Chapter 7 : Pure Substance

1.1 Pure Substance Definition

1.2 Two property rule
1.3 Critical point, triple point, formations of steam and definitions
1.4 T-S,P-V,H-S,P-T diagrams
1.5 PVT Surface
1.6 Working principles of Calorimeters
1.7 Use of steam tables
1.8 Pure substance for different processes

Concepts in chapter 7:

 Pure substance
 Definitions related to pure substance-water
 Use of steam tables and mollier chart for solving problems

PURE SUBSTANCES

A pure substance in thermodynamics is defined as one that has invariable chemical composition in all the
phases. All substances exists in any one of the three phases (solid, liquid or gas). A pure substance for example
water can exist as ice in solid phase, as water in liquid phase and as steam in gaseous phase. A system of ice
and water (more than one phase) constitute a two phase system called as heterogeneous system. A system
comprising one phase is called a homogeneous system. The pure substance water is important pure substance
to be studied as it is a working fluid for thermal power plants.

Definitions:

Some of terms used in discussion ahead are given as under.

(a) Sensible heating: It refers to the heating of substance in single phase. It causes rise in temperature of
substance. In case of cooling in above conditions it shall be called sensible cooling. The quantity of heat
required to increase the temperature of liquid from zero degree Celsius to saturated temperature at constant
pressure is called sensible heat.

(b) Latent heating: It is the heating of substance for causing its phase change without any change in it’s
temperature. If heat is extracted for causing phase change without any change in its temperature it will be
called latent cooling. The quantity of heat required to convert the liquid to saturated vapour at saturated
temperature and constant pressure is called latent heat.

(c) Normal boiling point: It is the temperature at which vapour pressure equals to atmospheric pressure and at
this temperature phase change from liquid to gas begins.

(d) Melting point: It is the temperature at which phase change from solid to liquid takes place upon supplying
latent heat.

(e) Saturation states: Saturation state of a substance refers to the state at which its phase transformation
takes place without any change in pressure and temperature. These can be saturated solid state, saturated
liquid state and saturated vapour state. For example saturated Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance
vapour state refers to the state of water at which its phase changes to steam without varying pressure and
temperature.

(f) Saturation pressure: It is the pressure at which substance changes its phase for any given temperature. Such
as at any given temperature water shall get converted into steam at a definite pressure only, this pressure is
called saturation pressure corresponding to given temperature. For water at 100°C the saturation pressure is 1
atm pressure.

(g) Saturation temperature: It refers to the temperature at which substance changes its phase for any given
pressure. For water at 1 atm pressure the saturation temperature is 100°C.

(h) Triple point: Triple point of a substance refers to the state at which substance can coexist in solid, liquid
and gaseous phase in equilibrium. For water it is 0.01°C i.e. at this temperature ice, water and steam can
coexist in equilibrium. Table 6.1 given below gives triple point data for number of substances

(i) Critical states: “Critical state refers to that state of substance at which liquid and vapour coexist in
equilibrium.” In case of water at 22.12 MPa, and 374.15°C the water and vapour coexist in equilibrium, thus it
is the highest pressure and temperature at which distinguishable water and vapour exist together. Data for
critical state of many substances is given in the table 6.1. Specific volume at critical point for water is 0.00317
m3/kg.

(j) Dryness fraction: It is the mass fraction of vapour in a mixture of liquid and vapour at any point in liquid-
vapour mixture region. It is generally denoted by ‘x’. It is also called quality of steam.

(k) Compressed liquid or subcooled liquid: Liquid at temperature less than saturation temperature
corresponding to a given pressure is called compressed liquid or subcooled liquid. Degree of subcooling is
given by the temperature difference between liquid temperature and saturation temperature of liquid at given
pressure.

Degree of subcooling = Saturation temperature at given pressure – Temperature of liquid.

(l) Superheated steam: Steam having temperature more than the saturation temperature corresponding to
given pressure is called superheated steam. Amount of superheating is quantified by degree of superheating.
Degree of superheating is given by difference between temperature of steam and saturation temperature at
given pressure.

Degree of superheating = Temperature of steam – Saturation temperature at given pressure.

The two property rule:

“The state of a given mass of a pure substance can be defined by specifying two independent properties of the
system, provided the system is in equilibrium and that the effects due to gravity, motion, electricity,
magnetism, chemical and surface tension are neglected.

Sub cooled liquid state: A pure substance is said to be in sub cooled state if its temperature is less than the
saturation temperature at a given pressure.

