Motivation and Emotion, Vol. 9, No.

4, 1985

Self-Focused Attention and Depression:

Self-Evaluation, Affect, and Life Stress
Timothy W. Smith l
University of Utah

Rick E. Ingrain
San Diego State University

David L. Roth
University of Kansas

Recent theory and research (Smith & Greenberg, 1981; Ingrain & Smith,
1984) suggest an association between seb¢-focused attention and depression.
In an attempt to clarify the nature of this relationship, two studies were
undertaken. Study I demonstrated that self-focused attention (i.e., private
self-consciousness) was correlated with depression but was unrelated to test
anxiety. Thus, self-focused attention was a correlate of depression but not
emotional difficulty in general. Further, both depression and private self-
consciousness were independently associated with a negative evaluation o f
the self. Self-focused attention was also found to be correlated with
negative mood in individuals experiencing at least some symptoms o f
depression but not in nondepressed persons. Study H demonstrated that
self-focused attention and stressful life events were independently
associated with depression. Self-focused attention did not, however,
moderate the relationship between stress and depression.

Cognitive approaches to the nature and treatment of depression have been

the subject of many recent empirical and theoretical efforts. One potentially
important cognitive factor, however, has until recently been largely
overlooked. Several authors have noted that depressed individuals tend to

~Address all correspondence to Dr. T i m o t h y W. Smith, Department o f Psychology, University

o f Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84t 12.
381

0146-7239/85/1200-0381504.50/0© 1985Plenum PublishingCorporation

382 Smith, Ingrain, and Roth

allocate their attention inward toward themselves, their thoughts, and their
feelings, as opposed to outward toward various aspects of their environ-
ment (Ferster, 1974; Kanger & Hagerman, 1981; Klinger, 1977). In this
vein, Smith and Greenberg (1981) identified several parallels between
depression and research on the effects of self-focused attention. Both
depression and self-focused attention are associated with a discrepancy be-
tween self-evaluations and standards, accurate self-reports, internal attribu-
tions for negative events, and more pronounced affective responses.
Three preliminary investigations have provided evidence of a relation-
ship between depression and self-focused attention. Smith and Greenberg
(1981) demonstrated a significant correlation between the Fenigstein,
Scheier, and Buss (1975) measure of dispositionally self-focused attention
(i.e., private self-consciousness) and a self-report measure of depression
derived from the MMPI. Ingrain and Smith (1984, Study 1) replicated this
finding in three separate samples, using the Beck Depression Inventory
(Beck, 1967) as a measure of depression. Ingram and Smith (1984, Study 2)
also compared depressed and nondepressed subjects on their responses to
the Self-Focus Sentence Completion Scale (Exner, 1973). Results indicated
that depressed subjects evidenced significantly higher levels of self-focused
responding. The purpose of the present two studies was to clarify further
the nature of this relationship.

STUDY I

Self-focused attention has been implicated in other dysfunctional con-

ditions (Hull & Young, 1983; Slapion & Carver, 1981). Thus, the question
arises as to whether or not dispositionally self-focused attention is unique to
depression or is more generally associated with other dysfunctional emo-
tional conditions. To address this issue, the relationship between depression
and self-focused attention was compared to the relationship between test
anxiety and dispositionally self-focused attention. Test anxiety was chosen
as a comparison dimension because similar attentional processes have been
identified as contributing to test anxiety (Carver, Peterson, Follansbee, &
Scheier, 1983; Slapion & Carver, 198t; Wine, 1971).
A second question addressed in Study I concerns the actual association
involving depression, self-focused attention, and their parallel correlates, as
outlined above. That is, although comparisons across studies suggest
similar cognitive correlates of depression and self-focused attention, these
mutual associations have never been examined directly. The present in-
vestigation examined the extent to which depression and dispositional self-
focused attention are both associated with the discrepancy between the real
Self-Focused Attention and Depression 383

and ideal self, the tendency to give accurate self-reports, and the tendency
to attribute negative events to internal causes.
The final question addressed in Study I concerned the relationship be-
tween self-focused attention and mood. Since previous research suggests that
self-focused attention exacerbates existing emotional states, the correlation
between self-focused attention and depressed mood was examined in a
group of subjects displaying at least some symptoms of depression (e.g.,
hopelessness, helplessness, low self-esteem, low energy, disturbed sleep and
appetite) as compared to a group without such symptoms. It should be
noted that this question draws a distinction between depressed mood and
the more extensive set of negative symptoms constituting depression.
Previous research and theory would suggest that self-focused attention
would be correlated more highly with negative mood in those individuals ex-
periencing at least some features of depression.

