Cisco Online Notes chapter 2

The Elements of Communication

– Three elements in common for idea exchange: 1) Message source or Sender

(needs to send to others) 2) destination or receiver (receives and interprets)
3) Channel (media that provides pathway)
–

Communicating the message

– If single communication sent as one large packet, only one transmission

could be done at a time, this would result in significant delays.
– Segmentation: the division of the data stream into smaller pieces.
– Segmentation has two benefits: 1) many transmissions can be performed at
once 2) can increase the reliability of network communications. Each data
packet can take its own path to the destination, if a path becomes clogged.
This means if part fails only that part needs to be retransmitted.
– Multiplexing: A process where multiple digital data streams are combined
into one signal.
– Downside to Segmentation and Multiplexing is it adds to the complexity of
the network. Ie. If you have 100 pages to mail, segmentation and
multiplexing would only allow 1 page per envelope. So each segment has to
be addressed to the proper destination
– Various devices in the network participate in labelling the destination.

Components of a network

– Some hardware isn’t tangible, ie wireless transmission infrared and radio

frequencies are used.
– Software: services and processes, provides information in response to a
request. Ie. Web and email hosting.
–

End devices and their role on a network

– End Device: a device such as a desktop or mobile device that is used by and
end user, also known as hosts.
– End devices interface between the human network and the underlying
communication network. Ie. Comps, printers, VoIP phones and handheld
devices.
– Hosts: are the data transmitting End Devices.
– When transmitting data each host and end device use an address specific to
the receiver.
 – Hosts can act as a client, a server or both, this depends on the software
installed.
– Client: is a computer system that accesses a service on another computer
remotely by accessing the network.
– Clients are hosts that have software installed that enables them to request
and display the information obtained from the server.

Intermediary Devices and their Role on the Network

– Intermediary Devices: a device that connects directy to end user devices

or provides end user routing to other networks. For Instance, a router, a hub
or firewalls.
– Also manages data as it flows across the network.
– Uses Host addresses with network interconnections into to determine the
path of the data flow.
– Processes running on the intermediary network devices perform these
functions
 Regenerate and retransmit data signals
 Maintain information about what pathways exist through the
network and internetwork
 Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
 Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
 Classify and direct messages according to QoS (Quality of
Service) priorities
 Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings

Network Media

– Three media in modern network: 1)metallic wires within cables 2) Glass or

plastic fibers (fiber optic cable) 3) wireless transmission
– Signal encoding is different for each medium: 1) metallic = electrical
impulses 2) fiber optics = pulses of light 3) wireless = electromagnetic waves

Local Area Networks (LAN)

– LAN: An individual network usually spanning a single geographical area

providing services and applications to people within a common organizational
structure, such as a single business, campus or region.
– LAN networks are administered by a single organization, security and access
controls are enforced at a network level.

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

– WAN: is the connection of two or more LAN networks through

Telecommunication Service Provider (TSP).
 – The devices which create the WAN are integral to the structure of the
network.
– WAN networks allow for an organization to exchange e-mails, corporate
training info, and other resource training.

The Internet – A Network of Networks

– Internetwork: global mesh of interconnecting networks. Some connections

are owned by large public or private organizations, using ISP (internet service
providers) most well known internetwork is the internet.
– Intranet: A system internal to an organization such as a wesite that is
explicitly used by internal employees or students. Can be accessed internally
or remotely.

Network Representations

– Network Interface Card - A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides the physical

connection to the network at the PC or other host device. The media
connecting the PC to the networking device plugs directly into the NIC.
– Physical Port - A connector or outlet on a networking device where the
media is connected to a host or other networking device.
– Interface - Specialized ports on an internetworking device that connect to
individual networks. Because routers are used to interconnect networks, the
ports on a router are referred to network interfaces.

Rules that Govern Communications

– Protocols: are the rules which all communication are governed

– Protocol Suite: set of communications protocols that implement the
protocol stack on which networks run.
– These protocols are loaded on each software and hardware piece in a
network.
– Protocol stack shows how the individual protocols within the suite are
implemented on the host.
– Lower levels in the stack manage moving data over the network and
providing services to the upper layers, upper layers focus on the content of
the message being sent and the user interface.

Network Protocols

– Networking protocol suites describe processes such as:

 The format or structure of the message
 The method by which networking devices share information
about pathways with other networks
 How and when error and system messages are passed between
devices
  The setup and termination of data transfer sessions

Protocol Suites and Industry Standands

– Proprietary Protocols: owned by a specific company or vendor, which is

controlled and can be used by different organizations with permission from
the owner.
– Industry Standard: is a process or protocol that has been endorsed by the
networking industry and ratified by a standards organization such as
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) or Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF).