Saturated liquid state: A pure substance is said to be in saturated liquid state if it can be vaporized on heating
without change in either temperature or pressure.

Wet Vapour state: A pure substance is said to be in wet Vapour state if it exists as a mixture of liquid and
Vapour in equilibrium at constant pressure and temperature.
Enthalpy of wet steam: The amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water from zero degree Celsius to
steam at any degree of wetness at constant pressure is called enthalpy of wet steam.

Enthalpy of dry steam: The amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water from zero degree Celsius to
saturated steam at constant pressure is called enthalpy of dry steam.

Enthalpy of superheated steam: The amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water from zero degree
Celsius to any degree of superheated steam at constant pressure is called enthalpy of superheated steam.

Phase equilibrium:

Let us consider the equilibrium between two phases of a pure substance. We know that under these
conditions the two phases are at same pressure and temperature. Consider the change of state associated
with transfer of dn moles from a phase one to phase two, while the temperature and pressure remains
constant.

dn1= -dn2

The Gibbs function of this system is

G=f(T, P, n1, n2)

Where, n1 and n2 are the number of moles in each phase,

Therefore

 G   G   G   G 
dG    dT    dP   1  dn1   2  dn 2
 T  P ,n1 ,n2  P T ,n1 ,n2  n T , P ,n2  n  P ,n1 ,T
By definition,

At Constant Pressure and Temperature,

dG  y 1dn1  y 2 dn 2  dn1[ g 1  g 2 ]

Now at Equilibrium,

dGT,P=0

g 1  g 2

In summary, when different phases of a pure substance are in equilibrium, each phase has the same value of
Gibb’s function per unit mass.

P-T Diagram

If the vapour pressure of a solid is measured at various temperatures until the triple point is reached and then
that of the liquid is measured until the critical point is reached, the results are plotted on a pressure
temperature diagram appear as two lower lines as shown in Figure below.
 Liquid
Critical point c
region

Solid region Vapour

region
Pressure P

Vapourization curve
Fusion curve

Triple point t
Sublimation curve

Temperature T

Point‘t’ is triple point and point ‘c’ is critical point. If the substance at triple point is compressed until there is
no vapour left and the pressure on the resulting mixture of liquid and solid is increased. The temperature must
be changed if the equilibrium is to continue that exists between solid and liquid. Measurement of these
pressure and temperature gives rise to a third curve on the PT diagram, starting at triple point and continue
indefinitely. The experimental data defines the following,

1. The point representing the Co-Existence of the Solid and Vapour lie on the sublimation curve.

2. The point representing the Co-Existence of the Liquid and Vapour lie on the vaporization curve.

3. The point representing the Co-Existence of the Solid and Liquid lie on the Fusion curve.
Liquid Critical Vapour
T-V Diagram:
region point region

Liquid-
Temperature T

Vapour
region P=20 bar

P=1.013 bar

Saturated Liquid line

Saturated Vapour line

Specific volume v
P-V-T Surface

All the information contained on both PV and PT diagrams can be shown on a single diagram if the
three co-ordinates P, V and T are plotted in three dimensional space, the results is a PVT surface. The surface is
shown in the figure below for a substance like Water which extends upon freezing.
 PVT surface for water which expands on freezing

PVT surface for CO2 which contracts on freezing

Triple Point and Critical Point

1) Critical point.

Critical point is the limiting point at which the values of specific volume of the saturated liquid and that of
saturated vapour becomes equal. Take a very strong transparent tube, the initially filled with a mixture of
liquid water and water vapour of equal specific volume, I,e Vf = Vg = 0.003155 m3/Kg.

When the tube is heated, as the critical point approached, the meniscus remains near the middle of
the tube and becomes less distinct or fades away. The process is represented by the line MN. The pressure and
temperature at this point are called as Critical pressure and Critical temperature.

For water, Tc=374.14ºC, Pc=22.09 MPa, Vc=0.003155 m3/Kg

2) Triple Point
 Let the pressure on is equal to triple point pressure P d and temperature Td, when ice is slowly heated
at constant pressure Pd, the temperature of ice first rises until it reaches the triple point temperature of water.
On further heating, some of the ice vaporizes and some of it gets converted into liquid water, but the
temperature remains unchanged. Thus Triple point may be defined as the state in which three phases solid,
liquid and vapour co exists in equilibrium. On further heating, temperature rises and whole of liquid water is
converted into super heated steam. This process is represented by the line DEF,

For water, Temperature = 0.01 ºC, Pressure=0.6113 KPa at triple point.