Method

Subjects. Sixty male and 56 female undergraduate students enrolled in

introductory psychology participated in the study. Subjects received partial
course credit for their participation.
Procedure and Measures. In groups of approximately 20, subjects
completed a set of six questionnaires in a randomized order. The Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, 1967) was used as a measure of depres-
sion. It has been found to be valid for use in college populations (Bumberry,
Oliver, & McClure, 1978; Hammen, 1980). The private self-consciousness
subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale (SCS; Fenigstein et al., 1975) was
used as a measure of dispositional self-focused attention. This subscale
assesses the tendency to attend to inner feelings and thoughts. The SCS also
generates scores on two other subscales: public self-consciousness O.e.,
tendency to be aware of oneself as a social object) and social anxiety.
Research with the SCS has indicated that the subscales have sufficient
reliability and validity (Carver & Glass, 1976; Fenigstein et al., 1975;
Turner, Scheier, Carver, & Ickes, 1978).
As a measure of the discrepancy between real and ideal self, subjects
completed the set of adjective ratings used by Ickes, Wicklund, and Ferris
(1973) in their study of the effects of self-focused attention on this
discrepancy. In this procedure, subjects rate both their "real" selves and
"ideal" selves on a set of 20 adjective rating scales. The difference scores
(i.e., ideal minus real) from each adjective rating were then totaled to form
an overall self-discrepancy score. As a measure of the tendency to attribute
negative events to internal causes, subjects completed the Attributional
384 Smith, Ingram, and Roth

Table 1. Correlations of the Beck Depression Inventory and the Test

Anxiety Inventory with Self-Consciousness Subscales (N = 116)
Private Public Social
self-consciousness self-consciousness anxiety
Beck
Depression
Inventory .27 b .12 .02
Test
Anxiety
Inventory .02 .30" .13
Up < .001.
bp < .005.

Style Questionnaire (ASQ; Peterson et al., 1982; Seligman Abramson, Sem-

mel, & Von Baeyer, 1979). Separate scale items are summed to provide
eight scores: an internality, globality, stability, and importance score for
positive events and for negative events. The Self-Deception Questionnaire
(SDQ; Sackeim & Gur, 1979) was used as a measure of the tendency to give
accurate self-reports. High scores theoretically represent high self-deception
or reduced accuracy of self-reports. The Depression Adjective Check List
(DACL; Lubin, 1967) was used as a measure of depressed mood. This
32-item checklist assessed the individual's degree of current depressed affect
but does not assess other features of depression, such as overt behavior,
physiological symptoms, and cognitive manifestations (Lewisohn & Lee,
1981). Finally, the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI; Speilberger, 1980) was us-
ed as a measure of trait test anxiety. This Likert-type 20-item scale has been
found to have adequate reliability and to be related to state anxiety and per-
formance decrements in test situations (Spielberger, Gonzales, Taylor,
Algaze, &Anton, 1978).

Results 2

Pearson correlation coefficients were computed using the scores from

the BDI, TAI, and SCS subscales. The resulting values are presented in
Table I. 3 Consistent with previous research, private self-consciousness and
depression were reliably correlated. Test anxiety, on the other hand, was
unrelated to private self-consciousness.

