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Extended Essay

Approaching the Riemann Hypothesis


with Quantum Chaotic Systems
Proving that All Non-Trivial Zeros of the Zeta Function
Lie on the Real part 𝜎 = 0.5 by Creating the Perfect
Quantum Chaotic System

Candidate:
000480 034

Word Count:
3806

Session:
May 09/10

Physics

1
ABSTRACT
The Riemann hypothesis has remained as the greatest mystery in the study of mathematics for

the past 150 years. Hundreds of theorems in analytical number theory depend on the fact that the

Riemann hypothesis is true, the greatest mathematicians of the past 150 years have made little

progress towards the solution, and most importantly, the Riemann hypothesis holds the guide to the

most elusive, yet fundamental entities in the world of numbers, prime numbers.

The Riemann hypothesis remained a purely mathematical question until it was realized that

the Montgomery pair correlation conjecture (the formula for equating the spacing between each

critical zero of the zeta function) was exactly the same as that of the formula for generating the spacing

between energy levels within quantum chaotic systems. This essay explores how and why the Riemann

hypothesis can/should be solved by finding the Hamiltonian matrix which will produce the perfect

quantum system whose energy levels are congruent to that of the zeros of the zeta function.

In section one, the Riemann hypothesis is introduced from the definition of the zeta function to

the Riemannian landscape of the nature of the non-trivial zeros along the critical line.

In section two, the values of the zeros of the zeta function are cross referenced to the energy

levels of 68Er166 with the zeros of the zeta function, introducing the link between the Riemann

hypothesis and physics. A discussion is made regarding the steps needed to solve the Riemann

hypothesis by searching for a congruent quantum system.

In section three, the conclusion is made that the Riemann hypothesis could potentially be

solved through quantum mechanics. The implications that this discovery will have on previous existing

and potential problems in analytical number theory and quantum physics and its impact on the social

and scientific world are discussed.

2
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Section 1: a Mission to Uncover the Mystery Behind Prime Numbers and Background Knowledge on the
Riemann Hypothesis. ............................................................................................................................................................... 4
Prime Numbers: The Building Block of Numbers ...................................................................................................... 4
Research Question................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Origin of Primes .................................................................................................................................................................... 5
The Zeta function and the Euler product..................................................................................................................... 6
The Gauss Estimate of the Density of Primes.............................................................................................................. 7
The Critical Zero Line and Its Critical Zeroes ............................................................................................................. 9
Section 2: Understanding Quantum Physics, Making Sense of Randomness of Subatomic Physics ........... 12
Coincidence or Key ............................................................................................................................................................ 12
Introduction: Quantum Mechanics .............................................................................................................................. 12
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and Hamiltonian Matrices ........................................................................ 13
Section 3: Math and Physics, The Random Connection and Approaching the Riemann Hypothesis
Through Hamiltonian Matrices.......................................................................................................................................... 16
Math and Physics Go Hand in Hand ............................................................................................................................. 16
Data Evaluation ................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Skeptics and Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 18
Appendix .................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Prime Numbers ................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Proof of Euler Product ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
First 100 Zeros of the Zeta Function ............................................................................................................................ 21
Works Cited ............................................................................................................................................................................... 22

3
SECTION 1: A MISSION TO UNCOVER THE MYSTERY BEHIND PRIME NUMBERS AND

BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE ON THE RIEMANN HYPOTHESIS.

PRIME NUMBERS: THE BUILDING BLOCK OF NUMBERS

For the students of mathematics and physics, the study of prime numbers has little

significance in relation to the vast collection of formulas and equations which are used to send rockets

to distant planets or to build exquisite bridges. Prime numbers are visited very early in a student’s

career and for most; knowing how to factor numbers is the greatest role they will play in their lives.

However, this is not because prime numbers are insignificant, but it is rather the opposite. Similar to all

other disciplines of science, the fundamental building blocks are the hardest to understand. Even

though Gregor Mendel discovered the phenomenon of recessive and dominant genes hundreds of years

ago, presently, biologists have a hard time explaining why this happens at the molecular level. When

Isaac Newton presented the world with his revolutionary ideas of the existence of gravity, physicists

nowadays are at a loss to explain why it exists. Likewise, prime numbers, the essential elements which

build every non-prime number, are one of the hardest concepts to grasp in mathematics.