Dryness fraction and its measurement

Dryness fraction is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam to mass of total steam (dry steam + water
particles). Steam calorimeters are used for measurement of dryness fraction,

1. Tank or Barrel Calorimeter.

The arrangement of this calorimeter is as shown in figure. The steam is passes through the sample
tube into the bucket calorimeter containing a known weight of water. The weight of calorimeter with water
before mixing the steam and after mixing the steam is obtained by weighing. The temperature of water before
and after mixing the steam are measured by a thermometer, the pressure of steam is measured by a pressure
gauge.

Let, Pg= Gauge pressure of steam (N/m2)

Pa= Atmospheric pressure (N/m2)

Ts= Saturation temperature of steam from steam table at pressure of (P g+Pa),

Hfg= Latent heat of steam at (Pg+Pa),

X = Dryness fraction of steam

Wc= Weight of calorimeter, Kg

W1 = ( Weight of calorimeter + Water ), Kg

W2 = ( Weight of calorimeter + Water + Condensed steam ), Kg

 Cpc = Specific heat of calorimeter material

T1= Temperature of water ºC before mixing of steam,

T2= Temperature of water ºC after mixing of steam,

W3 = (W1 + W2 ) weight of steam condensed, Kg

Now,

Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by (Water + Calorimeter)

(W2-W1) [x hfg+(Ts-T2)] = (W1-Wc) (T2-T1)+ WcCpc(Ts2-T1)

Ws[x hfg+(Ts-T2)] = W1-Wc+ WcCpc(T2-T1)

x= {[W1-Wc+ WcCpc(T2-T1)]-Ws(Ts-T2)}/ Wshfg.

(Losses due to radiation neglected)

2. Separating calorimeter:

It is used to measure the dryness fraction of steam when the steam is having lower dryness fraction. The
calorimeter is as shown in figure. Sample steam is passed through a sampling tube. Moisture is separated
mechanically from steam. Steam is passed through perforated trays where water particles separated due to
inertia of droplets. Outgoing steam is condensed in a bucket calorimeter.

Let Ww= Weight of water separated in specific time

Ws= Weight of steam condensed in bucket

X=Dryness fraction = Ws/(Ws+Ww)

( Note: It is assumed that all water particles are removed in separator, x measured is always higher than actual
x as separating complete water particles is not possible).
3. Throttling calorimeter:

This calorimeter gives the accurate result. A sample of steam is passed through throttling valve where pressure
decreases until it comes out in superheated state. The pressure and temperature of steam coming out of
throttle valve is measured b a thermometer and a u tube manometer.

Since Enthalpy before throttling = Enthalpy after throttling

h f 1  xh fg1  h f 2  h fg 2  C ps (Tsup 2  Tsat 2 )

h f 2  h fg 2  C ps (Tsup 2  Tsat 2 )  h f 1
x
h fg1

At P1, take h f 1 , h fg1 from steam table

At P2, take h f 2 , h fg 2 , C ps , Tsat 2 from steam table

Tsat2 = Temperature measured by thermometer.

The condition for successful operation of this calorimeter is that steam must be superheated after throttling. If
the steam is too wet this calorimeter cannot be used for measurement.

4. Separating and throttling calorimeter (Combined calorimeter)

This calorimeter combines the feature of separating and throttling calorimeter, here the drawbacks of both
calorimeters have been overcome. The calorimeter is as shown in figure.
Let Ww= Weight of water separated .

Ws= Weight of steam condensed in bucket at the end

x1=Dryness fraction = Ws/(Ws+Ww)

Enthalpy before throttling = Enthalpy after throttling

h f 1  xhfg1  h f 2  h fg 2  C ps (Tsup 2  Tsat 2 )

h f 2  h fg 2  C ps (Tsup 2  Tsat 2 )  h f 1
x2 
h fg1

At P1, take h f 1 , h fg1 from steam table

At P2, take h f 2 , h fg 2 , C ps , Tsat 2 from steam table

Tsat2 = Temperature measured by thermometer.

The actual dryness fraction x  x1 x2 .

Problems:

1. A rigid container is filled with steam at 600 kPa and 2000C. At what temperature the steam
begins to condense when cooled? Determine the corresponding pressure (VTU-jan2004).
Steam cools at constant volume, v1=v2

At 6 bar, Tsat=158.850C from steam table (Temperature at which steam begins to condense)

Steam is superheated, as T>Tsat

From superheated steam table, at 6 bar and 2000C v1=0.352 m3/kg=v2

At 0.352 m3/kg from saturated steam tables Pressure is 5.54 bar.

