By

Anshuman Shukla
October 27th, 2007
What is analog device?
A analog device is a device which is designed to
operate over a continuous range of voltage/current.
All natural quantities are analog by default; all
measurements are digital!

Characteristics are defined in term of voltage-current

relation (temporal response) or frequency response.

Ex: radio, fan, etc.

Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material which is neither a
conductor nor an insulator.
Somewhat similar to resistors.
P type: contains electron deficient ‘impurities’; acts as
(+)ve charge.
N type: contains electron rich ‘impurities’; acts as
(-)ve charge.
Isolated P or N type material has no appreciable
characteristics.
Diode
A diode is the simplest semiconductor devices,
formed by joining one N type and one P type material.
Electrical properties: I D = I S (eV / nV - 1)
D T

 IS = reverse saturation or scaling current

 VT = thermal voltage (=25.7mV at 300K)
 VD,ID = voltage & current across the diode
Forward bias: when N side (e- rich) is at connected to
negative terminal of battery.
Reverse bias: when N side (e- rich) is at connected to
positive terminal of battery.
Diode characteristics
Diode in forward bias
Linear model: battery + resistance
iD = (vD-VD0)/rD

~0.7V ~20 Ohm

 Values shown is figure are for illustration only; not for analysis.

Small signal model

rd = nVT/ID
Bipolar Junction Transistor
A BJT is a 3 terminal device (Emitter, Base &
Collector), which contains two junction. Hence on
the basis of structure, there are two types of BJTs:
NPN

PNP
General Configuration
There are three types of general configurations:
Common Emitter (most popular)
Common Base
Common Collector
The classification is based on the terminal used as
‘common’ between input and output.

1. Common 1. Common 1. Common

emitter base collector
Analysis of CE configuration
A BJT has following regions of operation:
Cut-off
Active
Saturation
Inverse
Cut-off region is defined by Base-emitter voltage.
All other regions are defined by Collector-Emitter
voltage.

 The onward analysis is done by taking a NPN transistor into consideration.

The cut-off region
A BJT is said to be in cut-off region if base-emitter
voltage drops below a certain value, Vt.
Although the current through transistor is very small,
still it is non-zero.
Ideal cut-off is only achieved when the base current
becomes zero; or the base is open circuited.
Very small and equal reverse saturation current exists
between collector-base and base-emitter, which means
that base-emitter voltage may not be zero! (very small
although)
The active region
A BJT is said to be in active region if base-emitter
junction is fully forward biased and collector-
emitter voltage is greater that a certain value,
VCEsat (which is close to zero).
Collector acts as a perfect current sink (or source
for PNP), which means; the collector voltage is
decided entirely by the load NOT by transistor.
These relations hold true:
IC = b I B where b is collector-base current gain.
I E = (b + 1) I B Value ranges from 10-50 upto 600-700!
Base-emitter junction acts as a diode; offering a
resistance of b re as ‘seen’ from base. The value of
base-emitter resistancere is computed from the
diode resistance model equation;nVT / I E

Through out the active region, the base-emitter

voltage is fairly constant owing to logarithmic
relationship with current.
Active region model
T – model
IC

ro
IB IC = b I B
I E = (b + 1) I B
re

IE
Active region model
p – model
IC IC
ro ro
IB IB ro IC
IB
(b + 1)
(b + 1) re re
b
re (b + 1)re = rp
IE ro
I
T Model IE
E

IC = b I B p Model

I E = (b + 1) I B
The saturation region
A BJT is said to be in saturation region if base-
emitter junction is fully forward biased and
collector-emitter voltage is less that VCEsat .
Collector no more acts as a perfect current sink
(or source).
The collector-base relationship is:
I C = s b I B , where 0<s <1
s is not a constant, it depends on collector-
emitter voltage; but collector voltage depends on
collector current, which in-turn depends ons !
The inverse region
A BJT is said to be in saturation region if
collector-base junction is forward biased!
Analysis may be done by assuming collector as
emitter and vice-versa.
Mostly used in TTL logic gates in common base
type configuration in input stage to offer very high
input impedance!
BJT characteristics
Small signal analysis….?
The circuit components are biased with a DC voltage,
to ensure that the region of operation is ‘active’.
Input signal to be processed (eg: amplified) is a AC
signal, satisfying following conditions:
|Vmax|, |Vmin| << Vbias
The output voltage swing should not drive the
transistor into saturation.
Quiescent point: DC voltage and current
Small signal analysis of CE amp.
ac model
Not working…??
Most common error in output is distortion; one cycle
of waveform is correct, the other one distorted.
Responsible factors: transistor saturation and non-
linearity of base-emitter junction.
Operation amplifier
Equivalent opamp circuit:
Common error diagnosis
Finite output resistance.
Input/Output offset voltage
Common mode gain.
Output saturation.
Feedback
Negative feedback
A proportion of output is subtracted from input.
Often results in virtual short condition between input
terminals of a differential input amplifier; but is NOT
necessary!
Positive feedback
A proportion of output is added to input.
Results in saturation at output.
Useful in designing oscillators.
Negative feedback
Common applications are: inverting/non-inverting
amplifiers, integrator, differentiator, etc.

Errors: oscillations instead of virtual short.

Positive feedback
Common applications are oscillators.
Theoretically, oscillator are highly frequency selective
circuit, which amplify some particular frequencies to
infinity, others to zero.
A simple square wave generator.
Wien-bridge oscillator
For finite output, virtual
short condition should be
satisfied.
The equation are:
Vo
V- =
3 + j ( RC w - 1/ RC w)
Vo
V+ =
1 + RF / RL
For stable oscillations:
V- = V+ , which gives
RF = 2 RL & w = 1/ RC