EUFIRELAB

EVR1-CT-2002-40028

D-06-05

http://eufirelab.org

EUFIRELAB:
Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory,
a “wall-less” Laboratory
for Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies
in the Euro-Mediterranean Region

Deliverable D-06-05

Decision support systems and tools:

Specifications and test beds

Coordinated by Gavriil XANTHOPOULOS

Vassiliki VARELA, Begona ARRUE, Emmanuel GARBOLINO, Luis-Paulo PITA
Luís RIBEIRO

December 2006

The views expressed are purely those of the writers and may not, in any circumstances, be regarded as stating an official
position of the European Commission
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Decision support systems overview ...................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Context ..........................................................................................................................................................1
2 Functionalities and specifications.......................................................................................................................2
2.1 General approach..........................................................................................................................................2
2.2 Pre-suppression planning..............................................................................................................................2
2.2.1 Usual functions of a DSS for presuppression planning............................................................................4
2.2.2 Performance requirements.......................................................................................................................4
2.2.3 Some typical input requirements..............................................................................................................5
2.2.4 Typical outputs .........................................................................................................................................5
2.2.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations .....................................................................................................5
2.3 Forest fire risk................................................................................................................................................6
2.3.1 Usual functions of a DSS for forest fire risk assessment .........................................................................6
2.3.2 Performance requirements.......................................................................................................................6
2.3.3 Some typical input requirements..............................................................................................................6
2.3.4 Typical outputs .........................................................................................................................................7
2.3.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations .....................................................................................................7
2.4 Fire danger assessment................................................................................................................................7
2.4.1 Functions..................................................................................................................................................7
2.4.2 Usual functions of a DSS for forest fire risk assessment .........................................................................7
2.4.3 Performance requirements.......................................................................................................................8
2.4.4 Some typical input requirements..............................................................................................................8
2.4.5 Typical outputs .........................................................................................................................................8
2.4.6 Evaluation criteria and considerations .....................................................................................................8
2.5 Fire detection.................................................................................................................................................9
2.5.1 Terrestrial means .....................................................................................................................................9
2.5.2 Evaluation of the danger posed by a fire .................................................................................................9
2.5.3 Aerial means ..........................................................................................................................................11
2.5.4 Space borne platforms ...........................................................................................................................11
2.5.5 Performance requirements.....................................................................................................................11
2.6 Fire behaviour prediction.............................................................................................................................12
2.6.1 Functions................................................................................................................................................12
2.6.2 Performance requirements.....................................................................................................................12
2.6.3 Some typical input requirements............................................................................................................13
2.6.4 Typical outputs .......................................................................................................................................13
2.6.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations ...................................................................................................13
2.7 Operational dispatching and fire suppression .............................................................................................14
2.7.1 Functions................................................................................................................................................14
2.7.2 Usual functions of a DSS for dispatching and fire suppression .............................................................14
2.7.3 Some typical input requirements............................................................................................................15
2.7.4 Typical outputs .......................................................................................................................................15
2.7.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations ...................................................................................................15
2.8 Fire effects assessment and mitigation.......................................................................................................16
2.8.1 Usual functions.......................................................................................................................................16
2.8.2 Performance requirements.....................................................................................................................17
2.8.3 Some typical input requirements............................................................................................................17
2.8.4 Typical outputs .......................................................................................................................................17
2.8.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations ...................................................................................................17

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3 Technical specifications....................................................................................................................................18
3.1 General approach........................................................................................................................................18
3.2 Satellite remote sensing ..............................................................................................................................18
3.2.1 Currently used technologies...................................................................................................................18
3.2.2 Fields of use, success, problems and other considerations ..................................................................20
3.2.3 New alternatives and technologies ........................................................................................................21
3.2.4 Specifications for the future....................................................................................................................22
3.3 Programming considerations.......................................................................................................................22
3.3.1 Fields of use, success, problems and other considerations ..................................................................22
3.3.2 New alternatives and technologies ........................................................................................................22
3.4 Open versus closed platforms.....................................................................................................................23
3.4.1 Currently used technologies...................................................................................................................23
3.4.2 Fields of use, success, problems and other considerations ..................................................................24
3.4.3 Specifications for the future....................................................................................................................24
4 GIS technologies and systems.........................................................................................................................26
4.1 Currently used technologies........................................................................................................................26
4.1.1 Components of a GIS-based DSS .........................................................................................................26
4.1.2 Methods used by a GIS based DSS ......................................................................................................26
4.1.3 How to characterize the development and use of GIS technology ........................................................27
4.1.4 Common GIS analyses performed by Forest Fire related DSS.............................................................28
4.1.5 Topological Overlay................................................................................................................................29
4.1.6 Neighbourhood Operations ....................................................................................................................30
4.1.7 Connectivity Analysis .............................................................................................................................31
4.2 Fields of use, success, problems and other considerations .......................................................................31
4.2.1 Historic reminder ....................................................................................................................................31
4.2.2 Data Accuracy and Quality.....................................................................................................................32
4.3 New alternative technologies ......................................................................................................................33
4.3.1 Web-based GIS......................................................................................................................................33
4.3.2 Distributed Systems ...............................................................................................................................34
4.4 Specifications for the future.........................................................................................................................34
4.4.1 Computing field ......................................................................................................................................34
4.4.2 Interesting functions ...............................................................................................................................35
5 Bibliography......................................................................................................................................................36
6 Data sets for testing Decision Support Systems (DSS) and tools : “TEST BEDS” .........................................38
6.1 Temperature profiles over experimental fires in a wind tunnel ...................................................................39
6.2 Early fire alarms for dispatching ..................................................................................................................41
6.3 Small scale laboratory propagating fires .....................................................................................................43
6.4 Sub-models for heat transfer and pressure drop inside pine needles fuel beds.........................................45
6.5 Fire spread characteristics & parameters– Mt. Mainalon, August 2000 .....................................................48
6.6 Fire spread characteristics & parameters– Mt. Penteli 1995 ......................................................................50
6.7 Digital maps of burned areas from selected study sites within the Euromediterranean Region.................52
6.8 Human wildfire risk estimation maps at regional scale using anthropogenic variables ..............................54

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SUMMARY
This deliverable is the result of an effort that started in the beginning of the EUFIRELAB project aiming at
investigating existing decision support systems for forest fires (FFDSS) and operational user needs in order to
develop some common, basic, but important specifications, usable in future efforts to produce such systems.
Three earlier deliverables preceded the present document. Some of their contents are included in this final
document. The first deliverable was a report on the state of the art in FFDSSs. The emphasis was on presenting
the systems and their characteristics. The effort was concentrated on their content with only minimal references to
their technical side. The following two deliverables were intermediate steps in the effort to develop the FFDSS
specifications that are presented in the current document. In them, the technological aspects and considerations
related to the platforms on which FFDSS are built, were addressed is some depth.
The main categories of FFDSS and fire management tools identified correspond to the following functions of
forest fire management:
- Presuppression planning
- Fire danger assessment
- Fire detection
- Fire behavior prediction
- Operational fire suppression (incl. dispatching)
- Fire effects assessment and mitigation
Based on the study of the identified systems, certain common characteristics were identified for the FFDSSs in
each of the categories. These are
- Usual functions that the FFDSS is expected to perform
- Performance requirements
- Some typical input requirements
- Typical outputs
- Evaluation criteria and considerations
All these identified characteristics are described and discussed in this report; they can be very helpful to anyone
trying to develop an FDSS belonging to the above mentioned categories.
The second part of the report consists of a compilation of “test beds” for testing FFDSS. The meaning of “test
beds” was defined as “data sets on which existing or future DSS and tools can be tested”. A list was developed
including information on available data sets that can be used to test (wholly or partly) a DSS in one of the main
FFDSS categories.
The list of data sets was prepared mainly with contributions from EUFIRELAB partners. A “metadata form” was
developed for obtaining this information. Some of the data sets in the list have already been used for testing
existing DSS systems, in which case they are even more interesting for future tests as there may be opportunities
for comparisons.
It is important to note that the form filled for each test bed also lists contact information for the data owner and a
short description of the data set, including any probable limitations

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1 DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The idea of developing Forest Fire Decision Support
Systems (FFDSS) is now well over thirty years old.
Numerous systems have been developed in this
period but, to this date, the level of their success, as
judged by their operational adoption, is extremely
variable.
Few of them, such as the BEHAVE fire behaviour
prediction system (BURGAN and ROTHERMEL 1984) have
been around and used successfully for more than 20
years.
Others found only limited use:
- either spatially (one or few locations) or
- temporally (only used for a short period of time and
then abandoned).
Others only remained at a prototype (research)
stage.
The overall result, at least in Europe, is generally
little use of FFDSSs in operational fire management
(XANTHOPOULOS 2002).
There are many reasons for the fate of all these
FFDSSs.
Assuming that all users and potential developers
want to maximize success of their systems, as judged
by their usefulness, efficiency, effectiveness, longevity,
etc., it is clear that there are many reasons behind the
history of adoption and use, success or failure, of each
one of the systems reaching the operational application
stage.
Some of these reasons may be related to politics or
to coincidences, of course.
However, there are certainly some objective
reasons that more-or-less influence the fate of a DSS
concerning its use in the operational world.
If better and more successful FFDSSs are to be
produced in the future, it is clearly needed to:
- look into these reasons,
- analyse existing needs and tools, and
- prepare specifications that will direct their
development.
This is the focus of the work carried out within work
package 6 of the EUFIRELAB project and presented in
this report aiming to contribute to the future
development of better FFDSS that will be more useful
and will be adopted more widely by the potential users.
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1.2 CONTEXT
As was pointed out in the state-of-the-art report,
until now there has been no established definition of a
FFDSS.
The definitions in use cover a broad spectrum of
what an FFDSS is and what it is not.
The extremes are roughly marked at one end by a
focus on Decision Support and at the other on System.
The difficulty of developing a definition for a FFDSS
is because the technology that FFDSS draws upon
constantly changes.
As new tools become available and suitable, new
types of FFDSS will be built.
On the other hand, the situation is more stable at
the “forest fire decision support” end.
Hence, the problem of preparing specifications for
FFDSS (and for individual fire management tools) has
to be broken into two parts.
The first, part refers to the elements and
characteristics that must be included in a decision
support tool to match the needs and requirements of
operational users.
Clearly, this part is focused on (relatively) long-term
needs and standards, tied and driven by considerations
of real-world fire management.
The second part refers to the technical standards for
the development, interconnection and interoperability of
modern FFDSSs.
These standards include issues of software and
even hardware and are generally more apt to change
as:
- programming languages change,
- computer tools evolve,
- operating systems become obsolete,
- database connectivity is redefined, etc..
Given this approach, a FFDSS developer needs to
be aware of both the functional and technical
specifications in order to develop an up-to-date system
with a reasonably useful life expectancy.
The objective is to achieve a useful and desirable
result by following the functional specifications that will
also have reasonable hopes for acceptance, probably
sales, and ultimately longevity, by adopting modern but
well established development standards.
Subsequently, emphasis should be given to the
development of both types of specifications.
This obviously leads to the content of this report that
reflects this double objective.
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2 FUNCTIONALITIES AND SPECIFICATIONS
2.1 GENERAL APPROACH
The general approach followed for developing the
specifications is first to recognize the main categories
of existing FFDSS and individual tools in order to
identify their main functions and to derive their
specifications.
Then for each one of these categories, the inputs,
functionalities and outputs are described.
The study of existing systems (many of them
reported in the state-of-the-art report) and their history
of operational use are two important tools for critical
analysis.
The questionnaires on decision support systems
that have been filled by EUFIRELAB partners and
operational users provide useful information in this
respect.
The main categories of FFDSS systems and fire
management tools recognized until now
(XANTHOPOULOS et al. 2004), correspond to the
following functions of forest fire management:
- Pre-suppression planning
- Fire danger assessment
- Fire detection
- Fire behaviour prediction
- Operational fire suppression (including dispatching)
- Fire effects assessment and mitigation
Although this categorisation serves illustration
purposes quite well, it should be mentioned that many
systems belonging to one category incorporate
information, models, or even subsystems that belong to
another category.
For example, fire behaviour models are often central
to operational fire suppression systems.
In addition to these, special mention must be made
to systems focused on forest management or general
land management but include a strong fire component.
Additional DSSs and tools are also available that
are not directly linked or specifically designed for forest
fire management or that try to address multiple risks.
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2.2 PRE-SUPPRESSION PLANNING
A DSS for pre-suppression planning should be an
off-line tool able to facilitate decisions that have to be
made during the planning process and to aid in the
physical production of the plan.
Development of a pre-suppression plan necessarily
includes:
- a) to collect and present, in a readily accessible
form, of all relevant data and information (spatial,
statistical, managerial, operational, …).
- b) to analyse data and information for recognizing
dangers, priorities, needed works and actions.
- c) to determine the role and the way in which
stakeholders are to become involved and to
function: specification of actions to do, responsible
persons, ways of communication, conditions for
involvement, level of involvement, etc….
- either before the onset of an emergency or
- when an incident actually occurs.
A computer-based system that only keeps track of
information and offers functions that facilitate point (a)
above can be considered as a simple “Management
Information System” (MIS).
Such a system provides the necessary basic
information to the manager on which to base decisions.
In the not-so-distant past, the outputs of computer
systems consisted of heaps of printed pages with
numbers.
For complex problems, the manager would still pick
a few numbers from such a printout and then use
personal judgement to interpret their meaning and to
make decisions.
The development of MISs provided help in this
respect, by providing services that help the manager in
this task.
Examples are tables of pre-selected values
showing, for example:
- trends in the data, costs and other important values,
- presentation of selected data in the form of graphs,
- calculation of pre-specified statistics of interest, etc.
It should be noted that there may be several DSS
packages in an organization but only one MIS.
Several managers may use the same DSS.
A manager may use more than one DSS (LEIGH and
DOHERTY, 1986).
Nowadays, there exist many, non-specialized
software products that can facilitate such tasks.
Such tools include Geographic Information Systems
for spatial information storage and presentation,
advanced database management systems for
alphanumeric information, etc.).
Moreover, all of these tools include significant
capabilities to analyse data and maps, as specified in
(b) above, so that decisions of managers are facilitated
further.
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However, this is still not a fully developed dedicated
DSS, since a Decision Support System should have the
potential to integrate data, methods, models, and other
tools, within a framework that explicitly addresses the
process of making decisions.
Consequently, a complete DSS should offer at least
two additional features:
- Automated processing and/or analysis of the data
with the help of models or heuristics (rules of
thumb), that lead to deeper analyses and ultimately
to the production of problem specific derived new
information, and
- Guidance to the manager on the actions to be
taken, by applying decision science principles.
Generating alternative, candidate solutions is
generally a task for human creativity.
The DSS, however, should help the manager
choose the “best” alternative (LEIGH and DOHERTY,
1986).
Point (c) above, is mainly political, but a DSS could
potentially include functions and tools that would
facilitate the tasks involved, such as tracking
application of the plan.
A DSS for pre-suppression planning can be a quite
complex system and may include a large number of
functions.
Building on the foundation laid above, the functions
of the computerized system for pre-suppression
planning would need to include at a minimum the
“basic” MIS-type functions needed for carrying-out the
task, and additionally the analysis tools that
characterize a sophisticated, advanced, DSS.
Independent stand-alone tools that can produce the
desirable outputs/products to be used as inputs for pre-
suppression planning may provide the basic functions.
However, good integration and a seamless
operation of many such tools becomes a challenge for
developers of such a system.
The number of dedicated DSS systems for pre-
suppression planning that have been built around the
world is not large.
The complexity needed and the difficulty of
producing an adaptable “catch-all” system for use in
many different environments and situations may be one
of the reasons discouraging developers.
A short, focused survey below offers a glimpse of
such systems.
Scenarios generation and analysis tools are the
most important elements characterising a true DSS.
One system that can be considered as an example
of this type is LANIK, a decision support system that is
designed to evaluate alternative levels of forest fire
protection in the province of Ontario.
The system includes an initial attack simulation
model that predicts the impact of fire fighters, transport
aircraft, and air tankers on several measures of
effectiveness including initial attack response time, the
fraction of fires that escape initial attack, and area
burned.
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The system models the occurrence and suppression
of simultaneous fires and the interaction of fires that
occurs when congestion slows initial attack response.
Many tangible and intangible fire impacts are
addressed and the results of an analysis of the use of
foam by fire crews serve to illustrate how LANIK can be
used to help evaluate level of protection alternatives.
Another system, initially developed by the Canadian
Forest Service, is the Spatial Fire Management System
(SFMS).
It is a spatial GIS decision support application.
SFMS is linked to FIRES, and its information is used
for pre-suppression preparedness planning to
determine fire weather index, ignition probability and
number of resources required to meet anticipated fire
loads.
SFMS is also used to predict fire behaviour spatially
by providing head fire intensity, rate of spread, fuel
consumption, and fire description.
SFMS includes Wildfire Threat assessment
capability.
The Canadian Wildland Fire Growth Model
(Prometheus) will be incorporated into SFMS.
These enhancements will significantly improve the
business by helping to concentrate resources on those
areas at greatest risk of loss.
The Wildland Fire Growth Model will also aid in
long-term landscape planning.
In Europe, the first system that could be used to
some extent for pre-suppression planning was
developed within the framework of the EPOC-040
project and was developed by a consortium led by
ALGOSYSTEMS S.A. (Greece) (EFTICHIDIS et al. 1994a
and 1994b).
One of the most sophisticated DSS systems for pre-
suppression planning in Europe to this date is FOMFIS.
It was developed within the framework of the
FOMFIS project that was partially funded by the
Directorate General for Research of the European
Commission.
The main goal of the FOMFIS project was to
integrate, within a single computer application frame
(the FOMFIS system), a set of technological solutions
using the same information system platform, thus
allowing forest fire service personnel to accomplish
timely, accurately and cost effectively their off-line
planning duties, mainly pre-suppression activities.
More specifically, the FOMFIS system was
conceived and built as a modular system running under
the same user interface integrating:
- remote sensing,
- statistical analysis,
- stochastic generation,
- knowledge-based simulation systems,
- simulation models and
- spatial analysis tools.
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As such, it touched several areas of forest fire
research including elements that belong to point 6
above.
These elements are:
- Forest fuel mapping with the help of remote sensing
(LANDSAT images were used at the time (1997-
1999) as images from the higher resolution newer
satellites were not available yet).
- Socio-economic risk analysis
- Forest fire behaviour and fire fighting simulation
- Probabilistic planning
The novelty of the system included the possibility to
simulate fire ignitions and spread with a spatial and
temporal distribution according of calculated
probabilities, while weather was also simulated
according to the historical weather patterns.
The system was also able to simulate fire fighting.
In this way, FOMFIS simulated plausible fire
scenarios for periods that ranged from a few days to
whole fire seasons.
This was repeated numerous times, according to
user specifications, and average estimates of the
outcomes (costs, damages) for user specified
scenarios could be calculated.
The user could define various scenarios including
level of fire fighting resources, location of bases, fuel
treatments etc. and run the system in order to evaluate
the resulting average, minimum and maximum costs
and damages after a number of runs he/she specified.
The FOMFIS system proved the feasibility of the
concept of probabilistic planning, and paved the way for
future DSSs.
Efforts on development of systems based on an
approach similar to FOMFIS started in the USA a few
years later.
The FOMFIS system was demonstrated with great
success in many countries, including Spain, France
and Greece.
It made a marked impression to potential users.
For example, French end-users requested about the
fate of the system, and its probable availability seven
years later, at the concluding workshop and
presentation of the EUFIRELAB project in Avignon in
October 2006, commenting on the impression it had
made to them and its potential usefulness.
However, the system did not manage to become a
commercial product.
Part of the reason was the heavy data requirements
and its complexity, which however, cannot be avoided
in a system with such a level of sophistication.
Furthermore, the changes in hardware and software
platforms that take place, would require costly
maintenance/upgrade efforts that are not easy to
finance without an obvious potential clientele.
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2.2.1 Usual functions of a DSS for
presuppression planning
A DSS of this type ideally should facilitate fire
managers to prepare as best as possible, at a
minimum, for the next fire season. Obviously, this task
requires more than just YES/NO type answers.
Hence, such a DSS must include:
- A software tool for the representation of
cartographic information (preferably a GIS module
offering spatial analysis and modelling capabilities),
- A powerful database
- A fire modelling system
- A module that can combine information, rules and
conditions to develop the DSS’s outcomes. It can be
an advanced module with procedural control or an
inference engine with data driven control.
- An effective user interface with capacity to easily
input information (e.g. scenarios builder), good
reporting, and map production capabilities.
A DSS with the above elements should normally be
able to offer the basic functions that are needed to
support pre-suppression planning.
These functions include:
- 1. Map production and analysis
- 2. Fuel mapping
- 3. Non-spatial database functions
- 4. Fire behaviour modelling
- 5. Coarse (at least) fire fighting simulation or
assessment
- 6. Scenarios generation and analysis tools
It should be noted that a DSS that would aim to
address long-term planning strategies would ideally
also include a fire effects modelling system (see
REINHARDT et al 2001) and probably a forest growth
simulator.
2.2.2 Performance requirements
Performance in regard to speed is not critical
because pre-suppression planning takes place well
before the fire season.
However, if complex “what-if” scenarios are to be
run, such as in the FOMFIS system, an acceptable
level of speed is desirable (in the order of a few hours)
to avoid discouraging the users.
Another aspect of performance has to do with the
size of the area that can be handled and analysed
efficiently by the system.
Advances in computer hardware characteristics
such as memory size and hard disk capacity make this
requirement less difficult to meet, but software
limitations should be taken into consideration as well.
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2.2.3 Some typical input requirements Finally, if such a system is to be used in conjunction
with the next logical step, the DSS must be able to
Typical (minimum) input requirements include:
dispatch fire fighting forces and management, i.e. to be
- Topographic information (DTM)
tailored also for day-to-day operations during the fire
- Vegetation distribution information (both vegetation
season.
types and vegetation as fuel maps)
This DSS should include information (data base)
- Detailed road network map
and produce outputs about available resources of
- Map of firebreaks, fuel breaks and other fuel
various types that may have to be mobilized (e.g.
treatment zones
contacts for dozers, water trucks, local authorities, etc.)
- Map of especially high fire danger zones (e.g. areas
of forest blow-downs, snow damage, excessive 2.2.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations
slash, etc.)
A DSS of this type is a quite complex tool.
- Maps of sensitive areas (wildland-urban interface
Subsequently, one of the main benchmarks for its
areas, tourist areas, national parks, high-biodiversity
success is to offer at least an acceptable level of
areas, etc.), other facilities and infrastructures, to be
complexity for the user.
used for setting protection priorities
This means, a friendly user-interface, with
- Soil map
substantial on-line help support that can solve
- Cost data (values at risk, fire fighting costs, etc.)
ambiguities in regard to the inputs and interpretation of
- Ownership map
the outputs.
- Fire prevention (e.g. lookouts, cameras) means
available and their characteristics. Developers of such a DSS should keep in mind that
- Fire suppression means available and their in situations that users embark for the first time in the
characteristics. effort to prepare an advanced, quantifiable, computer-
- Climatic data (raw or processed. In the first case the based pre-suppression plan, much of the needed
DSS should have processing capacity) information (see input requirements above) may not be
- Historic fire data (location of fires, burned areas, readily available.
etc.) This may discourage users and lead to the
abandonment of the DSS, as it happened with FOMFIS
Appropriately, processed remote sensing data can
(which, however, was a prototype tool, outcome of a
be used to cover some of the above input
research project that explored the potential of this
requirements.
idea).
2.2.4 Typical outputs Hence, a successful DSS for pre-suppression
planning should be somewhat modular.
The outputs of a DSS focused on pre-suppression
It should provide for different levels of completeness
planning can be quite variable in form depending on the
of inputs producing output that is possible based on the
needs.
available information.
However, they should provide decision support for
some or all of the following problems: Another criterion of success and maturity of such a
- Given a specific amount of resources; what is the system is its stability and transparent use of its
best way to locate them in space? components.
- Given the historic characteristics of the fire season, The complexity of the system should not prevent the
what is the optimum way to start building up the seamless integration of user interface, GIS
resources in the beginning of the fire season? How functionality, databases, online information collection,
to reduce them at the end? This should be dynamic inference engine, etc.
for each fire season, in order to evaluate needs as
Concerning the actual DSS product, the outputs
conditions develop.
described above, can be judged according to their
- In an effort to improve suppression, what new
completeness, correctness, and applicability.
resources and infrastructures (e.g. lookouts, water
Two critical points in this respect, are:
hydrants, heliports, etc.) are best to be acquired /
- The existence of financial data and justification for
employed or built?
the proposed actions, and
- What is the average (static) fire danger zoning
- Documentation of the evaluation process that leads
based on historic weather/fire characteristics?
to the proposed actions.
- Fire danger zoning for different extreme weather
patterns.
For all the above the DSS should provide not only
operationally optimum answers but also financial
information (cost, potential damages under alternative
scenarios, etc.) that can greatly facilitate decision
makers, and, most important, can provide good
justification for budget allocation.