2. A rigid vessel contains 1 kg of wet steam at a pressure of 0.15 MPa. When the mixture is
heated, the state passes through the critical point. Determine i) The volume of the vessel ii)
Mass of Liquid and Vapour initially in the vessel iii) The Temperature of the mixture when the
pressure has risen to 3 MPa iv) The heat transfer required to produce the final state (VTU-July
2004).

P
CP

3 MPa 2

0.15MPa 1

v
 From fig v1=v2=vcp= Vc=0.003155 m3/Kg (specific
volume at critical point)

At 1.5 bar hf=467.1kJ/kg, hfg=2226.2kJ/kg, vf=0.001053 m3/kg, vg=1.159 m3/Kg.

Volume of vessel = m v1=1x0.003155=0.003155 m3.

v1=x1vg

0.003155=x 1.159

x1 =0.002722.

x1=Dryness fraction = Ws/(Ws+Ww)

=Ws/1kg therefore Ws=0.002722 kg

Ww=1-0.002722 = 0.9973kg.

At 30 bar Tsat=233.80C, hf=1008.4kJ/kg, hfg=1793.9kJ/kg, vf=0.001216m3/kg,

vg=0.0666 m3/Kg.

Temperature at point 2=233.80C

v2=x2 vg2

0.003155= x2 0.0666

x2=0.0473

Q-W=U2-U1, as W=0

U1=h1-p1v1

h1= h f 1  xhfg1 =467.1+0.002722 x 2226.2=473.16 kJ/kg

U1=473.16-1.5x100x0.003155=472.68 kJ/kg

U2=h2-p2v2

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =1008.4+0.0473 x 1793.9=1093.38 kJ/kg

U2=1093.38-30x100x0.003155=1083.92

Q=1083.92-472.68=611.23 kJ/kg.
3. Steam at 10 bar and 2000C undergoes a reversible adiabatic process to 1 bar in a turbine.
Determine the specific volume, the final temperature and the final specific entropy. If the mass
flow rate through the turbine is 2 kg/s, determine the work output from the turbine.

At 10bar, 2000C(Superheated) h1=2827.9kJ/kg, S1=6.694 kJ/kgK

(From superheated steam table)

At 1 bar: hf2=417.5kJ/kg, hfg2=2257.9kJ/kg, Sf2=1.3027kJ/kgK, Sfg2=6.057kJ/kgK

`Adiabatic process: S1=S2

S1= S f 2  x2 S fg 2

6.694=1.3027+x26.057

x2=0.89

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =417.5+0.89 x 2257.9=2427.03 kJ/kg

From SFEE, Q-W=m (h2-h1)

W=m (h1-h2) as Q=0

W=2(2827.9-2427.03) =801.74kJ

4. Steam at 1 MPa and 2500C enters a nozzle with a velocity of 60 m/s and leaves at 10kPa.
Assuming the flow process to be isentropic and the mass flow rate to be 1 kg/s determine i) Exit
velocity ii) The exit diameter (VTU-Jan 2005).

At 10bar, 2500C(Superheated) h1=2942.6kJ/kg, S1=6.925 kJ/kgK

(From superheated steam table)

At 0.1 bar: hf2=191.8kJ/kg, hfg2=2392.8kJ/kg, Sf2=0.649kJ/kgK, Sfg2=7.501kJ/kgK

Isentropic process: S1=S2

S1= S f 2  x2 S fg 2

6.925=0.649+x27.501

x2=0.837
h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =191.8+0.837 x 2392.8=2193.83 kJ/kg

V2=[2000(h1-h2)+V12]0.5

V2=[2000(2942.6-2193.83)+602]0.5

V2=1225.2 m/s

5. A rigid tank contains 3 kg of water as saturated liquid Vapour mixture at 800C. If 2kg of water
is in liquid form and the rest is in Vapour form, determine the pressure of the mixture and the
volume of the tank (VTU-July2005).

At 800C, from steam table: P=0.4739 bar, vg=3.407 m3/kg

Mass of vapor = Total mass of mixture – Mass of Liquid

mg=3-2=1kg

x=mg/(mg+mw)

x=1/3=0.33

v=x vg

v=0.33 x 3.407

v=1.1243 m3/kg

Volume of tank=mass x v

=3 x1.1243 = 3.3729 m3.