Amongst the many mysteries which shroud prime numbers, the greatest would be that of the

distribution of the primes. The closest that mathematics have gotten to understanding the nature of

the distribution of prime numbers, is with the Riemann hypothesis. Since its discovery, the Riemann’s

hypothesis itself has been chaotic and disorderly, at least to what the human mind can see. There were

no apparent patterns even though this mathematical occurrence was intended to find exactly that

within prime numbers. As a result, with thousands of brilliant young mathematicians with their eyes

on the 1 million dollar prize and fame that would be awarded to the one who proves this hypothesis,

their feeble attempts were as close as they could get. Instead, the recent advancements regarding the

Riemann hypothesis come as a result of discoveries made in the field of quantum physics. Since it has

4
been realized that the zeroes of the critical line of the Riemann zeta function behave the same as

energy levels, solving the Riemann hypothesis seems to be plausible purely through the study of

quantum mechanics.

RESEARCH QUESTION

As the relationship between the Riemann hypothesis and the world of quantum chaotic

systems have been confirmed, one could ask the question: “How can the Riemann hypothesis be

potentially solved by using quantum mechanics and what significance will the relationship between

energy levels of quantum chaotic systems and the zeros of the zeta function play in quantum physics?”

ORIGIN OF PRIMES

The Riemann hypothesis is as the H.M. Edwards 1puts it: “the most celebrated problem in

mathematics” and having been unsolved after 150 years of trials with the greatest mathematical minds,

it is arguably the most difficult as well. To summarize, the Riemann hypothesis attempts to explain the

seemingly random behavior of prime numbers2 by explaining their origins. The hypothesis revolves

around the zeros of zeta function and to understand the meaning of the term “zeroes of the ζ function”,

some introductory knowledge about the Riemann hypothesis is needed and this can be done by first

analyzing what the Riemann hypothesis derives from: the zeta function.

1
Harold M. Edwards, Emeritus Professor at New York University and author of Riemann’s Zeta Function
2
Further analyzed in the appendix

5
THE ZETA FUNCTION AND THE EULER PRODUCT

The zeta function is a very simple function which is the infinite sum of the reciprocals of all

natural numbers put to the exponent s, where s is the domain of the function (also known as the

harmonic series). This worked for any real numbers greater than 1 and it is expressed:


1 1 1 1 1 1
𝜁 𝑠 = = + + + + ⋯ +
𝑛𝑠 1𝑠 2𝑠 3𝑠 4𝑠 𝑛𝑠
𝑛=1

This function by itself is a very simple function and when it is graphed on the x and y plane, it

is shown in a graph which looks like:

Figure 1: Harmonic function on the x,y axis3

The connection which this zeta function has to primes was first introduced by Euler, as he

changed the equation to the Euler product4:

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝜁 𝑠 = −𝑠
= −𝑠
× −𝑠
× −𝑠
× −𝑠
× …×
1−𝑝 1−2 1−3 1−5 1−7 (1 − 𝑝−𝑠 )
𝑝 prime

This is proved in the appendix, but the Euler product is only the beginning of the importance that the

zeta function has on prime numbers as the Riemann hypothesis is based on the zeros of this function in

the imaginary plane, which will be expanded on later on.

3
Graphed by D. Jeong
4
For all real numbers, s >1

6
THE GAUSS ESTIMATE OF THE DENSITY OF PRIMES

So far, the only way to calculate the number of primes between the range 1 to n (the density of

primes), would be to iterate through each natural number and check if it is a prime. However, a very

close approximation of the number of prime numbers given a sample population could be made by the

application of the logarithmic function. This guess has an approximate 3% percentage error and was

derived by the young and gifted Gauss from the formula:

1
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 ′ 𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
ln 𝑛

Since this was a mere approximation and no proof could be given for something which is

partially true, this was far from being perfect. Unlike the facts derived from the scientific method, even

if the data proved some sort of relationship were to exist, mathematicians needed solid proofs to

acknowledge something as a truth. However, it was a sufficient start and it was widely acknowledged

that the next step that was needed to be taken was to come up with a way to make this original guess

into a working formula. As seen in figure below, the smooth function which is Gauss’ guess, had to be

matched up with the ragged staircase of the actual prime numbers.