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2.3 FOREST FIRE RISK Forest fire risk assessment is a serious task to be
elaborated well before the fire season.
Another ambitious DSS effort, developed under the
However, a DSS developed for this purpose may
EU IST programme, which focused mainly on fire risk,
have a real time operational module that will support:
was FORFAIT.
- real-time data analysis: fire, weather, fire cause,…
FORFAIT set out to develop and demonstrate a
and
Decision Support System to assist planners, regulators
- decisions for prevention actions in a dynamic way.
and industry in epitomizing the management of forest
fire risks, on a holistic, integrated and traceable basis. Then, logically, such a DSS could also be integrated
The system was to be used as a tool in planning, with a system belonging to the next category (DSS for
educational, regulatory and business contexts. fire danger assessment).
The emphasis of FORFAIT was on implementing 2.3.2 Performance requirements
measures that eliminate or mitigate harm to humans,
Here again performance in regard to speed is not
the environment and business, using a cost benefit
critical because fire risk assessment normally takes
approach where appropriate and depending on local
place well before the fire season.
regulatory requirements.
In case of real-time support capability performance
Some of the ideas behind FOMFIS were present in
should be better, but in general the processing load
FORFAIT.
would not be expected to be very high.
This system consisted of three different kinds of It should be possible to perform it without any
applications: special hardware requirements.
- planning of fire prevention actions;
2.3.3 Some typical input requirements
- co-ordination of personnel training activities;
- simulation of critical stages. The most important input requirements have to do
with past fire occurrence statistics and with terrain
The system is based on the integration of various
value.
information sources, such as satellite downlink,
The detail and accuracy needed is higher than in the
meteorological data, state-of-the-art predictive models,
previous category of DSS.
or involved professionals expertise and knowledge.
Data should also be available on fire causes.
Decision process are aided by a support system
Depending on the models included and the degree
based on fuzzy logic to suggest the most appropriate
of sophistication of the system, socio-economic data
course of action; also a probabilistic framework, which
may also be needed.
takes into account the uncertainty in the parameters, is
In addition to these, basic data like the ones
aiding the process.
required for pre-suppression planning are also needed
2.3.1 Usual functions of a DSS for forest fire here:
risk assessment - Topographic information (DTM)
- Vegetation distribution information (both vegetation
Such a DSS has many similarities or can even be
types and vegetation as fuel maps)
part of a DSS developed for pre-suppression planning.
- Detailed road network map
However, normally, although it may use some of the
- Map of firebreaks, fuel breaks and other fuel
input information described in 2.2.3. above, it should
treatment zones
optimally provide emphasis to forest fire risk
- Map of especially high fire danger zones (e.g. areas
assessment and guide the corresponding fire
of forest blow-downs, snow damage, excessive
prevention actions.
slash, etc.)
The following functions can be the core of a DSS for
- Maps of sensitive areas (wildland-urban interface
forest fire risk assessment:
areas, tourist areas, national parks, high-biodiversity
- Spatial risk assessment, where risk does not only
areas, etc.), other facilities and infrastructures, to be
have the “classic” meaning given to “fire risk” in
used for setting protection priorities
many earlier (1970s and 1980s) USDA Forest
- Ownership map
Service publications (i.e. the probability of fire
- Climatic data (raw or processed. In the first case the
eruption), but also includes potential damage
DSS should have processing capacity)
assessment.
- Temporal risk assessment. A database of potential prevention actions should be
- Identification of the sources and characteristics of developed, including rules of when to employ each type
risk and the corresponding potential prevention of action and the associated cost of the actions.
actions.
- Cost assessment for prevention actions.
- Cost-benefit analysis, prevention cost vs. (reduction
of fire fighting cost + potential damage reduction).

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2.3.4 Typical outputs
A DSS system for fire risk assessment should strive
to provide the following outputs:
- Statistical assessment of fire eruption probabilities in
space and time.
- Identification of the types of prevention action
needed
- Fire damage potential assessment map
- Integrated static fire risk maps with associated
actions for fire risk mitigation (priorities, time and
extent of intervention)
- Identification of intervention priorities in WUI areas
- Identification of areas where fuel treatment is
needed
All these should be accompanied by cost estimates.
In case of a dynamic system, prevention actions
should be a daily output following daily situation
analysis.
2.3.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations
A DSS for fire risk assessment can be evaluated
based on the help it can provide to the users.
A simpler system will stop at the point where risk
maps are provided to the user for his/her perusal.
The actions to be taken would be totally his/hers
based, of course, largely on the analysis of the DSS.
This would not be surprising because developing a
prevention program is a complex task requiring
considerable synthetic (and often creative) effort.
However, an advanced system would have a
friendly user interface, would
- provide suggestions for specific actions to the user
(from which to choose),
- include cost estimates and
- help him/her develop easily a quite detailed plan
(and report) for action.
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2.4 FIRE DANGER ASSESSMENT
2.4.1 Functions
The main functionality of a fire danger system is to:
- obtain and manage data on the factors that
contribute to fire danger,
- weigh them according to a predetermined
methodology (fire danger model) and
- produce outputs in the most desirable form.
A system that would focus on local fire danger
estimation would not amount to much.
Such systems, applications of NFDRS in the USA,
have been available since the 1980s in the form of:
- dedicated programmable calculators: e.g. the TI-59
(BURGAN 1979) or the HP-71B (BURGAN and SUSOTT
1986), or even
- as concentric wheels, tables or simple formulas
(NOBLE et al. 1980) have been available for a long
time.
However, complexity increases very steeply with the
need for prevision of fire danger over large expanses of
land.
In that case, data are obtained from maps, often
produced from:
- satellite images (e.g. vegetation greenness maps) or
- automatic remote weather stations.
Meteorological predictions may be obtained in
various forms from meteorological models.
All these are fed to the fire danger model and values
are calculated over large areas.
The final output is in the form of maps, which must
not only possess a reasonable level of accuracy but
they must also be prepared in a timely manner.
Based on these it becomes obvious that a system
for fire danger assessment may be part of a broader
FFDSS or a standalone system.
Its functions should facilitate automatic data
collection, error checking, calculation of the needed
indices, and map production.
Further useful features include highlighting of alert
areas according to pre-specified criteria.
This can be especially useful when the weather is
updated automatically so responses (e.g. alert level)
are not only predicted but also monitored in real time.
2.4.2 Usual functions of a DSS for forest fire
risk assessment
The exact functions of a DSS of this type may vary
significantly.
One of the reasons is that the DSS can be an
extension of the corresponding model for estimating fire
danger with the main objective for it being to facilitate
decisions on how to utilize the fire danger predictions.
This said, it can easily be seen that such a DSS can
be part of a larger DSS on fire risk assessment, pre-
suppression planning, or, more commonly, of a system
supporting preparedness and dispatching of fire fighting
forces.
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EUFIRELAB

2.4.3 Performance requirements Other than the fire danger map, such a DSS can
provide guidance on how to utilize the fire danger
Such a system ideally should have the capacity to
predictions.
obtain data from various sources (meteorological
This however may easily transform it (or lead to its
stations, satellites, Internet), preferably in an automatic
inclusion) to a fire prevention DSS.
way, and to process them in a short amount of time.
2.4.6 Evaluation criteria and considerations
Emphasis is needed on storage capacity, data base
performance and graphical output production, speed A DSS of this type must produce dependable
being a relatively lesser priority. predictions in a timely way and convenient format.
Obviously, it will be evaluated according to these
2.4.4 Some typical input requirements
criteria.
Typical inputs include:
The most important role is played by the accuracy
- Topographic information (DTM)
and robustness of the fire danger system incorporated
- Vegetation distribution information (both vegetation
in the DSS.
types and vegetation as fuel maps)
In large countries such as the USA and Canada, the
- Map of especially high fire danger zones (e.g. areas
choice is national and there is little room for deviations.
of forest blow-downs, snow damage, excessive
In other cases, such as in certain European
slash, etc.)
countries, the effort for
- Real-time meteorological data.
- developing a fire danger system,
- Detailed meteorological previsions in the form of
- selecting an existing system or even
maps.
- adapting an existing one is ongoing.
- Historic fire data (number and distribution of fires,
etc.) User acceptance, as manifested by the operational
- Information on the condition of vegetation. adoption of the system, is the ultimate criterion of
Vegetation greenness assessment is a common success.
input and is usually derived from satellite data. The User acceptance will be higher if the DSS is capable
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is providing more guidance than the fire danger system
commonly calculated over the landscape for this alone.
purpose. Hence, its interoperability, compatibility and even
inclusion in fire prevention DSS systems, for example,
Appropriately, processed remote sensing data can
is an obvious plus.
be used to cover some of the above input requirements
(topography, vegetation). On the technical side, ease of obtaining data (e.g.
Furthermore, depending on model used and level of automatically from online providers or automatic
detail (e.g. detailed model for fire eruption probability) weather stations), transparency in processing them and
other inputs such as a detailed road network map may production of the final result with minimum user effort
be needed. are important considerations.
Availability of an option for the user to backtrack the
2.4.5 Typical outputs
information leading (for example) to a specific alert
The most common output is a predicted fire danger condition, is also very desirable.
map (for various prevision lengths of time).
The detail of the map (spatial resolution, danger
classes) depends on the intended application of the
system.
A useful feature may be that of integrating fire
danger over different areas.
For example, an automated system may produce a
danger prevision assessment at a given (maximum)
resolution, dictated for example by the type of satellite
sensor used for assessment of ground information such
as fuels and their condition (e.g. NDVI).
However, such a level of detail may make the
information difficult to grasp and utilize on the part of
the user.
Clustering of pixels with the same index is a first
positive step to alleviate the problem.
However, it may be more desirable to obtain
weighted fire danger previsions for specific tracts of
land that have a practical meaning for the user.
Examples are administrative boundaries of various
types corresponding with user jurisdictions, forest
management units, etc.