6. State whether the following samples of steam are wet, dry or superheated. Justify your
answer i) Pressure=1MPa absolute, enthalpy=2880kJ/kg.

ii) Pressure=500kPa absolute, volume=0.35m3/kg.

iii) Temperature=2000C, pressure=1.2 MPa.

iv) Temperature=1000C, entropy=6.88kJ/kgK.

v) Pressure=10kPa, enthalpy=2584.8kJ/kg (VTU-Jan 2006).

i) At 10 bar, hg=2776.2kJ/kg given h > hg hence steam is superheated.

ii) At 5 bar, vg=0.375 m3/kg given v < vg hence steam is wet.

iii) At 12 bar, Tsat=1880C given T > Tsat hence steam is superheated.

iv) At 1000C, Sg=7.355kJ/kgK given S > Sg hence steam is wet.

v) At 0.1 bar, hg=2584.7kJ/kg given h = hg hence steam is dry saturated.

7. Dry steam at 1 MPa absolute expands in a horizontal adiabatic nozzle to 10kPa. Find the
velocity of steam issuing out of nozzle, assuming frictionless flow. Neglect initial velocity of
steam (VTU-Jan 2006).

At 10bar, (assume dry saturated) hg=2776.2kJ/kg, Sg=6.5828 kJ/kgK

At 0.1 bar: hf2=191.8kJ/kg, hfg2=2392.8kJ/kg, Sf2=0.649kJ/kgK, Sfg2=7.501kJ/kgK

Isentropic process: S1=S2

S1= S f 2  x2 S fg 2

6.5828=0.649+x27.501

x2=0.791

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =191.8+0.791 x 2392.8=2084.5 kJ/kg

V2=[2000(h1-h2)]0.5

V2=[2000(2776.2-2084.5)]0.5

V2=1176.18 m/s

8. Wet steam at 1MPa enters a throttling calorimeter and is throttled to 100 kPa. What is the
minimum value of dryness fraction that can be measured using the throttling calorimeter under
these conditions? How can the dryness fraction be measured if it is less than this value (VTU-Jan
2006).

At 10 bar, hf1=762.6kJ/kg, hfg1=2013.6kJ/kg, Sf1=2.1382kJ/kgK, Sfg1=4.4446kJ/kgK

At 1 bar hg=2675.4 kJ/kg, Sg=7.3598 kJ/kgK

Minimum value of dryness fraction that can be measured using the throttling calorimeter is that
steam should be dry saturated at exit.

h f 1  xhfg1  hg 2

762.6+x2013.6 = 2675.4

x =0.9499

9. Steam at 1 bar and dryness fraction of 0.523 is heated in a rigid vessel until it becomes
saturated vapour. Calculate the heat transfer per kg of steam (VTU-july2006).

Q-W=U2-U1

W=0 as process is constant volume.

At 1 bar, hf1=417.5kJ/kg, hfg1=2257.9kJ/kg, vg1=1.694m3/kg.

v1=xvg1=0.523 x 1.694 = 0.88596 m3/kg.

As v1=v2=0.88596m3/kg (vg2).

At v2 the pressure is 2 bar and hg=2706.3 kJ/kg.

U1=h1-p1v1

h1= h f 1  xhfg1 =417.5+0.523 x 2257.9=1598.38 kJ/kg

U1=1598.38-1x100x0.88596=1509.78 kJ/kg

U2=h2-p2v2

h2= hg2=2706.3 kJ/kg

U2=2706.3-2x100x0.88596=2529.11kJ/kg

Q=2529.11-1509.78=1019.33 kJ/kg.

10. 2.5kg steam at 10 bar and 4000C is cooled at constant pressure, in a heat exchanger until it
becomes saturated vapour. Find the available and unavailable parts of energy from this steam.
Assume the surroundings are at 270C (VTU-July2006).

For constant pressure process δQ=dh=m (h2-h1)

At 10bar 4000C from superheated steam table h1=3263.9kJ/kg, S1=7.465kJ/kgK.

At 10bar from steam table hg2=2776.2kJ/kg, Sg2=6.5828kJ/kgK.

Q=2.5(2776.2-3263.9)=-1219.25kJ

Unavailable energy=T0(S2-S1)=300(6.5828-7.465)=-264.66kJ

Available energy= Q- T0(S2-S1)=-1219.25+264.66=-954.59Kj

11. 1 kg of steam at 15bar absolute, dryness fraction 0.9 is heated reversibly at constant
pressure to a temperature of 3000C. Calculate the heat supplied and change in entropy. Also
show the process on T-S diagram indicating the area which represents heat flow (VTU-July2007).

S
At 15 bar, hf1=844.7kJ/kg, hfg1=1945.2kJ/kg, Sf1=2.3145kJ/kgK, Sfg1=4.1261kJ/kgK

At 15bar 3000C from superheated steam table h2=3037.6kJ/kg, S2=6.918kJ/kgK.