The Interactions of Protocols

– Application Protocol: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): how web

servers and web clients interact.
– Transport Protocol: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): manages
individual conversations between webservers and web clients. TCP divides
HTTP messages into smaller pieces, also responsible for controlling the size
and rate at which messages are exchanged between the server and the
client.
– Internetwork Protocol: Internet Protocol (IP): is responsible for taking TCP
segments and encapsulating them into Packets.
– Network Access Protocols: Data link management and Physical
transmission of data on the media. Web
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) Server

Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)

Internet Protocol (IP)

Ethernet

Technology Independent Protocols

– Protocols generally don’t describe how to accomplish a particular function.

The Benefits of Using a Layered Model

– A layered model depicts the operation of the protocols occurring within each
layer, as well as the interaction with the layers above and below it.
– There are benefits to using a layered model to describe network protocols
and operations. Using a layered model:
  Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a
specific layer have defined information that they act upon and a
defined interface to the layers above and below.
 Fosters competition because products from different vendors
can work together.
 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from
affecting other layers above and below.
 Provides a common language to describe networking functions
and capabilities.

Protocol and Reference Models

– Two types of networking models: 1) Protocol models 2) Reference models

– Reference Model: The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in
clearer understanding of the functions and process involved.
– Protocol Model: rovides a model that closely matches the structure
of a particular protocol suite.
– Although the TCP/IP and OSI models are the primary models used when
discussing network functionality, designers of network protocols, services, or
devices can create their own models to represent their products. Ultimately,
designers are required to communicate to the industry by relating their
product or service to either the OSI model or the TCP/IP model, or to both.

The TCP/IP Model

Application Represents data t the user plus

encoding and dialog control

Supports communication between diverse devices

Transport
across diverse networks.

Determines the best path through the network.

Internet
Controls the hardware devices and media that make
Network Access
up the network

– First model for internetwork communications was created in the 1970s and is
referred to as the internet model, and it defined 4 categories of functions for
communications to be successful
– TCP/IP model is an open standard model
– Defining documents regarding TCP/IP protocols are called Requests for
Comments (RCFs), They contain both the formal specification of data
communications protocols and resources that describe the use of the
protocols.
 – A complete communication process, using the TCP/IP model includes these
steps:
 1. Creation of data at the Application layer of the originating
source end device
 2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down
the protocol stack in the source end device
 3. Generation of the data onto the media at the Network Access
layer of the stack
 4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which
consists of media and any intermediary devices
 5. Reception of the data at the Network Access layer of the
destination end device
 6. Decapsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the
stack in the destination device
 7. Passing this data to the destination application at the
Application layer of the destination end device

Protocol Data Units (PDU) and Encapsulation

– Protocol Data Unit (PDU): The form that a piece of data takes at any layer.
– At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to reflect its new
appearance.
 Data – the general term for the PDU used at the application
level
 Segment – Transport Layer PDU
 Packet – Internetwork Layer PDU
 Frame – Network access layer PDU
 Bits – A PDU used when physically transmitting data over a
medium

Sending and Receiving Process

– Sending messages on a network start from the top to the bottom on a

protocol stack.
– Sending HTML web page to a client: 1) first TCP segment is labelled with a
header with info about what process running on the destination computer
should receive the message. 2) The transport layer encapsulates the TCP
layer within an IP packet. 3) Finally is layered with an Ethernet protocol
containing a physical address.
– Reverse is done when data is received.

The OSI Model

L7 APPLICATION
(software)
 L PRESENTATION
6 (software)

L5 SESSION (software)

L4 TRANSPORT
(software)

L3 NETWORK
(hardware)

L2 DATA LINK
(hardware)

L1 PHYSICAL (hardware)

L7: Application: provides the means for end to end connectivity between
individuals in the human network using data networks.

L6: Presentation: provides for common representation of the data transferred

between application layer services

L5: Session: provides services to the presentation layer to organize its dialogue
and to manage data exchange.

L4: Transport: defines services to segment, transfer and reassemble the data for
individual communications between the end devices.

L3: Network: provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the
network between indentified end devices.

L2: Data Link: protocols describe methods for exchanging data frames between
devices over a common media.

L1: Physical: protocols describe the mechanical, electrical, functional and

procedural means to activate, maintain and de-activate physical connections for bit
transmission to and from network devices.

Getting the Data to the End Device

– First identifier, the host physical address is contained in the header of the
layer 2 PDU called a frame.
– Layer 2 is concerned with the delivery of messages on a single local network.
– In a LAN using Ethernet, this address is called the Media Access Control
(MAC) address.

Getting the Data through the Internetwork

 – Layer 3 designed to move data from one local network to another local
network within an internetwork.

Getting the Data to the Right Application

– Port numbers enable data to reach the right application, i.e. emails going to
email clients as appose to showing up in a word document or instant
message client.
–