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2.5 FIRE DETECTION
2.5.1 Terrestrial means
The fire detection activities are an important issue
that concerns all the institutions with responsibilities in
fire detection and fire monitoring activities.
Those institutions, Forest Services, National Parks,
Private Institutions or Fire Fighters and Civil Protection
Services have responsibilities in the planning and
implementation of the Fire Detection Plan.
It is essential for the success of the Fire Detection
Plan that we have an interactive cooperation between
those institutions.
It is known that if a fire is detected in an early stage,
it is easily fought, with lower cost and consequently
lower economical and ecological losses.
The fire detection plan has basically two
components:
- the first one is based on aerial means and
- the second one on terrain (ground) means.
In the terrain means we have the group ground
based detection platforms were we can distinguish
patrols on foot or by vehicle through fire terrain,
equipped with binoculars and communication tools.
Watchtowers are usually built on mountaintops and
person(s) in the tower scan the area looking for smoke.
The towers are equipped with a radio and a
compass to give the right direction of the smoke.
The person on the tower is familiar with the terrain
and can tell in which valley the fire has probably started
(BREEJEN, 1997).
Automated or semi-automated land based systems
are like watchtowers build on a top of a mountain to
look around.
Either they replace the person on the watchtower, or
they assist the person on the tower.
The systems function 24 hours a day 7 days a
week.
Almost the whole spectrum is used for detection.
AlI-automatic or semi-automatic ground based
systems have a central alarm station.
In this Central, a computer terminal shows the fire
position on a map, and it is possible to send an image
from the camera to the alarm station.
The transmission from the alarm station to the
sensor in the field is possible by satellite link, radio link,
mobile telephone, or telephone line (voice/ISDN).
D-06-05.doc
2.5.2 Evaluation of the danger posed by a fire
This sub-chapter is dedicated to the evaluation of
the danger posed by a fire, for initial attack, from
terrestrial fire detection images
The GRVC-USE-P007 group has developed as part
of its contribution to the EUFIRELAB project a software
tool (Initial Attack Fuzzy System (IAFS)) from the
information provided by CEREN in the frame of
SPREAD project (Contract Nº EVG1-CT-2001-00043).
The tool computes a danger index for initial attack.
This system receives as inputs information such as:
- the visual image of the fire,
- meteorological conditions and
- characteristics of the terrain were the fire was
detected.
The system was trained with data from real fires and
was validated with real fires (see IAFS Internal report).
The Initial Attack Fuzzy System (IAFS) is a software
tool designed to provide a fire danger index.
It receives information from the fire alarm and
computes a fire danger index according to the fire
fighting expertise.
Many artificial intelligence techniques can be used
to incorporate expert knowledge in a software tool such
as neural networks, fuzzy logic and Bayesian networks.
Fuzzy logic was chosen for the development of the
IAFS.
The main motivation for this decision is based on
the properties of fuzzy logic to express imprecise –
close to human understanding- information.
Other reason is that fuzzy logic uses explicit easy-
to-understand- rules to represent reasoning while other
methods use implicit difficult-to-understand relations.
Furthermore, fuzzy logic also offers tools to perform
training of fuzzy systems such as that described in
(JANG, 1993).
According to the expertise of some fire fighters
consulted, for the computation of the fire danger index
information about the following three aspects should be
considered for the danger evaluation:
- smoke properties,
- geographical information and
- meteorological conditions.
Then, the architecture of the IAFS is shown here
below: it consists of four fuzzy systems.
Three of them (SMOKE, GEO-INFO, METEO) are
used for the analysis of smoke data, meteorological
conditions and geographical information respectively.
Each of them receives as inputs the data associated
to the corresponding aspect and provides an evaluation
of the fire danger index.
The fourth fuzzy system is used to integrate the fire
danger indexes computed from smoke information,
meteorological conditions and geographical information
in an overall fire danger estimation, which is the output
of the IAFS.
This fuzzy system will be called INITIAL. (see IAFS
Internal report).
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EUFIRELAB
Evaluation
The fuzzy systems of the IAFS were evaluated with
real early fire alarms provided by CEREN.
The following information was available for each
alarm:
- hour, date and watchtower of the detection,
- visual images of the smoke plume,
- estimations of smoke colour and speed of
development,
- type of vegetation of the area and its accessibility
and other data.
By means of images and the data, CEREN’s fire
fighting experts provided a value of fire danger index
for each case.
D-06-05.doc
CEREN’s experts classified the danger of the fire by
choosing a value between “1”, “2”, “3”, “4” and “5”, in
which “1” means very low danger and “5” means very
high danger.
For the comparison with the results of the IAFS,
these values were transformed of an index in the range
[0,1], where “1” means danger index of 0.0 and “5”
means danger index of 1.0. (see IAFS Internal report).
It is observed that the IAFS tool provides values
similar to those estimated by experts.
However, these results should be taken as
promising results.
In fact, the system should be intensively trained and
evaluated with actual fires before using it in operational
conditions.
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EUFIRELAB
2.5.3 Aerial means
The aerial surveillance flights range:
- from simple planes with a pilot/observer equipped
with a radio,
- up to large planes with water dropping capacity
equipped with an infrared camera.
The observer is flown over the area in a prefixed
flight plan for optimised detection.
In the Netherlands, the typical turn around time is
20 minutes.
There are also fires reported by commercial airline
pilots.
GPS is used for precise positioning of the fire.
Guidance of initial attack crews towards the fire is
the main advantage of aerial surveillance flights on the
other detection platforms.
Forward-looking Infrared (FLIR) camera is a camera
system that produces an image on which the
pilot/observer can see the temperature differences.
With this kind of images, it is possible to see starting
fires.
Another useful aspect of these images is the
possibility to see the relatively cold drops of water and
they can see if their contrail line is continuous even in
thick smoke.
2.5.4 Space borne platforms
With the space borne platforms, the aspects of time
and scale are the most obvious.
- Landsat TM with a resolution of 30 meters passes
every 16 days,
- NOAA A VHRR with a resolution of 1.1 km passes
twice a day and
- geo-stationary satellite GOES-8 has a resolution of
1 to 4 km.
Landsat TM is not really used for fire detection; it is
more used for accurate calculation of the surface
burned and estimates of tire intensity.
A small satellite dedicated sensor system for fire
monitoring and investigation from space was designed
in 1999.
The detection is based on hot spots:
- to classify hot spots: forest or vegetation fires, sun
reflectance and warm clouds,
- to classify the fire type: flaming fire
- to determine fire parameters: geographic position,
fire boundaries, time, temperature distribution.
NOAA A VHRR
Many teams are working on operational systems
using NOAA A VHRR data.
The remote sensing workstation for forest fire
detection and monitoring is a Finnish system for which
a prototype software has been developed for automatic
detection of forest fires using NOAA A VHRR
(Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) data.
Fire detection is based on channel 3 of A VHRR (3.5
micrometers).
D-06-05.doc
Image data are received from an existing receiving
station operated by the Finnish Meteorological Institute.
Images of size 1024 x 1024 (approximately 1150 km
x 1150 km) are received via a computer network.
Channels 2 (reflected sunlight), 3 (middle infrared),
and 4 (thermal infrared) of the A VHRR sensor are
used.
The processing includes:
- detection and marking of image lines affected by
reception errors,
- image rectification,
- detection of hot spots,
- elimination of false alarms, and
- generation of alert messages by e-mail and fax.
Each path of connected "hot" pixels is considered as
a potential fire.
The fires where the imaging geometry is close to the
case of specular reflection are eliminated as false
alarm three additional constraints are also applied.
2.5.5 Performance requirements
In conclusion of all the above, in the field of fire
detection, there are two main considerations.
The first one is detecting probable starting fire spots
early enough and with enough spatial accuracy to
cover the existing needs: these needs vary between
countries.
For example, a delay of a few hours may be
acceptable for the conditions in Finland or Siberia
whereas a 15-minute delay may be too much for a
Mediterranean country in the middle of the summer.
Concerning this point much depends on the
characteristics of the sensors (resolution, positioning or
revisit time etc.).
The second consideration is the one of most interest
about the DSS systems.
A fire detection system may be one of the
subsystems of a FFDSS.
As a system itself, it should have enough
intelligence to eliminate or reduce drastically false
alarms under all possible scenarios, without missing
real fires.
Furthermore, it should also provide location of the
fire with acceptable accuracy.
This, in combination with the maps of the FFDSS
should form the basis for efficient navigation and
guidance of the fire tracks and aerial means to the fire.
Furthermore, the data provided by the detection
system can form the basis for initial attack response
(dispatching).
Successful dispatching depends greatly of good
knowledge of the conditions in the area of the fire and
of the fire characteristics.
A detection system that provides such information
(local people may play this role as well) may be
extremely helpful for gauging the response.
The FFDSS should have the capacity to input and
process such info.
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2.6 FIRE BEHAVIOUR PREDICTION
Fire behaviour prediction systems exist nowadays
as standalone programs built only for this specific
purpose or, more often, as part of more complex DSS’s
like for instance the above mentioned pre-suppression
planning systems or some automatic detection systems
which have the capability to simulate fire progression
after the detection.
2.6.1 Functions
Fire behaviour prediction systems can:
- give outputs that describe not only the spatial
behaviour of forest fires: direction and rate of
spread, but
- also quantify and most often display different
variables which can be very useful when analysing
fire effects: intensity, flame length, energy release.
At this point a distinction should be made between:
- simple fire behaviour prediction systems, such as
the “classic” BEHAVE system of the US Forest
Service and
- the more modern and powerful fire behaviour
simulation systems such as the FARSITE system of
the US Forest Service.
Although both systems are based on the same fire
spread model, (ROTHERMEL’s (1972) mathematical fire
spread model) they function quite differently:
- the former produces fire behaviour predictions
related to variables such as fire spread rate, fire line
intensity and flame length, in the form of numbers
and (when examining ranges of inputs) tables and
graphs, while
- the latter uses terrain and spatial wind and fuel
distribution information to develop spatial fire spread
simulations.
Obviously, fire behaviour simulation systems take
better advantage of current computer power and spatial
data availability (they were not possible in the 1980s for
example) and produce impressive and highly useful
output, but they are more complex concerning their
requirements.
A major point about them is the algorithm used, in a
raster domain, to spread fire from one space element
(pixel) to the other, with a secondary, but nevertheless
important, consideration being that of pixel
extinguishments after burning (CABALLERO 2001,
CABALLERO 2006, FINNEY 1998, MARGARITIS et al. 1994,
VIEGAS 2002).
Their outcome needs:
- even more careful interpretation, concerning
potential uncertainties and errors,
- than simple systems for predicting fire behaviour.
Hence, both types of systems have potential uses in
the operational world and as training tools.
D-06-05.doc
Fire prediction models can be used in different
phases of forest fire management.
Prevention
With simple information such as weather (wind)
regimes, spatial ignition probability, topography and
land use maps, the managers have the possibility of
analysing the response of different management
scenarios to simulated fire events.
Most simulators offer the possibility of changing land
use or fuel model maps, allowing managers to compare
fire behaviour along different fuels or to compare
alternative fuel treatments effectiveness in stopping or
slowing down forest fires.
Suppression
Most, if not all, of the suppression DSS’s are based
on fire behaviour prediction.
Obviously in order to test the effectiveness of the
deployment of fire fighting means these kind of systems
must include a set of conditions, from infrastructures to
water sources, from location of Fire Fighters’
headquarters to road network, but, most of all they
must have an indication of what to expect on the
behaviour of a fire event.
Post-suppression
Fire behaviour models are useful tools when trying
to rebuild the events of a specific forest fire.
This proved to be particularly useful in the past
when trying to understand the circumstances that lead
to human incidents when dealing with fire fighting
(VIEGAS DX, 2004; VIEGAS DX et al, 2002).
DSS’s can be used in this phase for operational
training.
2.6.2 Performance requirements
Performance in regard to speed is critical for most
applications of such a system.
Fire behaviour predictions must be produced almost
instantly and fire behaviour simulations should be ready
in the order of a few minutes in order for decisions to
be made in a timely manner.
This requirement is very important and it is one of
the most important factors that has hindered adoption
of new complex fire behaviour models based on
fundamental principles and 3D modelling.
Accuracy of predictions or simulations is also a
major consideration, but what is accurate enough is a
matter of interpretation regarding the real world
application.
Furthermore, accuracy should be combined with
robustness, as failures of weaknesses in certain
combinations of conditions may be an unacceptably
weak point of such a system.
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EUFIRELAB
2.6.3 Some typical input requirements
Input requirements for all DSS’s regarding Fire
Behaviour Prediction are mainly the three components
of the so called “Fire environment triangle”.
2.6.3.1 Topography
With elements such as slope, aspect, elevation, and
configuration.
Topography doesn’t usually change temporally.
2.6.3.2 Fuels
The fuel layer describes:
- the spatial arrangement of the vegetation: fuel
distribution and continuity, as well as
- the intrinsic characteristics that allow the process of
fire simulation: fuel loading, fuel bed porosity, fuel
sizes, moisture content, and chemical composition.
Fuels are the source of the thermal energy and the
driving force behind the phenomena of fire behaviour
(COUNTRYMAN, 1992).
Fuels have usually a strong temporal variation.
Plants grow continuously and are subjected to different
human or wildlife activities that can change completely
their growth patterns.
2.6.3.3 Weather
Mainly wind speed and direction, but also
temperature, relative humidity, rain, cloud cover…the
most likely to change of all.
Meteorological conditions can change every second,
requiring special attention when simulating in real time.
2.6.4 Typical outputs
The outputs of such a system as a rule try to reply to
the two major questions posed by fire-fighters in regard
to fire behaviour:
- Where will the fire be at a given point in time?
- What will be the characteristics of the fire at a given
point?
In BEHAVE like fire behaviour prediction systems,
the main outputs are fire spread rate, fire line intensity,
and flame length.
Heat per unit area, and residence time are also
important, especially for fire effects estimation.
Many additional variables can also be produced
depending on the scope of the system and the
provision of the necessary inputs.
Examples are prediction of crowning, prediction of
spotting, etc.
These are separate models to the ROTHERMEL
(1972) fire spread model mentioned above.
In fire spread simulation systems, all the above
variables are desirable (and possible), but the main
output is the evolution of the fire with time, draped over
the landscape.
This allows better visualization for the user, and
more accuracy compared to him drawing lines on a
map based on an average value of rate of spread.
D-06-05.doc
Recognition of obstacles to fire spread (e.g.
firebreaks, roads, agricultural fields, water bodies, etc.)
and appropriate handling during the simulation is a
major advantage of the output of a simulation system.
2.6.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations
Fire behaviour models and systems have some
limitations.
The variety of physical phenomena that affect fire
behaviour makes it very difficult to quantify the
individual contribution of each one of them (LOPES et al,
1998).
Even if physical models are very accurate, it’s use in
real fire situations is largely conditioned by the reliability
of the input data, namely fuels (moisture,
characteristics) e weather (wind speed and direction)
(RIBEIRO, 2004).
The use of some of these parameters implicates the
use of specific prediction models for it’s calculation,
adding another source of error (LOPES et al, 1998;
FINNEY, 1998).
Some of the Fire Behaviour prediction systems have
secondary outputs that can be useful in fire
management activities.
For instance, FireStation (LOPES et al, 1998), can
produce maps of wind field simulations over complex
topography based on data collected on wind stations or
predicted with specific models.
These wind data will be used later for fire simulation.
A major consideration concerning fire behaviour
DSSs is how much confidence the user can have on
system predictions and suggestions.
The answer to that is not simple since everything
has to do with the intended use.
For example, there is no question that fire can
exhibit unexpected runs depending on specific
topographic and atmospheric interactions (COHEN
2006, VIEGAS 2005).
The solution is twofold.
On one hand, the user must never fully trust fire
behaviour predictions, and should leave ample room for
error, especially when lives will be at risk in case of
erroneous predictions.
On the other hand, confidence should be gradually
built on new systems by examining their predictions
(i.e. the systems should not operate as a “closed box”)
and by testing them in real world conditions.
Part of the reason for the wide use of BEHAVE for
more than 20 years, is the significant testing and
operational use it has received.
Although not always accurate, its weaknesses are
generally known, and experienced users can interpret
the results quite well, thus increasing its usefulness.
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2.7 OPERATIONAL DISPATCHING AND FIRE
SUPPRESSION
2.7.1 Functions
The questions posed by fire managers in this topic,
are related to an assessment of resources that must be
devoted to a particular fire or to multiple simultaneous
fires.
It must be made clear that officers in charge of fire
fighting should not be expected to plan and conduct
operational fire coordination according to the
suggestions of a DSS rather on a on-site assessment
of the conditions and the actual (not-theoretical)
capabilities of his fire fighting resources.
The direct use of DSSs for supporting fire fighting
operations is quite limited (XANTHOPOULOS 2002).
However, a DSS can be very useful in:
- supporting dispatching of resources for initial attack
(XANTHOPOULOS 1994).
- training of fire management officers
- during fire operations in handling complex situations
at the level of the coordination centre.
- providing suggestions of possible outcomes of the
fire fighting efforts.
Furthermore, a complete system in support of fire
fighting operations, should have some capabilities for
supporting the logistics of fire fighting such as keeping
track of fire data, resources, supplies, costs, etc.
One system that concentrates on the latter is the
Fire Information Resource System (FIRES) in Canada.
FIRES is a single source data entry application that
captures much of Forest Protection Division's business
data at source.
It provides near real time information to staff in order
to enable decision-making processes.
The application standardises the collection and
entry of data, provides data in a standard format for
decision support applications, tracks fire fighting
resources, and maintains historical records about fires
and weather.
The FIRES application helps to ensure that sharing
of information and deployment of resources are done
efficiently and economically in emergencies that require
immediate response.
FIRES communicates with several other systems to
minimize duplicate entry of data, and to take advantage
of the functionality of other systems in managing
wildfire.
Another Canadian system is Prometheus.
It is the new Canadian Wildland Fire Growth Model
(CWFGM) currently being developed by an integrated,
multi-disciplinary team of Canadian researchers and
managers.
Alberta Forest Protection Division is the lead agency
of the team.
D-06-05.doc
This state-of-the-art model will allow for operational
and strategic assessments of spatial fire behaviour on
the landscape.
Uses of this model in fire and forest management
include:
- predicting the growth of fires that have escaped
initial attack;
- evaluating the potential threat wildfires could pose to
communities, recreational facilities, forest
management units, and other values-at-risk;
- evaluating the fire behaviour potential or burn
probability of landscapes created by different forest
management strategies and practices; and
- assessing the effectiveness of various forest and fire
management strategies aimed at reducing the threat
of large fires.
Understanding the behaviour, propagation and
effects of wildfire is essential to achieving sustainable
forest management.
Information on this system is available at:
http://www.firegrowthmodel.com.
2.7.2 Usual functions of a DSS for dispatching
and fire suppression
A DSS of this type necessarily involves expected
general fire behaviour assessment (often utilizing fire
danger indices), and/or fire behaviour prediction or
simulation.
It also possesses a strong capacity of fire fighting
effectiveness assessment.
The two are combined to produce estimates of the
resources needed to fight a particular fire.
Better systems, aiming to offer advanced support in
large coordination centres are generally able to handle
multiple fires, offering solutions not only regarding the
types of resources needed but also which resources
should be dispatched to each new fire.
This latter capability necessarily involves a strong
database management element that can keep track of
the resources available.
Fire fighting itself is just too complex to be neatly
modelled in detail with significant confidence in any
type of DSS.
Neither general rules nor strict numerical models
would ever be able to:
- replace the capacity of an experienced incident
commander (IC), or
- simulate with any realism the chaotic evolution of
fighting a serious fire.
A typical fire behaviour prediction or simulation
model, in spite of its potential inaccuracies, offers about
as concrete and usable information as possible to the
IC.
Some rules of thumb, or simple comparisons of
numbers, to facilitate calculations that otherwise would
be cumbersome, could provide useful support for the
IC.
Examples are travel times of vehicles, visible areas
from a certain point, etc.
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A GIS system as the foundation for such a DSS is a
must for today’s requirements.
It can facilitate decision-making by providing the
above mentioned functionalities and can also function
as the basis for fire behaviour simulations.
Having said that, although a DSS for fire
suppression cannot provide a full scenario of fighting a
fire, it can be of significant help in keeping track of the
fire by allowing continuous documentation of actions
taken, keeping track of resources involved and their
location, storing notes, observations and comments,
helping in the production of reports, etc.
The modern capability for fleet tracking (in this case
fire truck and fire-fighter crew tracking) developed in
the 1990s with the help of GPS technology, is a
perfectly appropriate addition to such a DSS.
Obviously, a DSS that would be devoted to
dispatching would be quite different from one designed
to be installed on a laptop computer in a command
vehicle to support an IC.
Trying to combine the two would result in
unnecessary complexity, given the difference in
requirements.
Processing and output production speed is a key
requirement for this type of DSSs as they are intended
for real-time operations.
Their interface should be very carefully designed in
order to allow the user (dispatcher, fire behaviour
analyst or IC) to perform the most commonly needed
tasks easily and without delays.
Concerning the use of a DSS by an ICs for fire
fighting support, it should be understood that the
people in that position may have quite variable levels of
sophistication in the use of computers and that they
may have to operate the system without expert help.
System output should put an emphasis on
documentation of event analysis and on the evolution
of incidents.
Reporting is certainly needed after the event but
may also be very useful if the system can produce (on
simple, portable printers) printed maps and information
sheets to be handled to officers and other personnel
during briefings.
2.7.3 Some typical input requirements
As fire behaviour prediction is at the core of such
systems, the inputs required for this task, as described
earlier, are also needed here.
A second series of inputs has to do with the types of
fire fighting resources available and their associated
performance characteristics:
- type of fire they can handle, productivity: fire line
production rate of dozers and fire crews, length of
retardant line produced by aerial drops of a specific
type of air tanker, etc.
- speed and limitations of movement (e.g. grade),
- refilling and refuelling requirements, shifts, etc.).
D-06-05.doc
A third, important input, is the actual number of the
resources, their location, their availability (e.g. assigned
to a fire or not), the terms for their mobilization
(especially for private resources), and the associated
cost.
For all these to be used a fire fighting simulation
scheme of some short is needed.
This scheme, depending on the objectives and the
sophistication of the system, may include:
- rules of preference of resources according to criteria
(distance of the fire from their position, type of fire
behaviour expected, resource characteristics, etc.),
- rules of engagement and cooperation of resources,
etc. (CABALLERO 2002, XANTHOPOULOS 1994).
2.7.4 Typical outputs
In the case of DSSs for dispatching, typical outputs
include, first of all, the types and numbers of resources
to be used for a particular fire.
Additionally, the location from which these
resources should be sent is proposed.
Predicted length of time for fire control, often in
combination with the resources finally dispatched,
probability of successful initial attack, warnings for
conditions that may warrant special attention, are
additional very useful outputs.
When emphasis is on fire fighting the outputs may
have very different content and look, depending on the
functions of the system, as described above.
Fire behaviour prediction is a must but from that
point on, the degree to which the system will:
- try to provide suggestions: types of resources that
can handle particular lengths of the fire perimeter at
any given time, according to the length of flames,
topography, road proximity, etc.. locations with
potential for erratic fire behaviour, etc.) or
- simply function as an MIS, is a matter of
sophistication and effort devoted to the development
of the system.
2.7.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations
The main criterion for evaluating a DSS for
dispatching is always the degree to which responses
closely matching its suggestions were proven
successful and the fires were stooped through initial
attack.
Sending too many fire fighting resources compared
to the real need is the other side of the coin, and can
only be evaluated from focused reports that may be
filled at the end of the incident.
Other criteria include:
- Ease of use
- Backtracking of decisions
- Good documentation of actions and report
production for filing
- Capability to parameterise inputs or add rules that
apply under certain conditions
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In regard to DSS for fire fighting, accuracy of
predictions, dependability of suggestions (consistent
quality), useful warnings (watch-out conditions) good
database maintenance, good reporting capabilities are
key elements on which these systems may be
evaluated.
However, the true evaluation, especially for this type
of DSS usually comes from the user.
If the confidence of the user is not captured, then
the system is not successful.
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2.8 FIRE EFFECTS ASSESSMENT AND
MITIGATION
2.8.1 Usual functions
The main objective of a DSS of this category is to
help post-fire decision-making.
Alternatively, emphasis may be given on providing
support for fire management decisions and actions, by
analysing potential fire effects in case of a fire and
suggesting measures to take in order to avoid
undesirable outcomes.
Prescribed burning support is among these actions
(REINHARDT et al. 2001).
Obviously, it makes sense for a system to be flexible
enough in order to support both these objectives.
Systems designed for addressing fire effects
assessment and their mitigation should necessarily
incorporate a large, well organized database that
includes a large part of the outcome of the huge
amount of research devoted to studying fire effects in
the last three decades (ARIANOUTSOU 2006).
Fire effects may refer to effects on:
- flora (BROWN and SMITH 2000),
- fauna (SMITH 2000),
- aquatic ecosystems,
- the air (SANDBERG et al. 2002), and
- the soil (NEARY et al. 2005).
Fire effects databases have been developed in the
USA and have been made available over the Internet.
An example is the Fire Effects Information System
(FEIS) of the US Forest Service, which can be found
online at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis.
However, before using such a database, care must
always be devoted to identifying which ecosystem the
data are valid for, as there are often significant
differences on fire effects even for the same plant
species over different areas of its distribution.
Utilizing the fire effects database and related
models, a DSS usually predicts the direct
consequences of prescribed fire and wildfire.
It computes, for example, duff and woody fuel
consumption, smoke production, and fire-caused tree
mortality.
Two of the most important problems fire managers
face in regard to post fire actions, have to do
- with determining if natural regeneration is
guaranteed and, if not, where they have to help
through seeding or planting, and what they have to
seed/plant
- with recognizing where heavy soil erosion problems
should be expected, the extent of the problems, the
potential for flooding, and what measures should be
taken to prevent/mitigate these negative effects.
Finally, such a DSS could also provide support in
recognizing problems to the people in the burned area
(financial, social, production, work, etc.) with related
costs.
Such a capacity could help with corresponding
mitigation measures.
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2.8.2 Performance requirements
Speed of execution is not a problem, as this type of
analyses usually needs to be completed within days or
weeks.
Accordingly, hardware requirements are not heavy:
the heaviest requirements are for the spatial analysis
(GIS) system that may be included with the application.
2.8.3 Some typical input requirements
Typical inputs for DSSs that do not have a spatial
analysis component include variables for site
description including species and their characteristics
(age, size, cover, etc.), aspect, slope, soils, and
climatology.
Fire characteristics are a necessary input as well,
since different (in regard to fire intensity, residence
time, heat per unit area, and season) fires may have
markedly different effects.
Obviously, when a spatial analysis system is part of