For constant pressure process δQ=dh=m (h2-h1)

h1= h f 1  xhfg1 =844.7+0.9 x 1945.2=2595.38 kJ/kg

Q=1.0(3037.6-2595.38)=442.22kJ

S1= S f 1  xS fg1 =2.3145+0.9 x 4.1261=6.028 kJ/kg

Entropy change=(S2-S1)=(6.918-6.028)=0.89kJ/kgK

12. A sample of steam from a boiler drum at 3MPa absolute is made to pass through a throttling
calorimeter. The pressure and temperature after throttling are found to be 0.1MPa absolute and
1200C. Find the quality of sample taken from the boiler drum. What is the minimum dryness
fraction that can be determined for the above given limits of pressure before and after
throttling? (VTU-July2007).

At 30 bar: hf1=1008.4kJ/kg, hfg1=1793.9kJ/kg, Sf1=2.6455kJ/kgK, Sfg1=3.5382kJ/kgK

At 1bar 1000C from superheated steam table h2=2676.2kJ/kg.

At 1bar 1500C from superheated steam table h2=2776.4kJ/kg.

By interpolation at 1200C h2=2716.28 kJ/kg.

h f 1  xhfg1  h2

1008.4+x1793.9 = 2716.28

x =0.952

Minimum value of dryness fraction that can be measured using the throttling calorimeter is that
steam should be dry saturated at exit.

h f 1  xhfg1  hg 2

hg2=2675.4kJ/kg

1008.4+x1793.9 = 2675.4

x =0.929

13. A pressure cooker contains 1.5 kg of saturated steam at 5 bar. Find the quantity of heat
which must be rejected so as to reduce the quality to 60% dry. Determine the pressure and
temperature of steam at the new state (VTU-Mar2001).
At 5 bar Tsat1=151.80C, hf1=640.1kJ/kg, hfg1=2107.4kJ/kg,hg1=2747.5kJ/kg,

vg1=0.375 m3/kg.

Volume of cooker=1.5x0.375=0.5625m3

As v1=v2,

0.375=x2vg2

0.375=0.6vg2

vg2=0.625 m3/kg

From steam table at vg2=0.625 m3/kg –P2=2.9bar, hf2=556.5kJ/kg, hfg2=2166.6kJ/kg

U1=h1-p1v1

h1= hg=2747.5 kJ/kg

U1=2747.5-5x100x0.375=2560 kJ/kg

U2=h2-p2v2

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =556.5+0.6 x 2166.6=1856.46 kJ/kg

U2=1856.46-2.9x100x0.375=1747.71 kJ/kg

Q=U2-U1=1747.71-2560=-812.29kJ/kg

Total Q=1.5x-812.29=-1218.43kJ.

14. Steam flows through a turbine at rate of 5000kg/hr entering at 15 bar and 300 0C with a
velocity of 80 m/s and at an elevation of 2m above the exit section. The steam leaves at 0.1 bar
and 4% moisture with a velocity of 40m/s.Assuming the flow process to be adiabatic, determine
power output from the turbine (VTU-jan2008).

At 15 bar,3000C: h2=3037.6kJ/kg

At 0.1 bar: hf2=191.8kJ/kg, hfg2=2392.8kJ/kg, Sf2=0.649kJ/kgK, Sfg2=7.501kJ/kgK

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =191.8+0.96 x 2392.8=2488.88 kJ/kg

Q-W=h1-h2+ [V12-V22]/2000 +g[Z1-Z2]/1000

0-W=(2488.8-3037.6)+ [402-802]/2000+9.81(0-2)/1000
 -W=-548.72-2.4-0.01962
W=551.14kJ/kgxmass

W=551.14x (5000/3600)=765.47kJ.

15. If a certain amount of steam is produced at a pressure of 8 bar and dryness fraction of 0.8
calculate i) External work done during evaporation ii) External latent heat of steam. (VTU-
Aug2001)

At P=8bar: vg=0.24 m3/kg, hfg=2046.5kJ/kg

External work of evaporation: P x vg =8 x 100 x 0.8 x 0.24=153.6 kJ

External latent heat= x hfg- External work of evaporation

= 0.8 x 2046.5 – 153.6

=1483.6kJ

16. Steam expands isentropically from 70 bar and 5000C to 200 kPa in a steam turbine, calculate
the dryness fraction and enthalpy of steam after expansion. If the steam flows steadily through
the turbine with a mass flow of 150kg/minute, determine the turbine work. Neglect the heat
losses, potential energy and kinetic energy effects. Draw the T-S diagram and show the above
process on it.

