed in estrus in the morning, are inseminated late afternoon of the
same day. Those observed in the afternoon, are inseminated not later than noon time the
next day.”
Some Indicators of Good Breeding or Reproductive Management
a. Conception rate (Pregnancy) – percent of breeding females that conceived versus the
total exposed females.

Cows pregnant at end of the breeding season

CR = ----------------------------------------------------
Cows exposed during breeding season

b. % (90 or 120 day) non returns

Percent of breeding females confined pregnant at 90 or 120 days, by pregnancy diagnosis,
versus the total exposure females. This is similar to conception rate.

c. Calving Rate- percent of breeding females that give birth versus the total exposed females
d. Calving Interval – the average length of time (in days) between successive calving.
 Can be calculated for each cow or the entire herd
 One year is ideal. Eighteen (18) months is common.
e. First heat after parturition- the occurrence 0f estrus after giving birth to a young. First
heat is related to calving interval.
NUTRITION
Nutrients and Their Functions
1. Water

Water needs of dairy animals are affected by level of milk production and type of
feeds. In general, cows drink approximately 4 kg of water for every kilograms of milk
produced (also 4 kg of water for each kg of dry matter intake).

2. Proteins

It contains approximately 16% nitrogen and it make up the catalyst or enzymes

needed in the synthesis of cell components.

True protein- protein composed of only amino acids

Non-protein- contain nitrogen and can be converted to protein by bacterial action ex. Urea

3. Carbohydrates

These are the main sources of energy for dairy animals. They are stored in animal
body through conversion to fats.

4. Fats and lipids

They supply energy and serve as source of fat soluble vitamins. They are
manufactured and stored in the animal body in large amounts.
5. Minerals
These are essential for normal skeletal growth, fluid balance, acid-base balance and
as activator of enzymes. Ground limestone and oyster shells are good sources of calcium
while mono and disodium phosphate, diammonium phosphate and sodium
tripolyphosphate are good sources of phosphorus. Two parts dicalcium phosphate or
steamed bone meal and 1 part salt offered free choice will help cows to maintain an
adequately balanced animal intake especially for calcium and phosphorus,

6. Minerals

Most vitamins especially B group and vitamin K are synthesized by ruminant

microorganisms. Under normal conditions, natural feeds especially pastures furnish most
vitamins or their precursors in adequate amounts. For mature ruminants, only vitamin A,
D and E are the major concerns with A being the most likely to be deficient.

Common Feeds for Ruminants

Forages
- is the natural cheapest feeds for ruminants and includes not only grasses but also legumes.

By-products roughages
-Most of these are highly fibrous (rice straw, corn cobs, sugar cane tops), low in CP and
TDN and have poor digestibility.
 Concentrate
-Unlike in developed countries, little amount of grain is fed ruminants local. Copra meal,
rice bran, wheat pollard are commonly used by-product concentrates, contain from 20% as
in case of molasses to 21% in copra meal.

Use of urea in ruminant ration

-Urea has long used as partial protein source ruminants in other countries.

The following guidelines are recommended for safe use of urea.

Add fertilizer grade urea at not more than:
A) 1% of the ration (DM basis)
B) 2.3% of the concentrate mixture, air dry basis) or
C) 25.30% of the total dietary protein

Recommended grasses and legumes

A. Grasses

1. Napier or elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)

- highly rated because of its relative ease establishment, vigor, productivity and drought
tolerance.

2. Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)

-can survive long drought periods but show its best performance in a humid environment;
can withstand burning.

3. Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)

-tolerant to water logging; most suitable grass for the lower flat lands and any area where
poor drainage is a problem.

4. African stargrass (Cynodon plectostachyus)

-spread easily and has been found effective in holding sandy soils along water ways and
embankments; tolerant to grazing and tramping

5. Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens)

-fairly tolerant to drought but not very productive under these conditions.

6. Alabang X (Dicanthium aristatum)

-perennial, low grazing grass that is naturalized in the Philippines.

B. Legumes

1. Centro (Centrosema pubescens)

-grows on a variety of soils; moderately platable and withstand heavy grazing

2. Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala)

-one of the multi-purpose trees; deep rooting leguminous tree or shrub; less desirable
features is the presence of a toxic substance (mimosine) in the young leaves and seeds thus;
harmful to grazing animals particularly sheep and horse.
3. Townsville Stylo (Stylosanthes humilis)

-locally known as Magsaysay stylo; useful in extending the productive season of pasture
after native grasses have become valueless for livestock.

4. Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum)

-grows inn a wide range of soils but will not perform well in poorly drained situation;
effective in fixing nitrogen and combines well most grasses except under high rainfall condition
and strong competition.

5. Calopo (Calopogonium muconoides)

HERD MANAGEMENT
Goal: to produce a crop of high quality, heavy weight calves.

Herd division
-Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition if various age groups of the herd.
-Prevent premature breeding which seriously affect the growth of young bulls and heifers and
prevent high rate of abortion resulting from butting and fighting of animals.

Animals may be divided into the following herds:

a. Pregnant herd- composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the breeding
during the breeding season.
b. Breeding herd- consists of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. After the breeding
season, pregnant animals are transferred to the pregnant herd.
c. Heifer herd- composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifer calves are included in
this herd after weaning.
d. Steers, Feeders or Fattening herd- consists of growing cattle and those to be fattened for
the market.
e. Bull herd- consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeder cows.

Management of Breeding Females

a. Lactating and pregnant cows
-Pregnant cows are separated from the herd to prevents injury and possible abortion due to
riding, butting, and fighting with other animals.
Signs of pregnancy:
i. Cessation of estrus or heat
ii. Enlargement of the abdomen and udder
iii. Palpation 60-90 days after breeding (more reliable pregnancy test).
*Palpation is the manual examination of the reproductive tract by the way of the
rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in cattle.
b. Open cows and replacement heifers
-Should be given right amount of feed daily to ensure that they are in the right physiological
status.