2Preliminary analyses revealed no significant differences between genders in the pattern of ob-
tained correlations. Therefore, the results consider both genders simultaneously.
3Since specific directions for each of the correlations were hypothesized, one-tailed tests of sig-
nificance are reported.
Self-Focused Attention and Depression 385

Table II. Correlations of the Beck Depression Inventory and Private Self-
Consciousness with Self-Discrepancy, Self-Deception, and Internal Attributions
Negative
Ideal-Real Self Internal
Self-Discrepancy Deception Attributions
Beck
Depression
Inventory .28 b - .35 ~ .22 b

Private
self-consciousness .3 ta ..22 h .04
Up < .001.
bp < .01.

Correlation coefficients were computed using scores from the BDI,

private self-consciousness subscale, ideal-real self-discrepancy question-
naire, the SDQ, and the negative-internal attribution scale from the ASQ.
The resulting values are presented in Table II. Consistent with previous
research, depression, as measured by the BDI, was correlated with greater
ideal-real self-discrepancy, greater tendency to give accurate self-reports,
and greater tendency to attribute negative events to internal causes. 4 Private
self-consciousness was also correlated with greater ideal-real self-
discrepancy and greater tendency to give accurate self-reports but was
unrelated to negative internal attributions.
To assess the unique association o f depression and private self-
consciousness with ideai-real self-discrepancy and self-deception, partial
correlations were calculated. The correlations of depression with self-
discrepancy and self-deception, controlling for private self-consciousness,
were r(111) = .23(/7 < .01) and r(111) = - .3 l(p < .001), respectively. The
correlations of private self-consciousness with self-discrepancy and self-
deception, controlling for depression were r(111) = .26(p < .005) and
r(111) = - .24(/) < .08). Thus, depression was significantly associated with
self-discrepancy and self-deception when the influence of self-consciousness
was removed. Private self-consciousness was significantly associated with
self-discrepancy but only marginally associated with self-deception when
the influence of depression was removed.
To examine the correlation between private self-consciousness and
depressed mood in individuals who display at least some symptoms of
depression, a subsample of subjects with a score of 6 or above on the BDI (n
= 48) was selected. The correlation between private self-consciousness and

q t is also interesting to note that, consistent with previous research (Seligman et al., 1979), de-
pression was also correlated with global attributions for negative events (r(116) = .23, p <
.01), and the composite score from the A S Q for negative events (r(l16) = .27, p < .005).
386 Smith, Ingram, and Roth

scores on the depression adjective checklist in this sample was significant

r(48) = .31(p < .02), even when controlling for BDI scores via partial cor-
relation, r(47) = .32 (p < .02). In contrast, private self-consciousness and
depressed mood were unrelated in the less depressed group, r(68) = -.06.
Further, the correlations between depressed mood and self-focused atten-
tion in the high versus low depressed groups are significantly different (z =
1.97, p = .05).

Discussion

The findings of the present study provided support for the role of self-
focused attention in depression. The results replicated previous work
demonstrating a relationship between private self-consciousness and
depression (Smith & Greenberg, 1981; Ingrain & Smith, 1984). Further,
private self-consciousness was unrelated to test anxiety, providing
preliminary evidence that dispositional self-focused attention is not simply a
correlate of self-reported dysfunctional emotional conditions in general. It
should be noted that these results are relevant only to the difference between
reports of depressive symptoms and reports of the tendency to experience
anxiety during tests (i.e., trait test anxiety). The actual state of being test-
anxious may involve heightened self-focused attention, as has been sug-
gested (Wine, 1971).
Private self-consciousness was also found to be associated with two
characteristics of depression: an increased discrepancy between the ideal
and real selves, and an increased tendency to give accurate self-reports.
Private setf-consiousness, however, was significantly correlated with self-
discrepancy but only marginally related to self-deception when the influence
of depression was eliminated.
There was no evidence of a correlation between self-focused attention
and the tendency to attribute negative events to internal causes. Depression
was, however, significantly correlated with this aspect of attributional style.
The lack of a correlation between dispositional self-focused attention and
internal attributions is inconsistent with previous research (Buss & Scheier,
1976), although it should be noted that the present and previous studies
employed somewhat different methods for assessing attributions. It is possi-
ble that the attributional style associated with depression is mediated by the
individual's beliefs (Metalsky & Abramson, 1981), as opposed to his or her
focus of attention.
The present study provided support for the hypothesis that disposi-
tional self-focused attention is associated with increased depressed mood
among depressed individuals. Private self-consciousness was unrelated to
depressed mood in subjects with low scores on the BDI. A positive correla-
Self-Focused Attention and Depression 387