such a DSS, the manager is helped much more.
It becomes easier to analyse and plan the measures
to be taken at different locations according to the
spatial variability of the input parameters, and the
procedure is automated to a large extent.
D-06-05.doc
2.8.4 Typical outputs
The outputs of such a DSS, spatial or not, are
tailored to answer the questions explained in the
“functions” section above:
- Tree mortality prediction / Burned timber salvage
- Soil protection/flood prevention measures
- Reforestation / species selection
- Measures for wildlife support
- Measures for human population support
In case of use of the DSS for prescribed burning
support, the emphasis is on development of
prescriptions for treatment fires, with corresponding
prediction of the fire effects to be expected.
With this aid, managers can develop better and
safer prescriptions, avoiding the risk of causing
negative effects.
2.8.5 Evaluation criteria and considerations
In such a system, the emphasis is on providing
answers directly relevant to the questions posed by the
managers.
When there is uncertainty, confidence limits should
be provided.
Backtracking of decisions should be possible.
Finally, the user interface must be user friendly, and
the spatial output must be presented in meaningful
blocks of land (not pixelized), according to realistic
criteria.
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3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
3.1 GENERAL APPROACH
In this part of the work, the connecting component is
- the technologies commonly found in the tools and
- systems under consideration
As a result, the approach followed here is more
general.
It focuses on the identification of:
- the main technological components found in fire
management tools and systems, and
- their main characteristics that must be specified in
order to produce more effective systems with a good
useful life expectancy.
The main technologies and issues to be examined
here, concerning their characteristics and their use in
FFDSSs, include:
- Automatic fire detection devices
- Satellite remote sensing
- GIS technologies and systems
- Database management systems and languages
- Programming considerations (including user
interfaces)
- Open versus closed platforms
Each one of these is examined concerning the
breadth of use in fire management systems, for
common applications and conflicts to come to the
surface.
Past and currently used technologies are identified
and evaluated.
New technologies replacing or augmenting the older
ones are identified.
Thus, the stage is prepared for the next step where
new specifications will be proposed for the future.
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3.2 SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING
The images provided by satellites for earth
observation give to the end users, like Civil Protection,
Risk Managers, Public Authorities, information to
assess Forest Fire Risk, to manage crises, and to
estimate damages.
Various types of remote sensing data that bring
different spatial and temporal scales of perception can
support all of these activities.
At the same time, algorithms for fire detection, fire
propagation monitoring and burned area mapping,
have been developed and continue to evolve in order to
provide the most accurate information for the Decision
Makers.
These remote sensing information and processes
are often integrated into Decision Support Systems.
This chapter aims to present the technologies,
results and perspectives to promote the use of remote
sensing data in these fields.
3.2.1 Currently used technologies
For each remote sensing study, it is important to pay
attention to the following parameters:
- Spatial Resolution: dimension of the pixel, from the
kilometre to the centimetre;
- Temporal Resolution: frequency of the image
acquisition, like day, week or month;
- Spectral Resolution: it is related to the sensor
channels, from the optical ones, like red, infrared
etc. to the hyper frequencies (radar).
These parameters are able to characterize fire,
smoke, and burned areas at different scales of
perception and for different topics like fire and smoke
detection, forest fire monitoring and burned area
assessment.
3.2.1.1 Sensors
Two categories of sensors exist:
- passive sensors: they detect the reflectance induced
by the solar energy that light up the objects at the
earth surface; and the spectral values included into
optical and infrared wavelength.
- active sensors, which produce their own energy to
light up the objects at the surface of the earth; the
detected spectral values correspond to the hyper
frequencies (radar) wavelength.
Optical sensors are used when atmospheric
conditions are without clouds.
The accuracy of fire, smoke, and burned area
detection depend on the clearness of the atmosphere.
On the other hand, radar sensors are used for
cloudy conditions because of the capability of hyper
frequencies to cross through the clouds.
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3.2.1.2 Satellites
The main satellites selected for identifying and
monitoring forest fire, and mapping burned areas are
the followings:
- NOAA AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer): developed by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, this satellite
provides daily images at the spatial scale of 1.1 km,
with five channels (Red, Near Infra Red, Medium
Infrared and two channels in thermal infrared
wavelengths).
- Spot: performed by Spot Image Company, Spot 5
satellite provides images with the multispectral
sensor at the spatial scale of 10 m, 20 m, 5 m and
2.5 m (panchromatic), in Red, Blue, Green and
Medium Infrared wavelengths.
- Landsat: Landsat 7 ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic
Mapper Plus) provides images at the spatial scale of
30 m, with the Red, Near Infrared and Medium
Infrared wavelengths, and at 60 m of resolution for
the thermal Infrared channels.
- Ikonos: provided by Space Imaging, Ikonos images
have a spatial scale of 4 m in optical and Infrared
wavelengths.
- Envisat: ESA European Space Agency satellite
combines active and passive sensors on a same
plate-form.
- ERS: ESA satellite produces radar images at the
spatial scale of 12,5 m for the C band.
- RadarSat: Canadian satellite RadarSat 2 provides
radar images at 6 m resolution.
All of these satellites have been used for forest fire
detection, mapping and monitoring.
Some of them, like Spot 5 and Ikonos can be
programmed by the end-users, like Civil Protection, in
the way to follow the evolution of a forest fire.
For the detection of forest fire, the NOAA AVHRR
has been used for many projects at different
geographical resolution: European, national and
regional.
3.2.1.3 Pre-processing
Earth atmosphere contains molecules and particles
that provoke disturbances (diffusion and absorption of
wavelength) for the reception of reflectances for
passive sensors.
Some algorithm can reduce the influence of the
atmosphere on the spectral values.
Companies that provide remote sensing images,
use these pre-processings.
But, it is usual to find companies and laboratories
that have developed their own and specific pre-
processing in the way to improve the spectral quality of
these images.
Radar images have also their own problems,
especially the backscatter effect that produces a
speckle.
To reduce this effect, LIEW et al. (1998) propose a
method based upon the of the image in 8 bits, and the
application of a filter at a lower spatial resolution (4, 5,
6 etc. pixels).
D-06-05.doc
3.2.1.4 Pixels Classification
To extract the useful information, two pixel
classifications are commonly used.
- Unsupervised classification: it is an automatic one
that consists to let the computer to identify the
different objects, without the intervention of the
operator’s knowledge; after this classification, the
operator has to define the themes that correspond
to the different classes.
- Supervised classification: it is based upon the field
knowledge of the operator which define some test
and training parcels (group of pixels) according to
their nature (forest, urban, water, smoke, fire,…)
The algorithm of this last classification procedure
tries to gather, automatically and according to the
different classes defined by the operator, the same
pixels of each class.
This classification take account to the spectral
values and, for some new available software, it takes
into account texture and form of the objects and
phenomena.
The most accurate method is the supervised one,
but it takes time, especially for the definition of training
plots.
The unsupervised classification is the fastest one,
but the accuracy of the automatic definition of classes
is lower than the supervised one, due to the creation of
different classes for the same object or the grouping of
different objects in a same class.
The time spent for a classification, supervised and
unsupervised, depends also on the number of pixels in
an image.
Very High Resolution Images like Ikonos or Spot 5
require much time to classify their pixels than NOAA
ones.
Therefore, in a case of emergency, as it is for Civil
Protection, it is important to be aware to this constraint.
At the end of each classification, a comparison is
realized between the post-crises images and the pre-
crises ones.
This comparison gives the map of the burned areas.
The extraction and vectorisation of this map bring a
mask that is integrated into a GIS for damage
assessments.
The combination of different channels is used to
make vegetation indices, like NDVI.
The classification of these multi-channel images
gives a map of fuel, according to the distinction of
forest and non-forest area.
The NDVI is correlated with the photosynthetic
activity of vegetation.
The comparison between daily, weekly or monthly
Maximum Value Composite of NDVI images is a tool to
identify the effect of drought on vegetation.
Therefore, it is also possible to map the water stress
for the vegetation, which is an indicator of forest fires
risk.
Combustible maps represent a way to prevent forest
fires, based upon satellite remote sensing data.
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3.2.1.5 Ancillary data
Ancillary data bring information on the land use and
land cover.
They contribute to the system for assessing
damages of forest fires in the way to assess the mount
of the impact of a forest fire on the socio-economical
activities.
European, national and regional ancillary data can
be implemented into GIS and DSS for the decision
makers.
The cost of these data is a limiting factor to their
obtention, but it possible to contract conventions with
data providers and research entities.
For example, CORINE LandCover database
provides information of the land cover at the scale of
Europe.
These maps have been implemented into GIS for
damage assessments (SAN MIGUEL-AYANZ, 1998a,
1998b), with the overlapping of burned areas masks
onto CORINE maps.
This method can also be used to provide information
for decision-makers before the occurrence of a fire, in
the way to identify the most vulnerable territories,
according to the stakes and remote sensing indicators.
3.2.2 Fields of use, success, problems and
other considerations
Remote sensing techniques are involved in many
activities related to the following ones.
1. Forest Fire Prevention an Anticipation, applying
risk assessment approaches like combustible mapping,
drought forecasting etc. and using the so called
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).
To preserve human lives and to reduce economic
losses as far as possible, ancillary data like socio-
economical ones are integrated into DSS.
2. Crisis Response through powerful systems, like
DSS in the way to prevent forest fires and/or to
estimate and monitor forest fire progression. agent-
based and cellular automata are implemented to
simulate the progression of fire.
They integrate the remote sensing data, and more
precisely, the masks created by the supervised
classifications.
The question of speed of the treatment of the
information is capital for the end users like Civil
Protection.
Damage assessment for prevention or
indemnification is based upon the overlapping of both
socio-economical data and burned area masks, in the
aim to extract the statistics of the impacted stakes.
Insurance companies and public administrations are
increasingly interested on the use of remote sensing
techniques to estimate, as soon as possible, the costs
of these damages.
Therefore, remote sensing data provided by
satellites provide information to help politics in the
formalization of their policy of indemnification and to
plan the land use.
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Among the different ways of success integrating
satellite remote sensing for forest fire problematic, the
international charter “Space and Major Disasters” and
the GMES (Global Monitoring for Environment and
Security) have claimed our attention.
3.2.2.1 International Charter “Space and Major
Disasters”
The International Charter aims at providing a unified
system of space data acquisition and delivery to those
affected by natural or man-made disasters through
authorized users.
Each member agency has committed resources to
support the provisions of the Charter and thus is
helping to mitigate the effects of disasters on human
life and property.
Following the UNISPACE III conference held in
Vienna, Austria in July 1999, the European and French
space agencies (ESA and CNES) initiated the
International Charter "Space and Major Disasters", with
the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) signing the Charter
on October 20, 2000.
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
and Indian Space Research Organization became
members of the Charter in September 2001;
- Argentine Space Agency joined in July 2003; Japan
Aerospace Exploration Agency became a member
in February 2005;
- United States Geological Survey joined the Charter
as part of the U.S. team.
The only bodies authorized to request the services
of the Charter are the authorized users, who have been
given the single confidential phone number.
An authorized user is a civil protection, rescue,
defence or security body from the country of a Charter
member.
Those eligible to become members of the Charter
include space agencies and national or international
space system operators.
Recently, the International Charter has been
activated for the two following events:
23/08/2005: Forest fires completely surrounded the
city of Coimbra, about 200 km north of Lisbon,
destroying dozens of houses on the outskirts of the city
and forcing residents to evacuate the area.
Portugal requested and received assistance from
Spain, Italy, France, the Netherlands, and Germany
(water bombardiers and ground units).
The Charter was activated to provide support to the
European fire fighting effort.
05/07/2005: Forest fires started at the north-eastern
edge of the Massif des Maures, in the Provence region
of France, and continued to spread, fanned by strong
winds.
The results of the satellite remote sensing images
analyses (SPOT 5, Ikonos, NOAA AVHRR, Landsat 7
ETM+) have been sent the Portuguese Civil Protection
and the French Civil Protection, using FTP technique
for data transfer.
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3.2.2.2 GMES
The “Global Monitoring for Environment and
Security” (GMES) represents a concerted effort to bring
data and information providers together with users, so
they can better understand each other and make
environmental and security-related information
available to the people who need it through enhanced
or new services.
Reviewing the various user needs, it was
established that GMES has to support the following EU
objectives and policy domains:
- Europe's environmental commitments, within
European Union territory and globally, by
contributing to the formulation, implementation and
verification of the Community environmental
policies, national regulations and international
conventions;
- Other European Union policy areas such as
agriculture, regional development, fisheries,
transport, external relations with respect to the
integration of the environmental dimension in the
respective domains and their specific requirements;
- Common foreign and security policy, including the
European security and defence policy;
- Other policies relevant to European citizens' security
at Community and national levels, notably the
potential exists for application to policies related to
Justice and Home Affairs activities of the European
Union, such as border surveillance.
Specific tools are developed under the GMES
umbrella to help public authorities to assess risks of
technical and natural hazards like floods and forest
fires.
These tools combine spatial and aerial images,
in situ measurement and models, which provide
together a portfolio of services:
- Prevention: monitoring of prone areas and risk
assessment;
- Anticipation forecasting: elaboration of warning to
preserve human lives and reduce economic losses
as far as possible;
- Crisis response: through powerful systems helping
civil security services to anticipate appropriate
decisions and provide better security conditions to
their operating teams during the crisis;
- Post crisis: to elaborate a quick damage
assessment and collect feedback to train the rescue
teams.
Among end users of such services one can find:
- Civil Protection Authorities;
- Forecasting Organizations;
- Environment Agencies.
The policy framework supported by such services
are support to European Union Civil protections and
risk management.
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3.2.2.3 Problems of the use of Satellite Remote
Sensing data
Despite these successes, some problems and limits
are presently discussed.
The first and major problem is related to the
availability of satellite remote sensing images,
according both to the frequency of image acquisition
and atmospheric conditions.
It is very often necessary to combine different
sources of images (Spot, Ikonos etc.) to try to monitor
Forest Fire Progression.
The time to make the treatments increases with the
diversification of images.
In the same way, the accuracy to detect the burned
area changes from a NOAA image to an Ikonos image.
So, for sub real-time monitoring, it is difficult to have
the same quality of information in a crises period.
The second problem is related to the price of data:
archived images are less expensive than programmed
images (from 2 to 5 times!).
Therefore, it is important to contract convention with
remote sensing data providers, and especially in the
frame of the initiatives like GMES and the International
Charter, in the way to get these images at a very low
cost.
3.2.3 New alternatives and technologies
The future of satellite remote sensing is the
development of sub-meter sensors.
In this area of interest, the ORFEO project, between
France and Italy, will provide both optical and radar
images at sub-meter scale.
The agreement was signed between the 2 countries
in January 2001; Spain and Sweden are also
interested.
ORFEO will comprise two components:
- Optical sensors aboard two Pleiades satellites;
- Radar sensors aboard four Cosmo-Skymed
satellites.
The next-generation French optical satellites,
Pleïades, are also under development in conjunction
with Cosmo-Skymed in the Franco-Italian ORFEO dual
programme.
The ability to combine information from optical and
radar images will provide Europe with a greatly
enhanced intelligence-gathering tool.
From 2008, the two Pleiades optical satellites will
provide imagery covering a smaller area but with a
resolution four times better than SPOT 5.
Together, SPOT 5 and Pleiades will offer a broader
range of complementary data better able to meet the
diverse requirements of civil users—for example,
cartographers, geophysicists, risk managers and urban
planners—and military users too.
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The Pleiades optical system will be developed under
Centre National des Etudes Spatiales CNES
supervision as part of a joint effort with Italy, alongside
the Cosmo-Skymed radar imaging system that will be
under the responsibility of the Italian Space Agency
ASI.
This French-Italian cooperation will bring users a
richer variety of large- and small-area optical and radar
imagery than ever before, at high and low resolutions.
The Cosmo-Skymed satellites are intended to
provide:
- monitoring, surveillance and intelligence data during
international crisis for military customers, and
- environmental surveillance of floods, fires,
landslides, and oil spill as well as
- earth topographic mapping, law enforcement for
commercial, civilian institutions and scientific
communities.
Each satellite will be equipped with one X-band
multi-polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar SAR that
will provide coverage of areas with a maximum width of
up to 520 km.
The SAR sensor can work in four acquisition modes.
Using the SPOTLIGHT mode the SAR scans with a
resolution of one or less than a meter covering an area
of tens of square kilometres.
The HIMAGE (strip map) acquisition mode provides
a few meters resolution covering areas featuring a
width of several tens of kilometres.
The WIDEREGION, also known as ScanSAR,
features tens of meters of resolution and swathes areas
of hundreds of kilometres.
Finally, the HUGEREGION acquisition mode
swathes up to 520 km wide areas with a resolution of
several tens of meters.
The first satellite was scheduled to be put into a
sun-synchronous orbit in early 2005 and the last one
(fourth COSMO-SkyMed satellite) was slated for launch
in late 2006.
3.2.4 Specifications for the future
The recommendations for the future can be
summarized with the following points:
- the use of sub-meter sensors in optical and radar
wavelength;
- the development of classification algorithms based
upon spectral values, texture and form of objects;
- the integration of geo-localized data, spatially socio-
economical ones, in the way to make a better
damage assessment before and after Forest Fire;
D-06-05.doc
3.3 PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS
3.3.1 Fields of use, success, problems and
other considerations
Management decision support through appropriate
IT-based systems like Management Information
Systems MIS, Decision Support Systems DSS housed
inside an organisation or provided by extension is
established practice.
They involve the collection, selection, processing
and communication of information in one or two-way
communication activities.
Present IT developments add new dimensions to
the accessibility and communication of information.
They focus on comprehensive IT support
environments that integrate with knowledge networks
with local, regional or global knowledge bases.
IT refers to a rapidly expanding range of services,
methods, techniques, applications, equipment, and
electronic technologies used for the collection,
manipulation, processing, classification, storage, and
retrieval of recordable information and knowledge.
At this time, such technologies include, but are not
limited to:
- computers, personal digital assistants PDAs,
software, high-capacity storage, networks,
telecommunications, databases, data warehouses,
multimedia, and
- training, the internet and its world wide web,
geographic information systems (GIS), computer-
aided design (CAD), online services, video
conferencing, electronic mail, and expert systems:
In short, all technologies related to the acquisition,
storage, recovery, transfer, manipulation, and delivery
of data, sound, and graphics, including video.
Any single technology within this almost unlimited
variety could be linked to human activities in the forest
fires management sector and might have a profound
effect on them.
3.3.2 New alternatives and technologies
A number of IT development lines that could directly
be linked to future developments of the forest fire
management sector are:
- Digital integration: eliminates technology breaks
- Multi-media interaction: utilizes the full potential of
human perception
- Electronic communication networks: provide
communication infrastructure
- Information Portal technology: provides access
points to digital knowledge spheres
- Virtual platforms for collaboration: facilitates digital
group interaction
- Agent technology: reduces needs for human
intervention (HA forum, 2001)
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3.4 OPEN VERSUS CLOSED PLATFORMS
3.4.1 Currently used technologies
3.4.1.1 Software interoperability
The word “interoperability” is increasingly being
used in information management sector.
The meaning of “interoperability”, though, remains
somewhat ambiguous, as do many of the benefits of
"being interoperable".
Therefore, the following definition of interoperability
is suggested.
To be interoperable, one should actively be
engaged in the ongoing process of ensuring that the
systems, procedures and culture of an organisation are
managed in such a way to maximize opportunities for
exchange and re-use of information, whether internally
or externally. (REED C., OGC)
The definitions of an “open” framework must be
clear and unambiguous.
They must define the component interfaces well
enough to ensure that different implementations of the
same components will interoperate.
The definitions may leave room for future
expandability and growth, but must require standards
compliant implementations to be compatible.
While the component boundaries may change over
time, it is important to clearly define the initial models
and implementations.
Non-exclusive industry consortia and task forces
(like the OGC, the World Wide Web Consortium W3C,
the Open Mobile Alliance OMA, the Internet
Engineering Task Force IETF, and others) develop
open standards as interlocking parts of interoperability
frameworks and reference models.
These organisations' framework and reference
model documents guide developers and integrators in
designing customer-specific open architectures, which
specify the open data models (information schemas)
and open interfaces, protocols, etc. that will meet the
needs of private enterprises based on their user needs,
including business models and work flows. (REICHARDT
M., OGC)
In an initiative called Sensor Web Enablement SWE,
members of the Open Geospatial Consortium, Inc.
OGC are building a unique and revolutionary
framework of open standards for exploiting Web-
connected sensors and sensor systems.
Examples of sensors include: flood gauges, air
pollution monitors, stress gauges on bridges, mobile
heart monitors, Webcams, and satellite-borne earth
imaging devices. (REICHARDT M., OGC)
D-06-05.doc
3.4.1.2 Geo-data standards
Geo-data interoperability is a technology that will
emerge only with a great deal of harmonization.
Geo-data interoperability requires agreements
between senders and receivers of information.
Where do the needed agreements and the needed
harmonization come from?
Harmonisation, agreements, and interoperability are
all just other names for standards.
Components of an information system never work
together unless there are standards that enable them to
cooperate.
The need for standards for geo-spatial data is well
known, which is why committees such as the Open
Geo-spatial Consortium, Inc. OGC and the ISO
Technical Committee 211 on Geographic Information
and Geo-matics are developing them.
Geo-spatial data infrastructures such as the CGDI,
however, require broader standards, since they
encompass protocols and web services, e.g.
- HTTP,
- Simple Object Access Protocol SOAP,
- Web Services Description Language WSDL,
- Electronic Business using Extensible Markup
Language ebXML;
Information technology committees such as the
World Wide Web Consortium W3C and Oasis are
addressing these comprehensive standards.
Because there are so many incompatible standards
in the geo-information technology area, sharing geo-
data between geo-processing systems and between
user communities requires considerable time and
expertise.
Most of the standards attempt to normalize one of
the following:
- encoding of information in software systems (data
format standards and data transfer standards),
- naming of features and feature relationships (data
dictionaries),
- designing schemas for descriptions of datasets
(metadata).
The standards are introduced to achieve key
objectives for digital data, by:
- making it easier to share digital spatial data between
user groups using different hardware and software;
- making it easier to integrate digital spatial data by
adhering to standards for geo-referencing resource
inventory data sets; and,
- providing quantitative and qualitative measures of
data quality to ensure data-collection efforts are
effective.
Concerning the fire management and multi-risk
management domain in Europe, there are currently
projects and initiatives for the definition of standards
and specifications related both for data and system
development.
The ESPON, ORCHESTRA, ARMONIA projects
and INSPIRE initiative are some examples. (EU-
MEDIN site, 2005)
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3.4.2 Fields of use, success, problems and
other considerations
One of the most fundamental choices for writing
software is the language and platform target.
This choice is often made without a great deal of
thought and has long-term consequences.
One choice is to target a closed, proprietary, single-
source platform.
Examples of this would be using platforms like MS
Access, MS SQL Server, COM, MFC, ATL, Dotnet,
etc.
Another choice is to use open tools.
Examples would be writing C or C++ code using
standard libraries, writing Perl scripts, JavaScript, etc.
Until now the Fire management related information
systems which were developed, are rather “close”
because of the tools of development used and the
proprietary format of data included in these.
This situation is changing; the development of
standards, as well as the availability of cheaper
technological tools and data has a great influence on
the philosophy of the developers and the users.
They are now seeking for more platforms that are
“open and data, which could be used easily by anyone
and could be combined together for better operability
and sharing of work.
3.4.3 Specifications for the future
3.4.3.1 Data Standards in Europe
INSPIRE : INfrastructure for SPatial InfoRmation in
Europe
INSPIRE is an initiative from the European Union to
establish an infrastructure for spatial information in
Europe that will help to make spatial or geographical
information more accessible and interoperable for a
wide range of purposes supporting sustainable
development.
INSPIRE aims at making available relevant,
harmonized and quality geographic information for the
purpose of formulation, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of Community policy-making.
The environmental sector has a leading role in this
initiative, but it is fully aware of the similarities between
the different sectors such as agriculture, transportation,
and health.
The legislative process is started in the Community
in fall 2004 and the legislation for an European Spatial
Information Infrastructure will presumably be in place
2006/2007.
After this, the Member States will have two years to
transpose INSPIRE into their national legislation.
D-06-05.doc
The initial implementations will last for at least five
years.
In the meantime, a number of initiatives will be taken
to prepare implementation rules for
- metadata for data,
- spatial data specifications and harmonization,
- network services and interoperability data and
service sharing,
- monitoring and reporting, organizational structures
and co-ordination.
INSPIRE Web site and related web site:
http://inspire.jrc.it/home.html
http://www.fig.net/pub/cairo/papers/ts_42/ts42_02_r
yttersgaard.pdf
3.4.3.2 Operating Systems
Open source software is an emerging type of
software that may fundamentally affect the business
and economic features of the software industry.
Linux, an open source operating system, has been
the prominent example of the potential of the open
source movement, competing against Microsoft
Windows, the incumbent operating system.
Both Windows and Linux are currently gaining
market share at the expense of proprietary Unix
systems (including the Sun versions of Unix), which
tend to be closed and expensive running on expensive
hardware.
The Linux ecosystem is developing fast in terms of
number, variety and quality of applications and
availability of support and other complementary
services.
However, it is expected that firms that offer
competing proprietary solutions will respond in a variety
of ways, including the reduction of prices and higher
investment in their products.
For example, Microsoft seems committed to reduce
the security issues faced by Windows.
Uncertainty about potential litigation risks due to
unclear property rights and confusing open source
licenses also hurts Linux.
Most firms are likely to have a mix of Linux and
Windows infrastructure evolving over time.
For example, Linux tends to become dominant in
Web serving applications, combined with Apache, the
dominant web server application that is open source.
Prominent Internet companies such as Google and
Amazon rely heavily on Linux.
There is a need for both empirical and analytical
work on the conditions under which firms adopt Linux
and open source, and how this adoption behaviour
affects the competition between the two ecosystems.
(ECONOMIDES et al., 2005)
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3.4.3.3 Open Platform characteristics For example:

- Management: WBEM, SNMP, IPMI, etc.
An Open Framework must leverage or recommend
- Configuration/system modeling: CIM, X.731, etc.
existing hardware and software standards and describe
- I/O standards: PCI, CompactPCI*, H.100/110,
how they are used and integrated into the Open
InfiniBand*, etc.
Framework standards.
- Networking standards: TCP/IP, ATM, T1/E1,
Some may be considered prerequisites and listed as
Sonet/SDH, etc.
requirements.
- Middleware standards: CORBA, etc.
Others may emerge as the framework definition
- De-facto standards for operating system,
evolves.
middleware etc. (HA forum, 2001)

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4 GIS TECHNOLOGIES AND SYSTEMS
In order to get a better equilibrium of this document, a specific chapter is devoted to this item, even if it
obviously belongs to technical specifications
4.1 CURRENTLY USED TECHNOLOGIES
A geographic information system (GIS) is a
computer-based tool for mapping and analysing
geographic phenomena that exist, and events that
occur, on Earth.
GIS technology integrates common database
operations such as query and statistical analysis with
the unique visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps.
These abilities distinguish GIS from other
information systems and make it a very important
technology and a basic tool for the development of
Forest fire related DSS.
Map making and geographic analysis are not new in
the forest fires related domains, but a GIS performs
these tasks faster and with more sophistication than do
traditional manual methods.
Many people commonly think of a GIS as a single,
well defined, integrated computer system.
However, this is not usually the case.
A GIS application can be a complete
information/decision support system that can be made
up of a variety of software and hardware tools.
The important factor is the level of integration of
these tools to provide a smoothly operating, fully
functional geographic data processing environment.
4.1.1 Components of a GIS-based DSS
An operational GIS-based DSS has a series of
components that combine to make the system work
and are critical to a successful Information System.
4.1.1.1 Hardware
Hardware is the computer system on which a GIS-
based DSS operates.
Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to
desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked
configuration.
4.1.1.2 Software
GIS software provides functions and tools needed to
store, analyse, and display geographic information.
4.1.1.3 Data
One very important component of a GIS-based DSS
is the data.
Geographic data and related tabular data can be:
- collected in-house,
- compiled to custom specifications and requirements,
or
- occasionally purchased from a commercial data
provider.
A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing
data resources, often stored in a corporate DBMS.
D-06-05.doc
The integration of spatial data (often proprietary to
the GIS software), and tabular data stored in a DBMS
is a key functionality afforded by GIS.
4.1.1.4 People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people
who manage the system and develop plans for
applying it to real world problems.
GIS users range from technical specialists who
design and maintain the system to those who use it to
help them perform their everyday work.
The identification of GIS specialists versus end
users is often critical to the proper implementation of
GIS technology.
4.1.2 Methods used by a GIS based DSS
A successful forest fire GIS-based DSS operates
according to a well-designed implementation plan and
rules, which are the models and operating practices
unique to each forest fire domain and/or related
institution.
The basic generic functions, which a GIS-based
DSS supports, are listed here below
4.1.2.1 Data input
Data can be input to a GIS from various sources eg.
Vector or raster digital maps, images of various
formats, text files, RDBMS tables, GPS data etc.
Many GIS applications support digitizing procedures
as well, for the creation of digital layers from existing
conventional maps.
4.1.2.2 Data storage
A large amount of spatial data and their related
attributes can be stored in the geographical Data base
of a GIS.
This data can be also managed by either the
internal or an external DBMS.
In fact, most GIS software provides an internal
relational data model, as well as support for
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) relational DBMS'.
COTS DBMS’ are referred to as external DBMS’.
4.1.2.3 Data transformation
Most GIS’s support advanced transformation utilities
for transforming data from one format to another and
from vector to raster and raster to vector models.
4.1.2.4 Data analysis
GIS tools can perform a large number of analysis on
spatial data such as
- Measurement (distance, area, perimeter)
- Query (spatial, attribute)
- Overlay analyses (calculation of new layers)
- Buffering (inside, outside) etc
Some of these analyses, which are commonly,
included in the existing Forest, fire related DSS, are
described in detail in the next pages of the current
report.
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4.1.2.5 Data output
Outputs from a GIS system include: maps, surface
visualisations, tables, lists, multimedia, animated map
sequences.
4.1.3 How to characterize the development and
use of GIS technology
One way to characterize the development and use
of GIS technology within the DSSs is in terms of the
three basic components of a GIS.
Like those of any information-processing system,
these include:
- Data
- A means of processing those data,
- A mechanism to control that processing and to
present processing results. (ie. User Interface)
4.1.3.1 Data
The data that tend to be processed by Forest Fires
related DSS and tools describe phenomena not only in
terms of “what” and “when”, but mainly “where”.
The magnitude of this component may be measured
in units that range from centimetres to thousands of
kilometres.
The ability to transform data from one scale to
another and from one projection system to another is
an important part of the geographic data processing.
This is not simply a matter of changing the size of a
particular graphic product, but a matter of moving
accurately between data bases with efficiency and
consistency.
The way in which geographic data are organized in
a GIS-based DSS can generally be expressed in terms
of the way in which facts pertaining to what (theme),
when (time), and where (location) are respectively
either held constant, allowed to vary in a controlled
manner, or measured.
Most traditional maps record theme as a function of
location at a constant time.
Data used in GIS-based DSSs have also
traditionally been organized in this manner.
Recently, however, new organizational schemes
have begun to emerge.
A number of GIS have moved from location-oriented
schemes to feature-oriented structures that record
location as a function of theme at a constant point in
time.
Some systems are also beginning to address the
temporal dimension of data as more than a constant.
Thus, the traditional "map" format is becoming just
one of many alternative ways to organize geographic
data.
The ability to easily reconfigure data and to flexibly
associate any one piece of information with others is
coming to be regarded as a standard feature of any
data management system.
The way in which geographic data are actually
represented (stored, manipulated, and displayed) in a
GIS-based DSS may also vary from one system to
another.
D-06-05.doc
Most of this variation relates not so much to the
representation of what or when as where.
Some encoding schemes associate theme and
location on an atomistic basis.
They refer to elemental pieces or "atoms" of
cartographic space.
Other data encoding schemes are more holistic in
nature.
They associate theme and location by way of
cartographic "wholes."
Raster (griddled image) and vector (line drawn) data
structures are representatives of these two schemes,
with atomic grid cells and holistic sets of points, lines,
and polygons.
The distinction is beginning to fade, however, as
raster resolution improves and as the ability to convert
from one form to the other becomes routine.
4.1.3.2 Data processing
In terms of the ways in which these data are
processed, GIS technology for many years was at a
point where data are modelled after traditional
techniques.
Though the ability to do more work more rapidly and
more economically is something we have come to
expect, the new technology was most often used not to
do new and different things but merely to do familiar
things better.
This process, however changed during the last
years and the GIS became a technology which offers
new methods:
- for elaborating and analysing geographical data for
the creation of a new generation of thematic layers
and synthetic maps, and
- for provisioning new services to the fire
management sector (e.g. fire danger maps, fire
spread simulation etc.).
Nonetheless, the data-processing capabilities of a
GIS can still be characterized in terms of four major
types of traditional activity:
- data preparation,
- data interpretation,
- data presentation, and
- programming.
The data preparation capabilities of a GIS are those
that provide for the acquisition, encoding, storage, and
routine maintenance of geographic data.
These may range from field investigations to
digitising to the reformatting of data.
The data interpretation capabilities of a GIS are
those that provide for the transformation of data into
information.
This transformation generally involves a process in
which facts of a general nature and potential utility (i.e.,
data) are translated into facts of a more specialized
nature and actual utility (i.e., information) in answering
questions, making decisions, or otherwise solving
problems.
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EUFIRELAB
For DSS applications, map reading has been
replaced by interactive measurement, queries, and
display functions.
The interpretative process typically involves both
objective measurement and subjective judgment to
transform facts, relationships, and/or meanings from an
implicit to an explicit form.
Interpretation of vegetation types, for example,
might bring out facts pertaining to ecological
characteristics.
Interpretation of a topographic surface might rely on
geometric relationships to infer a drainage pattern.
The data presentation capabilities of a GIS-based
DSS are those that provide for communication of facts
to the end-user.
This may involve maps, charts, reports, statistics,
animations, and so on.
Here, too, recent developments have been
remarkable, and most current needs are generally
being met.
Advances in this area, however, continue to be
made with an increasing emphasis on visualization and
the use of pictures, motion, and whole-environment
simulation.
Orientation toward data interpretation distinguishes
geographic information systems from other types of
automated mapping systems.
While mapping systems are primarily concerned
with data preparation and presentation, the GIS is more
concerned with data interpretation associated with on-
the-ground applications.
As the GIS user community has become more and
more sophisticated in its ability to prepare and present
its digital data, attention has now begun to focus on
data interpretation and the techniques by which spatial
phenomena can be modelled.
Modelling applications may range from pre-
suppression planning to post-fire management.
One way to characterize their range is to draw a
broad distinction between descriptive and prescriptive
models.
While the former deal with the realm of what is (e.g.,
landscape ecology or economic analysis), the latter
deal with the various arts that focus on what should be
(e.g. resource management or emergency evacuation
planning).
Perhaps the most notable trends are toward
increasing dynamic visualization (i.e., simulated
movement over time and/or space) and artificial
intelligence (e.g., natural language interfaces, learning,
and a mechanized ability to draw inferences for later
use).
The programming capabilities of a GIS are those
that affect the way in which a system is operated in
general.
These are capabilities associated with user
interaction, program execution, error handling, and so
on.
D-06-05.doc
Development work in this area involves concerns
that are common to all types of computing such as:
- security,
- large-volume data handling,
- multiple and concurrent access to common data
bases,
- updating, and data management in general.
4.1.3.3 User Interface
A third and very important component of a GIS-
based operational DSS is its capability for user
interaction.
GIS user interfaces become increasingly friendly,
offering new ways and tools for user interaction,
requiring less effort by the user.
Most of GIS Decision Support Systems have been
developed with high level programming tools, which
allowed the customisation of the User Interface
according to the specific user requirements.
End-users feel more familiar with this technology
than in the past since data input and analysis can be
performed in a comprehensive and easy way.
4.1.4 Common GIS analyses performed by
Forest Fire related DSS
Most GIS's provide the capability to build complex
models by combining primitive analytical functions.
The DSS’s vary as to the complexity provided for
spatial modelling, and the specific functions that are
available.
The range of analysis, which can be performed with
a GIS, is very large.
Accordingly, this section focuses on providing
information about the use of GIS technology within
Forest Fire related DSSs and an overview of the GIS
functions that are usually performed by these DSS’s for
spatial analyses purposes.
Some of the functions, which are described below,
concern spatial analysis functions, which can be used
in the application development phase of a forest fire,
related DSS, on existing digital layers, for the creation
of new layers to be included in the Geographic data
base as basic layers, for example:
- to create a raster hill shade or topographic layer,
- to reclassify vegetation layers for creating a land-
use layer.
While other concern analysis functions, which are
performed during the operational use of various
existing DSSs, for example:
- to perform a propagation algorithm,
- to calculate fire danger maps
4.1.4.1 Retrieval of Data
Retrieval operations occur on both spatial and
attribute data.
Often data is selected by an attribute subset and
viewed graphically.
Retrieval involves the selective search,
manipulation, and output of data without the
requirement to modify the geographic location of the
features involved.
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4.1.4.2 Reclassification of Data
Reclassification involves the selection and
presentation of a selected layer of data based on the
classes or values of a specific attribute: e.g. cover
group.
It involves looking at an attribute, or a series of
attributes, for a single data layer and classifying the
data layer based on the range of values of the attribute.
Accordingly, features adjacent to one another that
have a common value, e.g. cover group, but differ in
other characteristics, e.g. tree height, species, will be
treated and appear as one class.
In the raster based GIS, numerical values are often
used to indicate classes.
Reclassification is an attribute generalization
technique.
Typically, this function makes use of polygon
patterning techniques such as crosshatching and/or
colour shading for graphic representation.
In a vector based GIS, boundaries between
polygons of common re-classed values should be
dissolved to create a cleaner map of homogeneous
continuity.
Raster reclassification intrinsically involves
boundary dissolving.
The dissolving of map boundaries based on a
specific attribute value often results in a new data layer
being created.
This is often done for visual clarity in the creation of
derived maps.
Almost all GIS software provides the capability to
easily dissolve boundaries based on the results of a
reclassification.
Some systems allow the user to create a new data
layer for the reclassification while others simply
dissolve the boundaries during data output.
One can see how the querying capability of the
DBMS is a necessity in the reclassification process.
The ability and process for displaying the results of
reclassification, a map or report, will vary depending on
the GIS.
In some systems, the querying process is
independent from data display functions, while in
others, they are integrated and querying is done in a
graphics mode.
The exact process for undertaking a reclassification
varies greatly from GIS to GIS.
Some will store results of the query in query sets
independent from the DBMS, while others store the
results in a newly created attribute column in the
DBMS.
The approach varies drastically depending on the
architecture of the GIS software.
D-06-05.doc
4.1.5 Topological Overlay
The capability to overlay multiple data layers in a
vertical fashion is the most required and common
technique in geographic data processing.
In fact, the use of a topological data structure can be
traced back to the need for overlaying vector data
layers.
With the advent of the concepts of mathematical
topology polygon overlay has become the most popular
geo-processing tool, and the basis of any functional
GIS-based DSS.
Topological overlay is concerned with overlaying
polygon linear, and polygon data in selected
combinations, e.g. point in polygon, line in polygon, and
polygon on polygon are the most common.
Vector and raster based software differ considerably
in their approach to topological overlay.
4.1.5.1 Raster based software
Raster based software is oriented towards
arithmetic overlay operations, e.g. the addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication of data layers.
The nature of the one attribute map approach,
typical of the raster data model, usually provides a
more flexible and efficient overlay capability.
The raster data model affords a strong numerically
modelling (quantitative analysis) modelling capability.
Most sophisticated spatial modelling is undertaken
within the raster domain.
4.1.5.2 Vector based systems
In vector based systems topological overlay is
achieved by the creation of a new topological network
from two or more existing networks.
This requires the rebuilding of topological tables,
e.g. arc, node, polygon, and therefore can be time
consuming and CPU intensive.
The result of a topological overlay in the vector
domain is a new topological network that will contain
attributes of the original input data layers.
In this way, selected queries can then be
undertaken of the original layer, e.g. soils and forest
cover, to determine where specific situations occur, e.g.
deciduous forest cover where drainage is poor.
4.1.5.3 Consistent logic
Most GIS software makes use of a consistent logic
for the overlay of multiple data layers.
The rules of Boolean logic are used to operate on
the attributes and spatial properties of geographic
features.
Boolean algebra uses the operators AND, OR,
XOR, NOT to see whether a particular condition is true
or false.
Boolean logic represents all possible combinations
of spatial interaction between different features.
The implementation of Boolean operators is often
transparent to the user.
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EUFIRELAB
To date the primary analysis technique used in GIS
applications, vector and raster, is the topological
overlay of selected data layers.
Generally, GIS software implements the overlay of
different vector data layers by combining the spatial
and attribute data files of the layers to create a new
data layer.
Again, different GIS software utilizes varying
approaches for the display and reporting of overlay
results.
Some systems require that topological overlay occur
on only two data layers at a time, creating a third layer.
This pair wise approach requires the nesting of
multiple overlays to generate a final overlay product, if
more than two data layers are involved.
This can result in numerous intermediate or
temporary data layers.
Some systems create a complete topological
structure at the data verification stage, and the user
merely submits a query string for the combined
topological data.
Other systems allow the user to overlay multiple
data layers at one time.
Each approach has its drawbacks depending on the
application and the nature of the implementation.
Determining the most appropriate method is based
on the type of application, practical considerations such
as data volumes and CPU power, and other
considerations such personnel and time requirements.
Overall, the flexibility provided to the operator and
the level of performance varies widely among GIS
software offerings.
4.1.6 Neighbourhood Operations
Neighbourhood operations evaluate the
characteristics of an area surrounding a specific
location.
Many GIS-based DSS provide some form of
neighbourhood analysis.
A range of different neighbourhood functions exists.
Below are described the ones that are most
commonly used in the Forest Fire related DSSs.
4.1.6.1 Analysis of topographic Features
The analysis of topographic features, e.g. the relief
of the landscape, is normally categorized as being a
neighbourhood operation.
This involves a variety of point interpolation
techniques including slope and aspect calculations,
contour generation, and Thiessen polygons.
Interpolation is defined as the method of predicting
unknown values using known values of neighbouring
locations. Interpolation is utilised most often with point
based elevation data.
D-06-05.doc
Elevation data usually takes the form of irregular or
regular spaced points.
Irregularly space points are stored in a Triangular
Irregular Network (TIN).
A TIN is a vector topological network of triangular
facets generated by joining the irregular points with
straight-line segments.
The TIN structure is utilized when irregular data is
available, predominantly in vector-based systems.
TIN is a vector data model for 3-D data.
An alternative in storing elevation data is the regular
point Digital Elevation Model (DEM).
The term DEM usually refers to a grid of regularly
space elevation points.
These points are usually stored with a raster data
model.
Most GIS software offerings provide three
dimensional analysis capabilities in a separate module
of the software.
Again, they vary considerably with respect to their
functionality and the level of integration between the 3-
D module and the other more typical analysis functions.
4.1.6.2 Buffering
Most common neighbourhood function is buffering.
Buffering involves the ability to create distance
buffers around selected features, be it points, lines, or
areas.
Buffers are created as polygons because they
represent an area around a feature.
Buffering is also referred to as corridor or zone
generation with the raster data model.
Usually, the results of a buffering process are
utilized in a topological overlay with another data layer.
This would result in a new data layer that only
contained the forest cover within the buffer zone.
Since all attributes are maintained in the topological
overlay and buffering processes, a map or report could
then be generated.
Buffering is typically used with point or linear
features.
The generation of buffers for selected features is
frequently based on a distance from that feature, or on
a specific attribute of that feature.
For example, some features may have a greater
zone of influence due to specific characteristics, e.g. a
primary road would generally have a greater influence
than a gravel road.
Accordingly, different size buffers can be generated
for features within a data layer based on selected
attribute values or feature types.
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4.1.7 Connectivity Analysis
The distinguishing feature of connectivity operations
is that they use functions that accumulate values over
an area being traversed.
Most often these include the analysis of surfaces
and networks.
Connectivity functions include proximity analysis,
network analysis, spread functions, and three-
dimensional surface analysis such as visibility and
perspective viewing.
This category of analysis techniques is the least
developed in the GIS software.
Consequently, there is often a great difference in the
functionality offered between GIS-based software.
Raster based systems often provide the more
sophisticated surface analysis capabilities while vector
based systems tend to focus on linear network analysis
capabilities.
However, this appears to be changing as GIS
software becomes more sophisticated, and multi-
disciplinary applications require a more comprehensive
and integrated functionality.
Some GIS offerings provide both vector and raster
analysis capabilities.
Only in these systems will one fund a full range of
connectivity analysis techniques.
D-06-05.doc
4.2 FIELDS OF USE, SUCCESS, PROBLEMS AND
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
4.2.1 Historic reminder
Before the late 1950’s the analogue map was the
primary device or tool for storing, organizing, and
displaying the locations of features on the earth's
surface.
While geographic representation could certainly be
achieved by means of drawings, text, and numerical
arrays, the printed map was generally the medium of
choice.
The evolution of GIS technology suddenly changed
all this in two distinctively different ways.
On one hand, cartographers saw computer
technology as a means for producing traditional
analogue maps.
This was called "automated" (or "computer" or
"digital") cartography.
On the other hand, researchers, government
administrators, business managers, earth scientists,
military planners and developers, and others) saw
computer technology as a tool for providing alternatives
to printed maps.
GIS technology would allow them to store, process,
analyse, and display spatially distributed data in various
forms, including but not limited to maps.
Researchers have found that map-derived digital
data in a GIS can improve the accuracy of
interpretation of remotely sensed data while remotely
sensed data provides the ability to update map
products in a more expeditious manner.
The data produced by all these systems have a
spatially referenced component.
Nowadays, there is a huge number of digital spatial
data sets which have been developed by institutions,
private companies or army services.
These data sets are produced in various scales and
characterized by various accuracy values.
Several organizations and institutions in Europe and
USA have also defined accuracy and precision
standards for the production of spatial digital data.
Thus, although not a single international set of
standards exists yet, some basic guidelines are
available for the creation of reliable data sets and for
the avoidance of gross errors in geographical data
production.
In many cases data sets for GIS are initially
generated from existing maps, but given the relative
ease with which all digital data (if it is coordinate-
based) can be combined, data sets can now be
assembled from many diverse sources, including:
- Aerial photography,
- global positioning systems,
- electronic imaging (often from a remote sensing
platform),
- newly created maps
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To anticipate the future nature and use of Positional accuracy