Management of Calves, Growers, and Fatteners

a. Calves- should suckle colostrum milk from their mother within three hours after calving.
b. Grower- are usually maintained at the pasture with very like attention. They are given salt
and mineral supplement.
c. Fatteners- require a shorter period to reach slaughter weight. They are generally bigger
mature or nearing maturity. However, one and a half to two year-old animals weighing
200-300 kg are preferred. They may be fattened either in feedlot, on pasture, or both areas.
• Abortion - premature birth
• Ad libitum – as desired by the animals
• Afterbirth - the placenta and other membrane expelled after delivery of the fetus or
young
• Barrel - the trunk or middle part of the animal body between the fore and the hind legs
• Beef - meat from mature cattle
• Beefy - a term used to designate the desirable physical conformation to a beef animal, as
contrasted with a dairy animal which is lean (not beefy) and more angular
• Bloat - a disorder of ruminants usually characterized by an accumulation of gas in the
rumen
• Boner - an animal yielding low quality meat
• Breeder - an animal used for breeding purposes
• Bull - entire adult male ox
• Bullock - usually a stag used for draft purposes
• Calf - young ox, male or female, under one year of age
• Calving - act of giving birth in cattle
• Cara - term connected to the sex, class and meat of carabao as introduced by
the late Dr. Valente Villegas which was approved for adoption by the Philippine Society
of Animal Science
• Carabao - Philippine water buffalo or swamp buffalo
• Carabeef - the meat of carabao above 2 years of age
• Carabull - breeding male of any age
• Caracalf - young male or female under one year of age
• Caracow - a mature female carabao that has already dropped a calf
• Caraheifer - a female carabao below 2 years of age which usually ready for market
• Casein - the protein precipitated from milk by acid and/or rennin
• Cast down - throwing down of animal for proper restrain
• Castration - a surgical operation during which the sex organs (testes) are removed
• Cattle - general terms for any class of animals of bovine family, genus Bos of either sex
• Cauterize - to burn with a hot iron
• Chevron - two diagonal stripes on the brisket of the carabao
• Colostrum - the milk secreted in the first day of lactation
• Concentrates - any feed that are low in crude fiber but having high digestible nutrient
content
• Conception - pregnancy
• Cow - adult female ox
• Crude Protein - include the true proteins and all other nitrogenous compounds in feeds
• Culling - the process of eliminating the unproductive animals from the herd
• Dam - female parent
• Dairy beef - steers of dairy breeds grown and finished the same way as beef steers. It
also includes all cows, heifers, culls and calves including real calves
• Digestible - the total nitrogenous compound protein fed to livestock, digested and
protein absorbed
• Docile - easily handed or managed, obedient
• Draft animal - animal used for work
• Drench - to give liquid or medicine to animals by pouring down the throat through
the mouth
• Emasculator - an instrument used in castration
• Estrus - the sexual period of female during which they are receptive to males for mating
• Excreta - waste matter such as urine, feces, and sweat expelled by the body of an
animal
• Feeder - animal for fattening
• Flaying - deskinning or removal of the hide
• Free-martin - the female twin in mixed sexed twins. The male is usually normal but
9/10 of the females are sterile
• General Herd - herd composed of all the animals in the farm
• Grade - the offspring of a scrub and purebred
• Grazing Pressure - the relationship between the amount of pasture present and the
number of animal present
• Heifer - sexually mature female cattle but has not yet calved
• Heifer calf - young female ox under one year of age
• Herd - a group of animals kept feeding and traveling together
• Hindquarters - the back or posterior region of the animal, including the parts supported
by the hind legs
• Hooks - the joint in the hind legs of the animal which corresponds to the knee
• Hoof - the entire part of the foot of the animal covered by the horny covering
• I.M. - intramuscular injection
• I.V. - intravenous injection
• Lactation - the period during which the dam produce milk from the time of period
delivery of her young until normal milk production ceases
• Let-down - the voluntary release of milk from the udders of the lactating female, also
referred as milk ejection
• Matador - a double bladed knife used for stunning
• Nutrient - applied to any food constituent, or group of food constituents of the
same general chemical compositions, that aids in the support of life
• Optimum Stocking rate - the carrying capacity of a pasture
• Oxytocin - the hormone responsible for the release of milk
• Parturition - act of giving birth
• Pasture - land with herbage or forage crops for grazing animals
• Pasteurized - milk heated at 63 degree Celsius for 30 minutes or 72 degree Celsius for
15 seconds to destroy milk any harmful organism, while causing few changes in the
composition, flavor and nutritive value
• Pendulous - hanging and freely swinging
• Post-partum - mating after calving or when uterus and other parts of the reproductive
breeding system have returned to normal
• Progeny - offspring
• Proven Sire - bull about whom there is a sufficient unselected information to indicate
his transmitting ability
• Purebred - bred from pure blood and are qualified for registration
• Ration - feed allowed for a given animal for a day of 24 hours whether it is fed
• Rectal Palpation- a method of pregnancy diagnosis
• Roughage - any feed high in crude fiber and low in digestible nutrients, on an air-dry
basis
• Ruminant - one of the order of animals having a stomach with four complete cavities
through which food passes in digestion. These animals chew their cud
• Rumen - the first compartment of the ruminant stomach
• Silage - the feed resulting from the storage and fermentation of green or wet crops under
anaerobic conditions or conditions without oxygen
• Silent heat - undesirable characteristics of some animals of not manifesting heat
openly
• Sire - male parent
• Skim milk - that portion of milk which remain after the removal of the cream in
whole or in part
• Soilage - fresh forage cut to feed animals tethered or kept in sheds
• Sporadic - incidental or scattered occurrence of a disease
• Stag - old bull or bull castrated late in life
• Steer - castrated male before the secondary sex characteristics have developed
• Stock density - the number of animal per unit area in a field at a given time.
• Stocking Rate - the over-all number of animals carried per unit of pasture
• Stunning - to render the animal unconscious but not dead
• Stocky - thick-set sturdy or firm built
• Tether - to tie an animal with a rope or chain to allow grazing but prevent straying
• Toggle - to fix the hide on board or bamboo frames to dry
• Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) - the sum of its digestible protein, crude fiber,
nitrogen free extract (NFE), and fat multiplied by 2.25
• Upgrading - mating of unimproved animal to one that is highly improved
• Veal - meat from veal calves
• Viscera - soft interior organs in body cavities; it includes the intestines, heart,
lungs, etc.
• Wallow - to roll in mud or water
• Whole milk - milk which has not has any of its constituent part removed
• Yoke - a piece of arched or curved timber fitted on the neck of the draft animal
to connect sleds, carts and other farm implements