T 1

At 70bar 5000C from superheated steam table h1=3410.6kJ/kg, S1=6.7993kJ/kgK.

At 2 bar: hf2=504.7kJ/kg, hfg2=2201.6kJ/kg, Sf2=1.5301kJ/kgK, Sfg2=5.5967kJ/kgK

S1=S2

S1= S f 2  x2 S fg 2

6.7993=1.5301+x25.5967
 x2=0.785

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =504.7+0.785 x 2201.6=2235 kJ/kg

Q-W=h2-h1

Q=0,KE=0,PE=0

W= h1-h2=3410.6-2235=1175.6 kJ/kg

W=m x 1175.6 = (150/60) 1175.6 =2939kJ.

17. A vessel of volume 0.04m3 contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a
temperature of 2500C. The mass of the liquid present is 9 kg. Find the pressure, the mass, the
specific volume, the enthalpy and the internal energy. (VTU-Jun 2008).

From steam table at 2500C, P=39.75bar,vf=0.001251m3/kg, vg=0.0501m3/kg, hf2=1085.6kJ/kg,

hfg2=1714.85kJ/kg, Sf2=2.7931kJ/kgK, Sfg2=3.278kJ/kgK.

Volume of liquid=mass of liquid x vf = 9 x 0.001215 =0.010935 m3

Volume of vapour=0.04-0.010935=0.0291 m3

Mass of vapour = Volume of vapour/vg = 0.0291/0.0501 = 0.581kg

Total mass of mixture = 9 + 0.58 = 9.58 kg.

x1=Dryness fraction = ms/(ms+mw) = 0.58/9.58 = 0.0605.

Specific volume of mixture = x vg = 0.0605 x 0.0501 = 0.00303m3/kg.

Enthalpy of mixture = h= h f  x h fg =1085.6+0.0605 x 1714.85=1189.35 kJ/kg.

Entropy of mixture = S= S f  x S fg =2.7931+0.0605 x 3.278=2.9914 kJ/kg.

U=h-pv

U=1189.35-39.75x100x0.00303=1177.31 kJ/kg.

18. Determine the amount of heat which should be supplied to 2 kg of water at 25 0C to convert it
into steam at 5 bar and 0.9 dry.(VTU-Jan 2008).

At 5 bar hf1=640.1kJ/kg, hfg1=2107.4kJ/kg.

h= h f  x h fg =640.1+0.9 x 2107.4=2536.76 kJ/kg.

Sensible heat with water = mw Cpw (Tw-0) = 2 x 4.18 (25 – 0) = 104.5 kJ.

Heat to be supplied = 2536.76 – 104.5 = 2432.26kJ/kg

Total heat = 2 x 2432.26 = 4864.52 kJ.

19. Steam initially at a pressure of 15 bars and 0.95 dry expands isentropically to 7.5 bar

and then throttled until it becomes just dry saturated. Determine per kg of steam i) change

in internal energy ii) change in enthalpy and iii) change in entropy.(VTU-June2009).

At 15 bar from steam table hf1=844.7kJ/kg, hfg1=1945.2kJ/kg, Sf1=2.3145kJ/kgK, Sfg1=4.1261kJ/kgK,

vg1=0.132m3/kg.

At 7.5 bar from steam table hf2=709.3kJ/kg, hfg2=2055kJ/kg, Sf2=2.0195kJ/kgK, Sfg2=4.6621kJ/kgK,

vg2=0.255m3/kg.

Process 1-2: Isentropic.

S f 1  x1 S fg1 = S f 2  x2 S fg 2

2.3145 + 0.95 x 4.1261 = 2.0195 + x2 4.6621

x2 = 0.9317

h1= h f 1  x1h fg1 =844.7+0.95 x 1945.2=2692.64 kJ/kg.

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =709.2+0.9317 x 2055=2624.45 kJ/kg.

S1= S f 1  x1 S fg1 =2.3145+0.95 x 4.1261=6.2342 kJ/kg.

S2= S f 2  x2 S fg 2 =2.0195+0.9317 x 4.6621=6.3631 kJ/kg.

v1== x1 vg1 = 0.95 x 0.132 = 0.1254m3/kg.

v2== x2 vg2 = 0.9317 x 0.255 = 0.2376m3/kg.

U1=h1-p1v1

U1=2692.64-15x100x0.1254=2504.54 kJ/kg.