geographic data, it is important to understand the
It is the expected deviance in the geographic
means by which this data is produced and processed.
location of an object from its true ground position.
Trends on the production and use of digital maps
This is what we commonly think of when the term
are affected mainly by the following factors.
accuracy is discussed.
The new generation GIS packages and functionality
There are two components to positional accuracy:
allow more and more complicate and sophisticated
- absolute accuracy concerns the accuracy of data
analysis of spatial data.
elements with respect to a coordinate scheme, e.g.
New thematic layers are required as inputs and new
UTM.
thematic maps derive as outputs.
- relative accuracy concerns the positioning of map
Growing dependency on geographic information features relative to one another.
system (GIS) technology and the evolution of
For most Forest Fire related applications, relative
positioning technologies (GPS, EGNOS/GALILEO,
accuracy is of greater concern than absolute accuracy.
DGPS) has generated reasonable concern about the
accuracy and precision of geo-spatial data. However, for applications related to precise
positioning (e.g. positioning and monitoring of fire
Very high-resolution satellite imagery (ie. IKONOS,
suppression means using a GPS) absolute accuracy is
QBIRD) provide a powerful alternative for the creation
very essential.
of large-scale thematic layers, which require less effort
in time-consuming and costly field surveys. Attribute accuracy
4.2.2 Data Accuracy and Quality It is equally as important as positional accuracy.
The quality of data sources for GIS processing is One of the major problems currently existing within
becoming an ever-increasing concern among GIS GIS is the aura of accuracy surrounding digital
application specialists. geographic data.
With the influx of GIS software on the commercial Often hardcopy map sources include a map
market and the accelerating application of GIS reliability rating or confidence rating in the map legend.
technology to problem solving and decision making This rating helps the user in determining the fitness
roles, the quality and reliability of GIS products is for use for the map.
coming under closer scrutiny. However, rarely is this information encoded in the
Much concern has been raised as to the relative digital conversion process.
error that may be inherent in GIS processing
Often because GIS data is in digital form and can be
methodologies.
While research is ongoing, and no finite standards presented using various zoom factors (usually higher
have yet been adopted in the commercial GIS than those of the initial source), it is considered to be
marketplace, several practical recommendations have totally accurate.
been identified which help to locate possible error In reality, a buffer exists around each feature, which
represents the actual positional location of the feature.
sources, and define the quality of data.
For example, data captured at the 1:20,000 scale
Successful and operative use of Forest Fire related commonly has a positional accuracy of +/- 20 m.
applications depends to great extend on the geographic
This means the actual location of features may vary
data quality and in particular on absolute and relative
accuracy of data as defined below. 20 m in either direction from the identified position of
the feature on the map.
The following review of data quality focuses on three Considering that the use of GIS commonly involves
distinct components, data accuracy, quality, and error. the integration of several data sets, usually at different
scales and quality, one can easily see how errors can
4.2.2.1 Accuracy
be propagated during processing.
The fundamental issue with respect to data is
accuracy.
Accuracy is the closeness of results of observations
to the true values or values accepted as being true.
This implies that observations of most spatial
phenomena are usually only considered to estimates of
the true value.
The difference between observed and true (or
accepted as being true) values indicates the accuracy
of the observations.
Basically two types of accuracy exist: positional and
attribute accuracy.