tion was obtained, however, when high-scoring subjects were considered,

even when the scores on the BDI were controlled via a partial correlation. It
is important to note that, though correlated (r(116) = .52, p < .001), the
BDI and DACL are assessing different dimensions. The DACL is strictly a
measure of depressed mood, while the BDI assesses mood in addition to
several other aspects of depression, including hopelessness, helplessness, low
self-esteem, and several "vegetative" signs of depression (e.g., sleep, ap-
petite, and energy disturbances; see Beck, 1967, for a complete list). Thus,
the pattern of results in the present study indicates that self-focused atten-
tion is associated with exacerbated depressed mood in individuals experienc-
ing at least some depressive symptoms.

STUDY II
Although previous findings and the present results demonstrate that
dispositional self-focused attention is associated with concurrent depression
and its central features, it is unclear how this factor might be related to the
development of depression. One such possible role is as a moderator of the
established relationship between disruptive life events and depression
(Paykel, 1979). Several similar dispositional variables have been found to
moderate the effects of stressful life events (Johnson & Sarason, 1979). It is
possible that dispositional self-focused attention may serve as a moderator
by exacerbating any negative mood or discrepancy between self-evaluations
and standards engendered by disruptive life events. To address this issue,
the second of the present studies assessed the independent and interactive
effects of life events and self-focused attention on depression, via multiple
regression analyses.

Method

A total of 258 male and female undergraduates participated in the

study. Subjects received partial course credit in introductory psychology for
their participation. In group testing sessions, subjects completed the BDt,
the SCS, and the Schedule of Recent Experiences (SRE; Holmes & Rahe,
1967). The SRE provides a weighted sum of the recent life changes subjects
have undergone in the previous 6-month period.

Results and Discussion

Private self-consciousness scores, SRE scores, and their interaction

were entered into a multiple regression analysis predicting BDI scores.
388 Smith, Ingrain, and Roth

Though somewhat correlated (r = .t5, p < .05), both the life stress main
effect (t(255) = 6.10, p < .001) and the self-focused attention main effect
(t(255) = 2.47, p < .02) accounted for significant amounts of unique
variance in BDI scores. The interaction term did not approach significance,
however (t(255) = -0.24). Thus, life stress and self-focused attention were
independently associated with depression, but there was no evidence of a
moderator effect.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The present studies replicate earlier findings of a relationship between

self-focused attention and depression (Ingrain & Smith, 1984; Smith &
Greenberg, 1981). Further, they extend previous findings by indicating that
self-focused attention is associated with major features of depression (i.e.,
negative self-evaluation and negative affect), and by indicating that the
association between depression and focus of attention is independent of
another important correlate of depression, namely, recent life events. Final-
ly, dispositionally self-focused attention was unrelated to a second emo-
tional problem namely, test anxiety, suggesting that self-focused attention is
not simply a correlate of all emotional difficulties.
Two important limitations of these investigations should be noted.
First and foremost is their strictly correlational nature. Any causal in-
ferences are strictly limited to the realm of hypotheses, and more firm con-
clusions require studies manipulating self-focused attention. Second, the
samples used in the present studies limit any generalization to the clinical
entity of major depression. Rather, the results are relevant to the very com-
mon experience of depression within the normal range. Self-focused atten-
tion may indeed be related to more severe forms of depression, but here
again, additional research is required to determine if this is the case.