Figure 2: Gauss' guess compared to the actual prime staircase5

It was the zeta function mentioned beforehand that proved to be the key to making the original

function into the staircase of primes. How the zeta function fixed Gauss’ conjecture is similar to how an

5
Graphed by M. du Sautoy

7
orchestra functions. Gauss’ original conjecture acts as a single note, held throughout the song and each

one of Riemann’s “instruments” created from his zeta function act as the supporting instruments. Each

adding its own unique feature to the original note and hence creating the music that one can

appreciate.

The way that the zeta function alters the original conjecture is similar to the nature of other

“harmonics” as the analogy alludes to. The zeta function is not directly added to the natural log

function, but it alters said conjecture through adding various sinusoidal curves “generated” by the

function. As seen in the progression of diagrams 6below, as the number of the added harmonics

increases, so does the proximity of Gauss’ guess to the prime staircase. Eventually, if an infinite number

of these harmonics were added, the prime staircase could be replicated exactly, step by step.

6
Sautoy, Marcus du. Music of the Primes. 2009.

8
THE CRITICAL ZERO LINE AND ITS CRITICAL ZEROES

The sinusoidal curves that are generated by the function are unique because they are not

functions that are seen day to day. In everyday life, a function is a relationship between two different

values. For example, in chemistry, the rate of a first degree reaction is a linear function where the

increase in the concentration of reactants results in the direct correlation in the concentration of the

product. However, the for Riemannian harmonics to arise, this type of relationship could not be used

because as seen in figure 1, this entailed the zeta function to have only one identity, which was not a

harmonic at all. Instead, Riemann implemented the idea of complex numbers7 into the zeta function. As

a result, the function now lay on three dimensions, two in the real and one in the imaginary. The

resulting graph, which is also referred to as the Riemann’s zeta landscape 8looked like, where the three

axis are the x-axis, y-axis, and the imaginary axis:

7
A complex number consists of a real part and an imaginary part. Complex numbers are usually denoted as: a+bi
where a is the value of the real portion of the complex number, b the imaginary portion and i is the imaginary
unit which makes b the imaginary portion of the complex number.
8
T. Majláth,” Java Implementation of Riemann’s Zeta Function”

9
Figure 3: The Riemannian landscape of the zeta function in imaginary space

The astounding discovery 9 lay in the fact that the non-trivial zeroes 10 of this function, where

the ripple seems to reach a trough/fold (as shown by the red dots), seemed to lay all on the line where

the real part is 0.5 or otherwise known as the Riemann critical strip/line. If this phenomenon had a

greater purpose (which would come with a proof that all of these non-trivial zeros did lie on this strip)

and was not trivial, then this would prove that every harmonic which was generated by this function

would have the same magnitude. This meant that, no harmonic overshadowed the other and the

pattern which lay behind the primes was indeed quite random, as many different patterns contributed

1
to the major pattern of prime numbers, but was a measurable deviation from the line ln 𝑛 . It was an

order within the chaos, but as incomprehensible as it may seem, it was a way for us to find the reason

and the cause behind the randomness of the distribution of primes.

The critical zeroes lay on the line on a horizontal axis and exited at various seemingly random

points. The first 20 values 11of the critical zeroes lay on the values:

9
Published by Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), “On the Number of Primes Less than a Given Magnitude” (1860)
10
There are trivial zeros of the function where the function is in the negative of the imaginary part, but these are
of little significance as they are merely a part of the nature of the function
11
Table provided by A. Odlyzko, “Tables of Zeros of the Riemann Zeta Function”

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14.134725142 37.586178159

21.022039639 40.918719012

25.010857580 43.327073281

30.424876126 48.005150881

32.935061588 49.773832478

So far, this list of critical zeroes seem to be the only list of zeroes as the first 1022 zeroes 12of the