U2=h2-p2v2

U2=2624.45-7.5x100x0.2376=2446.25 kJ/kg.

Process 2-3: Throttling

x3=1

h2=h3 =hg3 = 2624.45kJ/kg at this enthalpy from steam table,

P3=0.29 bar, Sg3=7.7812kJ/kgK, vg3=5.398 m3/kg.

U3=h3-p3vg3

U3=2624.45-0.29x100x5.398=2467.91 kJ/kg.

Change in Entropy = (S2 – S1) + (S3 – S2) = (S3 – S1) = 7.7812 – 6.2342 = 1.5461kJ/kgK.

Change in Enthalpy = (h2 – h1) + (h3 – h2) = (h3 – h1) = 2624.45 – 2692.64

= - 68.18kJ/kg.

Change in Internal energy = (U2 – U1) + (U3 – U2) = (U3 – U1) = 2467.91 – 2504.54

= - 36.63 kJ/kg.

20. A pressure cooker contains 1.5Kg of steam at5 bar and 0.9 dryness when the gas was switched
off. Determine the quantity of heat rejected by the pressure cooker when the pressure in the cooker
falls to 1bar.

At 5 bar Tsat1=151.80C, hf1=640.1kJ/kg, hfg1=2107.4kJ/kg,hg1=2747.5kJ/kg,

vg1=0.375 m3/kg.

At 1 bar Tsat1=99.60C, hf2=417.5kJ/kg, hfg2=2257.9kJ/kg,hg2=2675.4kJ/kg,

vg2=1.694 m3/kg.

v1== x1 vg1 = 0.9 x 0.375 = 0.3375m3/kg.

v2== x2 vg2 = x2 1.694

as v1=v2, 0.3375 = x2 1.694

x2 = 0.199

U1=h1-p1v1

h1= h f 1  x1h fg1 =640.1+0.9 x 2107.4=2536.76 kJ/kg.

U1=2536.76-5x100x0.3375=2368.01 kJ/kg.

U2=h2-p2v2

h2= h f 2  x2 h fg 2 =417.5+0.199 x 2257.9=866.82 kJ/kg.

U2=866.82-1x100x0.3375=833.07 kJ/kg.

Q=U2-U1=833.07 – 2368.01 = - 1534.94 kJ/kg x 1.5 kg = - 2302.4 kJ.

 21. One kg of Steam expands in a turbine from 5 bar, 0.95 dry to 0.1 bar following the law PV1.25=C,
calculate the work done and the quality of steam at turbine exit.

At 5 bar Tsat1=151.80C, hf1=640.1kJ/kg, hfg1=2107.4kJ/kg,hg1=2747.5kJ/kg,

vg1=0.375 m3/kg.

At 0.1 bar: hf2=191.8kJ/kg, hfg2=2392.8kJ/kg, Sf2=0.649kJ/kgK, Sfg2=7.501kJ/kgK.

vg2=14.67 m3/kg.

p2 x1v g1

p1 x2 v g 2

0.95  0.375 5 1.25

1
x2=   = 0.56
14.67 0 .1

p1 x1v1  p 2 x2 v2 5 100  0.95  0.375  0.1100  0.56 14.67

Work done = =
n 1 1.25  1

=383.89 kJ/kg.

22. two boilers one with super heater and other without super heater are delivering equal quantities
of steam into a common main. The pressure in the boilers and the main is 20 bar. The temperature
of the steam from the boiler with super heater is 3500C and temperature of the steam in the main is
2500C. Determine the quantity of steam supplied by the other boiler. take Cps=2.25kJ/kgK (VTU-
Aug2001)

At 20 bar Tsat=212.40C, hg=2797.2kJ/kg, hf1=908.6kJ/kg, hfg1=1888.6kJ/kg

For boiler 1, h1= hg1  C ps (Tsup  Tsat ) =2797.2+2.25(350 – 212.4) = 3106.8 kJ.

For boiler 2, h2= h f  x2 h fg =908.6+x2 x 1888.6

For the mains h3=2[ hg  C ps (Tsup  Tsat ) ]=2[2797.2+2.25(250 – 212.4) = 5763.6 kJ.

As h1 + h2 = h3

3106.8 + 908.6+x2 x 1888.6 = 5763.6

x2=0.925.
The following observations were recorded in an experiment with a combined calorimeter.
Pressure the steam mains:15 bar, Mass of water drained from the separator: 0.55kg,mass
of steam condensed after passing through throttle value 4.2KG,pressure 4 temperature after
throttling 1bar,1200c.Find quality of steam in the mains.