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4.2.2.2 Data quality
Quality can simply be defined as the fitness for use
for a specific data set.
Data that is appropriate for use with one application
may not be fit for use with another.
It is fully dependant on the scale, accuracy, and
extent of the data set, as well as the quality of other
data sets to be used.
Two sources of error, inherent and operational,
contribute to the reduction in quality of the products that
are generated by geographic information systems.
Inherent error is the error present in source
documents and data.
Operational error is the amount of error produced
through the data capture and manipulation functions of
a GIS.
Possible sources of operational errors include:
- mislabelling of areas on thematic maps;
- misplacement of horizontal (positional) boundaries;
- human error in digitising
- classification error;.
- GIS algorithm inaccuracies; and
- human bias.
While error will always exist in any scientific
process, the aim within GIS processing should be to
identify existing error in data sources and minimize the
amount of error added during processing.
Because of cost constraints it is often more
appropriate to manage error than attempt to eliminate
it.
There is a trade-off between reducing the level of
error in a database and the cost to create and maintain
the database.
An awareness of the error status of different data
sets will allow us to make a subjective statement on the
quality and reliability of a product derived from GIS
processing.
D-06-05.doc
4.3 NEW ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES
The field of digital geographic data processing is
now over two decades old.
Over the past several years, it has grown
dramatically, not only in terms of the numbers of
individuals involved and in terms of the variety of
applications addressed, but also in terms of the
sophistication of the applications addressed.
The field has not reached its maturity; it is yet in a
developing stage.
New capabilities are discovered, more attention is
being paint in this technology and heightened
expectations can be faced.
4.3.1 Web-based GIS
Internet is revolutionising the way we do business
by delivering compelling technologies that answer real
needs.
Over the last one-decade business models have
changed with the influence of Internet/Intranet.
Clearly, the GIS industry also recognized this
revolution and is now actively involved in its design.
For a technology like GIS which requires multi-
disciplinary expertise a distributed model like the
internet are the ideal tools for providing end-user
specific application without having to have a data set
on the client machine.
The geographic data, which is so scare and
expansive, can be shared across different users to
arrive at many business goals.
Efforts are made to:
- simplify the implementation and
- provide useful tools for carrying out mission critical
application.
These efforts will support applications for:
- reducing operating expenses,
- increasing productivity and
- dramatically improving customer satisfaction and
retention.
GIS professionals worldwide are becoming
increasingly aware of Web-based solutions for GIS.
Clearly, the GIS industry has recognized this
revolution and is actively involved in its design, despite
the added complexity introduced by managing spatial
database; databases that are both delicate and, by any
definition, massive.
This effort is characterized in part by the Open GIS
Consortium's Web Mapping Test Bed.
The reward for these efforts is expected to be a
well-designed architecture that delivers efficient and
powerful usage of computing infrastructures. (JERE A.)
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4.3.2 Distributed Systems
While no computing environment has been entirely
eliminated (mainframe and workstation computing is
still active), the industry has seen the introduction and
rapid adoption of desktop and now distributed models.
Distributed computing is a generic term that includes
other terms like Internet, Intranet, Extranet, the Web,
net-work-centric, and more.
Regardless of the terminology, the growing trend is
to distribute computing services across a physical
infrastructure of networked data storage devices and
computer processors.
The newer environment includes both two and three
tier model where the physical locations of the data
storage and application processing are not on the same
machine (or in the same country) as each other or the
client interface.
This migration from a workstation or desktop's one-
tier solution to a component and transaction-based
model is reshaping the future of GIS. (JERE A.)
A distributed system for multi-risk management is
being developed currently in the context of MEDIGRID
EU project.
The under development MEDIGRID system is a
European Computational and Data Management Grid
for Supporting Risk Management of Natural Disasters.
MEDIGRID aims to provide a modern multi-risk
assessment platform for sharing distributed data and
using risk assessment models.
The project will encourage developing distributed
and modular applications that can run over the Internet,
based on Web Services, for supporting the prevention
of natural disasters.
Forest fires, floods, soil erosion and landslides are
the addressed risks.
D-06-05.doc
4.4 SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
4.4.1 Computing field
Much of the recent advancement in the field of
geographic data processing can be attributed to more
general trends in the broader field of computing.
As we move from the processing of numbers to
words and to pictures (such as maps), certain patterns
in this evolution are perceptible; perhaps most notably
a shift from highly centralized computing to more
decentralized but still highly integrated networks.
The general trend of GIS development seems to
indicate that it will continue to become:
- easier to use
- more intuitive
- more analytic
- more embedded within a variety of technologies
While the de facto operating system standard has
been UNIX in the past, the Windows NT/2000/XP
operating system is emerging as a serious and robust
alternative.
Thus, standard office computing environment within
an organization can be integrated with the GIS
environment of a sophisticated DSS without major
technical and financial difficulties.
This trend is closely associated with the
development of 32-bit microcomputers;
SQL (Standard Query Language) has become the
standard interface for all relational DBMS;
The ability to customize user interfaces and
functionality through Application Programming
Interfaces (API) and macro languages.
Thus, the major development in GIS technology
over the past five years has been
- the ability to customize the GIS for specific
analytical and user-interface related needs,
- the development of GIS modules for mobile devices
is also quite new; a few number of GIS packages
have already included software modules for mobile
devices running under Windows CE and other
analogous operating systems,
- the development of the WEB-based functionality of
the GISs.
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4.4.2 Interesting functions These techniques are primarily concerned with the
proximity of one feature to another.
In combination with the above developments and
Usually proximity is defined as the ability to identify
trends in the GIS technology some GIS functions which
any feature that is near any other feature based on
where not widely used and exploited for analytical
location, attribute value, or a specific distance.
purposes within forest fire related DSSs, can now been
A simple example is identifying all the forest stands
tested, used and incorporated in future DSS in order to
that are within 100 m of a gravel road, but not
provide valuable tools for analyses in specific fire
necessarily adjacent to it.
related fields.
Proximity analysis can be performed in order to
GIS functions that are considered as interesting to
consider areas of influence, and ownership queries.
be used together with the classical ones for the future
Proximity to roads and fire infrastructure is typically
development of more sophisticated DSSs, in addition
important for pre-suppression planning as well.
with the classically used ones, are the following:
4.4.2.3 3D analysis & visualization
4.4.2.1 Network analysis
As technology advances, modern GIS packages
Network analysis is a widely used analysis
provide powerful tools and modules for 3D modelling
technique in several GIS based applications but have
which can be used to create lifelike models of areas of
not been often used until now in the Forest Fire related
interest.
Information Systems and tools.
3D functionality of GIS provide methods for:
Network analysis techniques can be characterized
- viewing multiple layers of 3D data
by their use of feature networks.
- visualising data - Allows the users to overlay images
Feature networks are almost entirely comprised of
or vector data over surfaces (ie DEMs) and extrude
linear features.
(the use of ‘z’ values to give 2D objects height or
Hydrographic hierarchies and transportation
depth) vector features from a surface to create lines,
networks are prime examples.
walls, and solids.
Two examples of network analysis techniques are:
- creating surfaces - the user can interpolate raster
- the allocation of values to selected features within
surfaces and create or add features to TIN surfaces.
the network to determine capacity zones, and
- analysing surfaces – allows the users to interactively
- the determination of shortest path between
query the values in a raster surface and the
connected points or nodes within the network based
elevation, slope, and aspect of TINs.
on attribute values.
In the WUI areas where natural vegetation intermix
This is often referred to as route optimisation.
with houses, 3D visualization of the area can be proved
Attribute values may be as simple as minimal
a valuable tool which helps gain a better understanding
distance or more complex involving a model using
of how the various spatial elements (trees, houses,
several attributes defining rate of flow, impedance, and
roads) are arranged and interact to each other.
cost.
The 3D resultant maps optimise the ability to view
Network analyses can be used in the forest fire
the proximity between elements (eg buildings and
management and more specifically on the Wildland-
vegetation), not just the distance between the two
Urban Interface management domain for providing
objects, as 2D maps.
solutions on emergency evacuation planning,
The resultant scenes have the potential to give an
landscape planning etc.
insight into the interaction between these bodies during
4.4.2.2 Proximity analysis a fire event.
Proximity analysis functions consist of a group of Such applications have the future potential for the
functions, which belong to the Connectivity Functions creation of visual simulation modelling for fire events as
that where described in more detail above in this report. well.
Further development has the potential to lead to a
Proximity analysis techniques were not often used in model landscape with accurate vegetation for building
the existing forest fire related DSSs but can be proved proportions plus wind and vegetation combustibility
valuable in the future development of DSSs, which will
parameters, thus creating a practical visual aid to fire
incorporate a wide range of analytical capabilities in prevention for example in an urban/rural-wildland
specific domains that were not considered until now as intermix environment (VARELA et al.2004)
part of a DSS. (eg WUI management, post-fire
restoration etc.

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6 DATA SETS FOR TESTING DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (DSS) AND TOOLS : “TEST BEDS”
The meaning of “test beds” was defined as “data
sets on which existing or future DSS and tools can be
tested”.
The data sets documented in the following pages:
- were provided voluntarily by the organizations
participating in the EUFIRELAB project, on a
standardized form, and
- are intended to help future developers of DSS
systems to test parts of their systems for which
these datasets are appropriate.
Accordingly, the data set documentation forms
provide this type of information. When in doubt,
interested scientists may contact the persons who
own the data set since this information is provided.
D-06-05.doc
Data set short titles:
- Temperature profiles over experimental fires in a wind
tunnel
- Early fire alarms for dispatching
- Small scale laboratory propagating fires
- Sub-models for heat transfer and pressure drop inside
pine needles fuel beds
- Fire spread characteristics and parameters– Mt.
Mainalon, August 2000
- Fire spread characteristics and parameters– Mt.
Penteli 1995
- Digital maps of burned areas from selected study sites
within the Euromediterranean Region
- Data set short title: Human wildfire risk estimation
maps at regional scale using anthropogenic variables
38
EUFIRELAB

6.1 TEMPERATURE PROFILES OVER EXPERIMENTAL FIRES IN A WIND TUNNEL

Contact information for data set owner:

Contact Person: Dr. Gavriil Xanthopoulos
National Agricultural Research Foundation
Organization: Institute of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems and Forest Products
Technology
Address: Terma Alkmanos, 11528, Athens, Greece
Phone: ++30 210 7793142
Fax: ++30 210 7784602
E-mail address: gxnrtc@fria.gr

Dr. Gavriil Xanthopoulos

Contributor of information (Name and National Agricultural Research Foundation
organization): Institute of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems and Forest Products
Technology
E-mail address: gxnrtc@fria.gr
Records and analysis of temperature profiles above experimental
Short description of data set (up to 50 fires in forest fuel beds in a wind tunnel, monitored at 4 different
words): heights (50-170 cm) with type K thermocouples having a 0.127 mm
diameter.
Country: U.S.A.
Area (city or location): Missoula, Montana
Date/Time period of the data: 1987-1989
Keywords (5 max): Temperature profile, forest fire, crown fire

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction X
(including dispatching)
Other (explain)
Fire effects assessment and mitigation ___________________________

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner) X

Other (explain)
Private (available at some cost) ___________________________

Personal support availability for using the data set. (please

Yes X No
check using 2):

D-06-05.doc 39
EUFIRELAB

Type of data (please check using 2):

Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) X Database format
Spatial database (GIS)
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system)
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation X
Good documentation Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it was
created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

This data set was created through a series of experimental burns in the wind tunnel of the Forest Fire Laboratory of
the USDA Forest Service in Missoula, Montana. These experiments were part of the Ph.D. study of Dr. G.
Xanthopoulos, and are documented in his Ph.D. dissertation:
Xanthopoulos, G. 1990. Development of a wildland crown fire initiation model. Ph.D. Dissertation. Univ. of
Montana, MT, USA. 152 p.
The experiments and the resulting wildland crown fire initiation model are also described briefly in:
Xanthopoulos, G., and R. H. Wakimoto. 1991. Development of a wildland crown fire initiation model. pp. 281-
287. In proceedings of the 11th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, April 16-19, 1991,
Missoula, Montana. Andrews, P.L., and D. F. Potts, editors. Society of American Foresters, Bethesda, MD,
USA. 616 p.
The work was carried out in the 1988-1989 period. The data set consists of 1032 temperature traces obtained
during 65 experimental burns by thermocouples positioned at four different heights above the top of the fuel (50,
90, 130, 170 cm). The thermocouples were type K (chromel-alumel) with a diameter of 0.127 mm (0.005”). The
sampling frequency was 2 temperature measurements per second. The fuels used were ponderosa pine (Pinus
ponderosa) needles, western white pine (Pinus monticola) needles, excelsior (Populus spp.) shavings and square
wooden (ponderosa pine) sticks in three different sizes: 0.3175 cm (1/8-inch), 0.6350 cm (1/4-inch) and 1.270 cm
(1/2-inch).
A table with summary descriptions of all the burns (fuel type, fuel bed depth, fuel moisture, wind speed) is included
in the dissertation. A file in ASCII or EXCEL format (available upon request) includes the fuel and environment
variables for each burn, fire behaviour observations, estimates for the burns based on BEHAVE system
calculations, and temperature data for the burn (maximum temperature reached, as well as time above which the
temperature remained for a specified length of time, where time ranges from 0.5 s to 40 s). Furthermore, the
original thermocouple traces may become available upon request.

D-06-05.doc 40
EUFIRELAB

6.2 EARLY FIRE ALARMS FOR DISPATCHING

Contact information for data set owner:

Contact Person: Dr. Frederique Giroud
Organization: CEREN
Domaine de Valabre
Address:
13120 Gardanne, France
Phone: +33-4-4260_8690
Fax:
E-mail address: f.giroud@wanadoo.fr

Dr. Begona C. Arrue, Dr. Aníbal Ollero, Dr. J. Ramiro Martinez de Dios.
Grupo de Robótica, Visión y Control.
Contributor of information (Name Dpto. Ingeniería de Sistemas y Automática.
and organization): Escuela Superior de Ingenieros
Universidad de Sevilla (EUFIRELAB partner P007)
E-mail address: barrue@cartuja.us.es, aollero@cartuja.us.es, jdedios@cartuja.us.es
Records of newly detected fires, with associated information (visual fire
images, meteorological conditions, characteristics of the terrain, etc.) with
Short description of data set (up to
associated expert assessment of fire danger index (fire potential) for each
50 words):
case. Developed for testing software tool for the deployment of the
appropriate fire fighting means for the initial attack.
Country: France
Area (city or location): Marseille
Date/Time period of the data: Summer 2004
Keywords (5 max): Fire detection, dispatching

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction X
(including dispatching)
Other (explain) ___________________
Fire effects assessment and mitigation

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner) X

Other (explain) ____________

Private (available at some cost)

Personal support availability for using the data set. (please

Yes No
check using 2):

D-06-05.doc 41
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Type of data (please check using 2):

Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) X Database format
Spatial database (GIS)
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system) X
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation
Good documentation Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it was
created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

This data set was developed in the frame of the SPREAD (Forest fire spread prevention and mitigation) project
(2002-2005) that was funded by the European Commission, V Framework Programme, Energy, Environment and
Sustainable Development, Contract Nº EVG1-CT-2001-00043.
The team of the Universidad de Sevilla (EUFIRELAB Partner P007) developed, in the frame of SPREAD, a
software tool based on data set provided by CEREN, France, (EUFIRELAB Partner P017) that computes a danger
index in support of initial attack.
This system receives as inputs information such as the visual image of the fire, meteorological conditions and
characteristics of the terrain were the fire was detected. The system was trained with data from real fires and was
validated with real fires.
The fuzzy systems of the /IAFS/ were evaluated with real early fire alarms provided by CEREN. The following
information was available for each alarm: hour, date and watchtower of the detection, visual images of the smoke
plume, estimations of smoke colour and speed of development, type of vegetation of the area and its accessibility
and other data. By means of images and the data, CEREN’s fire fighting experts provided a value of fire danger
index for each case.
The system receives as inputs information of visual fire images, meteorological conditions and characteristics of
the terrain were the fire was detected. The output (assessment) is provided by CEREN’s fire fighting experts. The
potential danger is used for the deployment of the appropriate fire fighting means for the initial attack. The sets of
alarms (inputs & outputs) constitute the “test bed”, the data set described here, and was provided by CEREN.
The number of cases in the data set reaches 30. The data set can be obtained from the team of CEREN who are
the owners of the data.
Furthermore, the team of the Universidad de Sevilla has visual images as sets of inputs and information about
them (rate of spread, flame geometry, smoke column, etc), and terrain information (GESTOSA Experiments in
Portugal), but they do not have associated danger assessments (output) that, in the original data set, were
provided by CEREN’s fire fighting experts.