1
zeta function seem to lie on the real part = 2. Where scientists would find this recurrence of 1022 zeros

on the critical line more than sufficient data to come up with conclusion, mathematicians cannot

accept this as a truth until a solid proof is found. The hypothesis that all the zeroes of the zeta function

1
lies on the critical line at real part = is more commonly known as the Riemann hypothesis and the
2

only solution would be a proof of this conjecture. The conjecture is exactly as the following:

All the non-trivial zeros of 𝜁 𝑠 lie on the vertical line 𝜎 = 0.5.13

As a result, many computers are being dedicated to calculating the zeroes of the zeta function in a

nervous search for the zero which does not lie on the critical line. Nervous because hundreds of

theorems in the field of analytic number theory start off with the statement: “Assuming the Riemann

hypothesis is true: ”.

12
A. Odlyzko and M. Berry (continuation to first 100 values in Appendix)
13
Riemann Hypothesis, G.F.B. Riemann (1860)

11
SECTION 2: UNDERSTANDING QUANTUM PHYSICS, MAKING SENSE OF RANDOMNESS OF

SUBATOMIC PHYSICS

COINCIDENCE OR KEY

It was not until a chance meeting between a physicist turned mathematician, Hugh

Montgomery and pure mathematics enthusiast turned particle physicist, Freeman Dyson, that the

Riemann hypothesis was introduced into the world of physics. After Montgomery had given a lecture

on his recent advancements on the pair correlation of the zeroes of the Riemann’s zeta function 14, his

fellow professor Dyson, pointed out that his formula was the same as the formula for determining the

spacing between energy levels in quantum chaotic systems. With or without exaggeration, the

relationship was still breathtaking. Because of this chance meeting, the Riemann hypothesis gained a

whole new dimension as the zeroes of the critical strip acted just like the electrons distributed

randomly within the energy levels of atoms as outlined by the random matrix theory and proven

through trial. Although it started off as a mere curiosity, due to the recent advancements in the

Riemann hypothesis in the field of quantum physics, it seems as though the Riemann hypothesis could

be solved through analyzing the behavior of electrons specified by the wave theory.

INTRODUCTION: QUANTUM MECHANICS

When the laws of physics attempted to explain the behavior of particles at the subatomic level,

physicists realized that their current model was inapplicable to the behavior of subatomic particles. As

a result, the study of physics was divided into two: quantum physics (the study of entities at the

subatomic model) and the classical physics (the study of entities everywhere else). Whereas classical

physics was relatively straight forward and could be easily portrayed by mathematics, quantum physics

14
A statistical analysis of the differences or spacing between the zeros of the zeta function

12
was chaotic, literally. As Richard Feynman15 stated, “The more you think you know about quantum

mechanics, the less you actually do”.

The erratic and unpredictability of particles was first observed by the famous double slit

experiment. When photons experienced the features of both a wave and particle simultaneously, the

models given by classical physics deteriorated. As a result, the apparent failure of the classical

mechanics gave rise to quantum mechanics, a new model which attempted to study the laws of

particles at the subatomic level. However, as quantum physicists strived for more information and

insight into the sub-atomic world, more strangeness, uncertainty and properties of curiosity were

witnessed by the eyes of physicists.

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE AND HAMILTONIAN MATRICES

The previously mentioned double slit experiment was repeated with other particles, such as

the electron and eventually resulted in same three conclusions. First of all, a new physics was to be

needed to explain the behavior of matter at the subatomic level and hence quantum physics was

created. Secondly, it seemed that all subatomic particles experienced a particle-wave duality16. Thirdly,

that observing the particle would disturb the particle itself and alter the results. The third realization

gave rise to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle showed that it was impossible to measure the

position and the momentum of a particle at the same time. The more that was known about the

momentum of a particle, the less was known about the position of the particle and vice versa.

To describe this foreign behavior of uncertainty, quantum mechanics came up with various

theories and mathematical methods to calculating the position and momentum simultaneously; one of

these is the wave function, which could give the probability distribution of the possible states of the

15
Self depreciating humor as it is likely that he understood quantum mechanics more than anyone else
16
All energy and therefore matter experiences both properties of waves and particles

13
particle. This wave function would be implemented in a Hamiltonian matrix, which is a matrix with

infinite rows and columns storing data of the quantum system as it moves through time. Using these

Hamiltonian matrices, many pieces of information about the quantum mechanical system could be

calculated, including energy levels of chaotic quantum systems17.