REFERENCES

Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. New York:
Hoeber.
Bumberry, W., Oliver, J., & McClure, J. (1978). Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory
in a university population using psychiatric estimate as the criterion. Journal of Con-
s~lting and Clinical Psyehology, 46, 150-155.
Buss, A., & Seheier, M. (1976). Self-consciousness, self-awareness, and self-attribution.
Journal o f Research in Personality, 10, 463-468.
Carver, C. S., & Glass, D. (1976). The self-consciousness scale: A discriminant validity study.
Journal of Pel~onality Assessment, 40, 169-172.
Carver, C. S., Peterson, L. M., Follansbee, D. J., & Scheier, M. F. (t983). Effects of self-
directed attention on performance and persistence among persons high and low in test
anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 7, 333-354.
Self-Focused Attention and Depression 389

Exner, J. E. (1973). The self-focus sentence completion: A study of egocentricity. Journal of

Personality Assessment, 37, 437-455.
Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M., & Buss, A. (t975). Public and private self-consciousness:
Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527.
Ferster, C. B. (1974). Behavioral approaches to depression. In R. J. Freidman & M. M. Katz
(Eds.), The Psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research. New York:
Wiley.
Hammen, C. (1980). Depression in college students: Beyond the Beck Depression Inventory.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 126-128.
Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psycho-
somatic Research, 11, 213-218.
Hull, J., & Young, R. (1983). Self-consciousness, self-esteem, and success-failure as deter-
minants of alcohol consumption in male social drinkers. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 44, 1097-1t09.
Ickes, J., Wicklund, A., & Ferris, C. (I973). Objective self-awareness and self-esteem. Journal
of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 202-219.
Ingrain, R. E., & Smith, T. W. (1984). Depression and internal versus external focus of
attention. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 139-151.
Johnson, . J . H . , & Sarason, I. G. (1979). Moderator variables in life stress research. In
I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 6). Washington,
D.C.: Hemisphere.
Kanfer, F. H., & Hagerman, S. (1981). The role of self-regulation. In L. P. Rehm (Ed.), Be-
havior therapy for depression: Present status and future directions, New York:
Academic Press.
Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people's lives.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Lewinsohn, P. M., & Lee, W. M. L. (1981). Assessment of affective disorders. In D. H.
Barlow (Ed.), Behavioral assessment of adult disorders (pp. 129-179). New York:
Guilford Press.
Lubin, B. (1967). Depression Adjective Check Lists: Manual. San Diego: Educational
and Industrial Testing Service.
Metalsky, G. I., & Abramson, L. Y. (1981). Attributional styles: Toward a framework
for conceptualization and assessment. In P. C. Kendall & S. D. Hollon (Eds.), Assess-
ment strategiesfor cognitive-behavioral interventions (pp. 13-58). New York: Academic
Press, 1981.
Paykel, E. S. (1979). Recent life events in the development of the depressive disorders. In R. A.
Depue (Ed.), Thepsychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implicationsfor the effects
of stress (pp. 245-262). New York: Academic Press.
Peterson, C., Semmel, A., Von Baeyer, C., Abramson, L., Metalsky, G. I., & Seligman, M. E.
P. (1982). The attributional style questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6,
287-300.
Sackeim, H. A., & Gur, R. C. (1979). Self-deception, other deception, and self-reported psy-
chopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinieal Psychology, 47, 213-215.
Seligman, M., Abramson, L., Semmel, A., & Von Baeyer, C. (1979). Depressive attributiona!
style. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88, 242-248.
Slapion, M. J., & Carver, C. S. (1981). Self-directed attention and facilitation of intellectual
performance among persons high in test anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 5,
1t5-121.
Smith, T. W., & Greenberg, J. (1981). Depression and self-focused attention. Motivation and
Emotion, 5, 323-331.
Spielberger, C. D. (1980). The Test Anxiety Inventory. Pato Alto: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Spielberger, C. D.; Gonzalez, H., Taylor, C., Algaze, B., & Anton, W. (t978). Examination
stress and test anxiety. In C. D. Speilberger & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety
(Vol. 5). New York: Halstead.
Turner, R., Scheier, M., Carver, C., & Ickes, W. (1978). Correlates of self-consciousness.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 42, 285-289.
Wine, J. (t97t) Test anxiety and direction of attention. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92-104.