D-06-05.doc 42
EUFIRELAB

6.3 SMALL SCALE LABORATORY PROPAGATING FIRES

Contact information for data set owner:

Contact Person: Prof. José Miguel C Mendes-Lopes
Instituto Superior Técnico
Organization:
Mechanical Engineering Department
Av. Rovisco Pais
Address: P-1049-001 LISBOA
PORTUGAL
Phone: + 351 218 417 364
Fax: + 351 218 417 365
E-mail address: mendeslopes@ist.utl.pt

Prof. José Miguel C Mendes-Lopes, Prof. João M P Ventura

Contributor of information (Name and Instituto Superior Técnico
organization): Mechanical Engineering Department
mendeslopes@ist.utl.pt
E-mail address:
ventura@ist.utl.pt

Short description of data set (up to 50 Records and analysis of temperature profiles and flame
words): characteristics of propagating flames in forest fuel beds

Country: Portugal
Area (city or location): Lisbon
Date/Time period of the data: 1992 - 2006
Forest fuel bed flame propagation
Keywords (5 max):
Geometric flame characteristics

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction X
(including dispatching)
Other (explain)
Fire effects assessment and mitigation ___________________________

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet X
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner) X

Other (explain)
Private (available at some cost) ___________________________

Personal support availability for using the data set. (please

Yes No
check using 2):

D-06-05.doc 43
EUFIRELAB

Type of data (please check using 2):

Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) X Database format
Spatial database (GIS)
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system) X
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation
Good documentation Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it was
created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

This data set was developed in the frame of EU supported projects, mainly: EFAISTOS ENV4 CT96 0299 (1996-
99), Fire Star EVG1-CT-2001-00041 (2002-2004), and EUFIRELAB EVR1-CT-2002-40028 (2003 2006).

An extensive set of experiments was carried out in order to collect data to validate fire propagation models being
developed in the context of European research projects. The experiments were performed in a dedicated wind
tunnel with a burning tray (2.0mx0.70m working section), where wind velocity, fuel moisture content and slope were
varied to study fire propagation in beds of Pinus pinaster needles.

All the runs were videotaped and, from the recordings, information on flame geometry (i.e. flame height, flame
length and flame angle) and rate of spread was obtained. Temperature measurements were also carried out by a
small tower of 6 thermocouples at different heights above the fuel bed. Correlations between temperature and
other indicators of fire behaviour (namely the rate of spread) are presented. Results are discussed and compared.

Similar but less extensive experiments were also carried out in beds of Pinus halepensis. A qualitative analysis is
presented, and quantitative results are compared with those for Pinus pinaster.

The results obtained provide a good database for the assessment of fire propagation models.

The results for Pinus pinaster can be found in:

MENDES-LOPES J M C, VENTURA J M P, and AMARAL J M P: “Flame characteristics, temperature-time curves, and

rate of spread in fires propagating in a bed of Pinus pinaster needles”, Int. J. Wildland Fire, Vol. 12, N. 1, pp.
67 84, 2003

Results for Pinus halepensis can be found in:

MENDES-LOPES J M C, and VENTURA J M P: “Flame characteristics in fires propagating in beds of Pinus halepensis
needles”, 5th Int. Conf. Forest Fire Research, Figueira da Foz, Coimbra, 27-30 November 2006

D-06-05.doc 44
EUFIRELAB

6.4 SUB-MODELS FOR HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP INSIDE PINE NEEDLES FUEL BEDS

Contact information for data set owner:

Prof. João M P Ventura
Contact Person:
Instituto Superior Técnico
Organization: Mechanical Engineering Department
Av. Rovisco Pais
Address: P-1049-001 LISBOA
PORTUGAL
+ 351 218 417 400
Phone:
+ 351 218 417 398
Fax:
ventura@ist.utl.pt
E-mail address:

Prof. João M P Ventura, and Prof. José Miguel C Mendes-Lopes

Contributor of information (Name and Instituto Superior Técnico
organization): Mechanical Engineering Department
ventura@ist.utl.pt
E-mail address:
mendeslopes@ist.utl.pt
Records and analysis of local heat transfer and pressure drop inside
Short description of data set (up to 50
pine needles fuel beds. Derivation of semi-empirical laws that
words):
characterize these phenomena.
Country: Portugal
Area (city or location): Lisbon
Date/Time period of the data: 2002 - 2006
Heat transfer inside fuel beds
Keywords (5 max):
Pressure drop inside fuel beds

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction X
(including dispatching)
Other (explain)
Fire effects assessment and mitigation ___________________________

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet X
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner) X

Other (explain)
Private (available at some cost) ___________________________

Personal support availability for using the data set. (please

Yes No
check using 2):

D-06-05.doc 45
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Type of data (please check using 2):

Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) X Database format
Spatial database (GIS)
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system) X
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation
Good documentation Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it
was created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

This data set was developed in the frame of EU supported projects, mainly: Fire Star EVG1-CT-2001-00041
(2002-2004) and EUFIRELAB EVR1-CT-2002-40028 (2003-2006).

The fuel bed is a porous medium where a flow of gas is established during the fire propagation. Therefore, there
is a pressure drop inside the fuel bed. The temperatures of the gas and of the fuel bed are not the same,
especially in the vicinity of the flame. Therefore, heat transfer occurs. These flow restriction and exchange of
energy play an important role in the supply of air to the reaction zone, in the heating (or cooling) of the fuel bed,
in the decrease of fuel moisture content and in its pyrolysis.

Modelling of the flame front propagation, energy release, temperature reached, and other parameters related to
the physics of the fire itself, has emerged as one of the most promising tools to understand and deal with the
problem of forest fire propagation. The so-called physical models solve the set of conservation equations (mass,
momentum, and energy), using several sub-models that deal with a number of phenomena. Pressure drop and
heat transfer inside the fuel bed are two of these sub-models.

In Southern Europe, forest fire is a major problem in pine tree stands, where the fuel bed contains mainly pine
needles. There is no data for pressure drop nor heat transfer between a gas and a matrix of pine needles.
Therefore, the sub-models that have been used are based on the data available for packed beds used in
chemical engineering. However, these beds are much more compact than a pine needles fuel bed, and the
geometry of their elements is quite different. Therefore, the need arises to develop a sub-model for conditions
similar to those of the forest fuel bed.

An experimental device was set-up to obtain the convective heat transfer coefficient h in a matrix of Pinus
pinaster needles that reproduces the forest fuel bed. It consisted of a rectangular duct, connected to the exit of a
small wind tunnel. The first section of the duct accommodated a set of electrical resistances to provide hot air to
the second section, which was packed with the pine needles. The second section was instrumented with
thermocouples. All thermocouples were located in the axis of the duct, and the first one was located at the
entrance of the second section. Five pressure taps were placed on the bottom wall of the working section,
equally spaced along its length, and connected to a micro manometer through a manifold. In this way, values of
pressure drop along the duct have been obtained. Assuming a random distribution of the needles inside the
duct, and using average values of needle dimensions, a frontal area could be calculated and a drag coefficient
obtained in the usual way.

Pressure drop experiments were carried out in steady conditions for flows at different temperatures (equal for
both air and needles). However, experiments of heat transfer had to be carried in unsteady conditions, where
hot air heated the needles, initially at room temperature. The convective heat transfer coefficient h was obtained
from an energy balance during the transient period when hot air flew through the cold needles matrix.

D-06-05.doc 46
EUFIRELAB

The results for pressure drop can be found in:

VENTURA J M P, MENDES-LOPES J M C, and SANTOS C F P: “Experimental determination of pressure drop through

a bed of pine needles”, 4th Int. Conf. Forest Fire Research / 2002 Wildland Fire Safety Summit, Luso,
November 2002, Viegas (ed.), 2002 Millpress (Rotterdam)

The results for heat transfer can be found in:

MENDES-LOPES J M C, VENTURA J M P, and RODRIGUES J A M: “Determination of heat transfer coefficient through

a matrix of Pinus pinaster needles”, 4th Int. Conf. Forest Fire Research / 2002 Wildland Fire Safety Summit,
Luso, November 2002, Viegas (ed.), 2002 Millpress (Rotterdam)

D-06-05.doc 47
EUFIRELAB

6.5 FIRE SPREAD CHARACTERISTICS & PARAMETERS– MT. MAINALON, AUGUST 2000

Contact information for data set owner:

Contact Person: Vassiliki Varela or George Eftichidis
Organization: ALGOSYSTEMS S.A
Address: Syygrou 206 Kallithea Athens, Greece
Phone: + 30 210-9548000
Fax: +30 210-9548099
E-mail address: vvarela@algosystems.gr, geftihid@algosystems.gr

Vassiliki Varela
Contributor of information (Name and
Applied Research dept.
organization):
ALGOSYSTEMS S.A. Athens, Greece
E-mail address: vvarela@algosystems.gr
Real fire spread characteristics & parameters measured and
Short description of data set (up to 50 collected during the fire occurred in Mt..Mainalon in August 2000.
words): The data set can be used for the testing & validation of fire
behaviour prediction models and fire simulators.
Country: Greece
Area (city or location): Mt. Mainalon , Peloponessos
Date/Time period of the data: August 2000
Keywords (5 max): Fire behaviour prediction, fire simulation, validation

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction X
(including dispatching)
Other (explain) :___________________
Fire effects assessment and mitigation

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner) X

Other (explain) :
X
Private (available at some cost) The basic spatial data (eg. Topography, fuels
(only for basic
etc for the geographical area are available at
spatial data)
some cost)
Personal support availability for using the data set. (please
Yes X No
check using 2):

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Type of data (please check using 2):

Txt, &
Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) X Database format
shp files
The basic spatial data are
Spatial database (GIS) X available in GRID-ASCII (Arc-Info)
format
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system)
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation
Good documentation X Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it was
created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

The real fire data of the fire occurred in August 2000 in Mt. Mainalon was collected for the validation purposes of
FMIS (Fire Management Information System) that has been developed by ALGOSYSTEMS S.A.
The available fire data-set includes information about the ignition point and time, detailed fire-step contours, spot
fires and weather conditions during the fire.
In addition, the basic spatial data layers (fuels, topography) were created for the geographical area of Mt. Mainalon,
in order to use them for the fire simulation purposes, which are available at some cost.
The data as well as the FMIS validation results have been presented during technical meetings of European and
national fire management related projects.

D-06-05.doc 49
EUFIRELAB

6.6 FIRE SPREAD CHARACTERISTICS & PARAMETERS– MT. PENTELI 1995

Contact information for data set owner:

Contact Person: Vassiliki Varela or George Eftichidis
Organization: ALGOSYSTEMS S.A
Address: Syygrou 206 Kallithea Athens, Greece
Phone: + 30 210-9548000
Fax: +30 210-9548099
E-mail address: vvarela@algosystems.gr, geftihid@algosystems.gr

Vassiliki Varela
Contributor of information (Name and Applied Research dept.
organization): ALGOSYSTEMS S.A. Athens, Greece
E-mail address: vvarela@algosystems.gr
Data set short title: Fire spread characteristics & parameters– Mt. Penteli 1995
Real fire spread characteristics & parameters measured and
Short description of data set (up to 50 collected during the fire occurred in Mt.Penteli in July 1995. The
words): data set can be used for the testing & validation of fire behaviour
prediction models and fire simulators.
Country: Greece
Area (city or location): Attika, Mt. Penteli
Date/Time period of the data: July 1995
Keywords (5 max): Fire behaviour prediction, fire simulation, validation

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction X
(including dispatching)
Other (explain)
Fire effects assessment and mitigation ___________________________

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet X
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner)

X Other (explain)

Private (available at some cost) (only for The basic spatial data (eg. Topography, fuels
basic spatial etc for the geographical area are available at
data) some cost)
Personal support availability for using the data set. (please
Yes X No
check using 2):

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EUFIRELAB

Type of data (please check using 2):

Txt, &
Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) X Database format
shp files
The basic spatial data are
Spatial database (GIS) X available in GRID-ASCII (Arc-Info)
format
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system)
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation
Good documentation X Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it was
created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

The real fire data of the fire occurred in July 1995 in Mt. Penteli was collected for the validation purposes of FMIS
(Fire Management Information System) which has been developed by ALGOSYSTEMS S.A.
The available fire data-set includes information about the ignition point and time, detailed fire-step contours and
weather conditions during the fire.
In addition, the basic spatial data layers (fuels, topography) were created for the geographical area of Mt. Penteli,
in order to use them for the fire simulation purposes, which are available at some cost.
The data as well as the FMIS validation results have been presented in one conference and during technical
meetings of European and national fire management related projects.

D-06-05.doc 51
EUFIRELAB

6.7 DIGITAL MAPS OF BURNED AREAS FROM SELECTED STUDY SITES WITHIN THE
EUROMEDITERRANEAN REGION

Contact information for data set owner:

Contact Person: Dr. M. Pilar Martín Isabel
Organization: Instituto de Economía y Geografía (IEG)
Pinar 25
Address: 28006 Madrid Spain
Phone: +34 914111098
Fax: +34 915 625 567
E-mail address: mpilar.martin@ieg.csic.es

Dr. Pilar Martín Isabel, Israel Gómez Nieto

Instituto de Economía y Geografía (IEG)
Contributor of information (Name and Institute of Economics and Geography
organization): Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)
Spanish Council for Scientific Research
(EUFIRELAB partner P30)
mpilar.martin@ieg.csic.es
E-mail address: Israel@ieg.csic.es

Burned area maps for Spain and Portugal have been produced
Short description of data set (up to 50
using coarse resolution sensors: NOAA-AVHRR and TERRA-
words):
MODIS. Period 2001-2003.
Country: Spain, Portugal
Area (city or location): Spain, Portugal
Date/Time period of the data: 2001-2003
Keywords (5 max): Burned area, regional scale, satellite images

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction
(including dispatching)
Other (explain)
Fire effects assessment and mitigation x ___________________________

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet X
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner)

Other (explain) ____________________

Private (available at some cost)

Personal support availability for using the data set. (please

Yes No x
check using 2):

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Type of data (please check using 2):

Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) Database format
Spatial database (GIS) x
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system)
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation
Good documentation x Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it was
created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

The data set was generated in the framework of the Spread “FOREST FIRE SPREAD
PREVENTION AND MITIGATION” An EC research project co-funded by the Energy, Environment and Sustainable
Development Programme within RTD activities of a generic nature, Topic Fight against major natural and
technological hazards (Forest Fires). Contract number EVG1-CT-2001-00043.
Burned area maps for selected Euromediterranean countries (Spain and Portugal) were produced using coarse
resolution sensors: NOAA-AVHRR and TERRA-MODIS. Those maps cover the period 2001-2003 and provide the
delimitation of fire perimeters and quantification of area affected.
All the maps were included in digital format in a CDRom. They were homogenized into a common software-specific
format: ARC-Gis Shape, using also a common UTM projection. The files were properly documented including
metadata with basic information on data identification, spatial data organization, attribute description etc. Graphic
formats (Tif and Jpg of the final maps were also included in the CDRom to facilitate the visualization to those who
are not familiar with the ArcGis format. A report included in the CDRom describes the different process applied to
produce the maps, including a brief description of the data used, methodologies and results.

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6.8 HUMAN WILDFIRE RISK ESTIMATION MAPS AT REGIONAL SCALE USING ANTHROPOGENIC
VARIABLES

Contact information for data set owner:

Contact Person: Dr. Javier Martínez Vega
Organization: Instituto de Economía y Geografía (IEG)
Pinar 25
Address: 28006 Madrid Spain
Phone: +34 914111098
Fax: +34 915 625 567
E-mail address: vega@ieg.csic.es

Dr. Pilar Martín Isabel, Dr. Javier Martínez Vega, Lara Vilar del
Hoyo
Instituto de Economía y Geografía (IEG)
Contributor of information (Name and Institute of Economics and Geography
organization): Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)
Spanish Council for Scientific Research
(EUFIRELAB partner P30)
mpilar.martin@ieg.csic.es
E-mail address: vega@ieg.csic.es
lvilar@ieg.csic.es
Predictive models have been applied combined in a GIS
Short description of data set (up to 50 environment a spatial set of socio-economic variables to produce
words): human wildfire risk estimation maps at regional scale (1 Km2
resolution).
Country: Spain
Area (city or location): Madrid region
Date/Time period of the data: 2005-2006
Keywords (5 max): Anthropogenic, fire risk, models, spatial database, regional scale

Category of DSS for which the data set is appropriate (please check using 2):

Presuppression planning Forest fire risk assessment x

Fire danger assessment Fire detection
Operational fire suppression
Fire behaviour prediction
(including dispatching)
Other (explain) ____________________
Fire effects assessment and mitigation

Data set availability (please check using 2):

Published in a scientific journal or
Public domain / Internet X
stand-alone publication

Published in an (accessible) report Private (needs contact with owner) X

Other (explain) _____________________

Private (available at some cost)

Personal support availability for using the data set. (please

Yes No x
check using 2):

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Type of data (please check using 2):

Alphanumeric (text, spreadsheet) Database format
Spatial database (GIS) x
Image (ex: photo from fire detection system)
Documentation level (please check using 2):
No documentation Basic documentation
Good documentation x Excellent documentation

Extended data set description (including relevant information such as history of data set, project for which it was
created, original objective, when and how it was created, data description (variables, sample size, format,
limitations), previous uses of the data, publication citation, etc.) (maximum 1000 words):

This data set has been developed in the frame of the FIREMAP project (“Integrated Analyse of wildfire risk with
remote sensing and GIS techniques” (reference CGL2004-06049-C04-02), from 2004 to 2007.
The general aim of the project was to obtain an integrated fire risk index for operational fire managers that
contains danger and vulnerability, and that can be provided in real time.
The main activity of EURFIRELAB partner P30 (Institute of Economics and Geography) in that project was to
develop specific human risk models that could be integrate in the final risk index in order to include the human
activity in the estimation of the fire ignition. The first objective of this work was to identify significant variables than
can be used to predict the human ignition risk in Spain. The second one is to propose a human caused fire
occurrence prediction model, with a long-term scope at regional level.
To reach this objective, it has been developed a spatial database using GIS techniques at 1 km resolution. To
generate this database first the human risk factors has been defined. For each human factor one or several
anthropogenic variables have been identified and obtained from different sources (cartographical and statistical).
All the anthropogenic variables have been transformed into spatial variables.
Logistic regression models have been used to estimate the probability of human fire occurrence. The model is
constructed by exploring relationships between the density of human caused fires during a period of 14 years
(dependent variable) and 22 socio-economic variables (independent ones) for the Madrid region. The model
predicts properly the probability of each spatial unit have a high or low incidence of man-caused fires and provides
a idea of the relative importance of each human factor in the explaining ignition.
Final map for Madrid region and a brief description of the methods used to generate the data can be accessed in
http://www.geogra.uah.es/firemap/

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