Sample Energy Levels of 𝐸𝑟166 18 Corresponding Zeros of the zeta


function

80.57 n/a
265.0 n/a
545.4 n/a
911.2 911.234951486
859.9 n/a
956.4 n/a
1075.4 n/a
1216.3 n/a
1376.2 n/a
1556.1 n/a
1666.5 n/a
1693.0 1693.053020930
1787.3 n/a
1828.1 n/a

As opposed to classical systems where an object can exist at various distances from another

object, the locations of electrons are quantized into certain regions called energy levels. These levels

are typically quantified by spectroscopy and it was from a spectroscopy lab which resulted in the

realization that the energy levels of larger atoms, such as erbium, matched that of the zero of the zeta

function. These results were consistent with other quantum chaotic systems present in heavier atoms

such as U122 and Y96. However, certain energy levels of certain elements exhibited resemblances with

certain zeros of the zeta function. Instead, other specific quantum systems, held the match some

certain zeros and this is where physicists used Hamiltonian matrices to find the combination of

17
Quantum system of an atom bigger than hydrogen
18
Results are only up to 0.1 because of research limitations (Phsyics Review Online Archive protects their
journals), but are confirmed in Stalking the Riemann Hypothesis pg. 222

14
nucleons which would allow the energy levels to correspond with the other zeros, yet to be matched

up.

The goal would be to find a Hamiltonian matrix which describes a chaotic quantum system

whose energy levels, which are the eigenvalues 19 of these matrices, include every single zero of the

zeta function to infinity. However, this may or may not exist, but if it does, this specific quantum

system would definitely have to have no T-symmetry 20 which allows the system to continuously

mutate, which keep generating different eigenvalues which correspond to the zeros of the zeta

function. This quantum chaotic system then could be studied by the laws of quantum mechanics to

shed light upon the Riemann hypothesis from a tangible front, which may just be the crucial link to the

solution to the hypothesis.

19
A matrix X by X, is associated with a polynomial to the power of X, and the X number of roots of the polynomial
are the eigenvalues of the matrix. For a Hamiltonian, which has the dimensions of infinity by infinity (Hilbert
space), there are infinite eigenvalues.
20
Time-reversal symmetry: “the observable universe itself does not show symmetry under time reversal,
primarily due to the second law of thermodynamics.” - Wikipedia

15
SECTION 3: MATH AND PHYSICS, THE RANDOM CONNECTION AND APPROACHING THE RIEMANN

HYPOTHESIS THROUGH HAMILTONIAN MATRICES

MATH AND PHYSICS GO HAND IN HAND

While the relationship between mathematics and physics has been one sided so far (with

mathematics giving physics the tools needed to advance), if the breakthrough or even a solution upon

the greatest problem in mathematics could come from the order within the chaos which exists in

quantum mechanics, physics could be revolutionized as a tool to solve problems within other subjects.

The elusiveness of quantum mechanics still has yet to be understood perfectly and having a link

between pure mathematics and quantum mechanics can also work towards solving problems within

quantum mechanics with the use of analytic number theory as well.

Having the explicit link between the zeros of the zeta function and the energy levels of

quantum chaotic systems will allow for many other problems involving the zeta function or energy

levels to become applicable to be approached and possibly solved by the application of the respective

fields, giving new insight to various fields regarding quantum physics. With a pure math approach to

quantum physics, crucial technologies depending on advancements in quantum mechanics could be

made much more efficient and sooner. One of the most prominent technologies is the field regarding

quantum computing, which would allow computers to run at 3n, instead of the present-day binary 2n

and would have a exponentially greater processing power and save gigaWatts of energy running and

cooling servers annually.

The Riemann hypothesis, if solved with a quantum chaotic system, would raise many more

questions in both analytic number theory and quantum mechanics such as: “how is it that the prime

numbers have such a balance of chaos and order?”, “why do the energy levels of a physical entity, an

atom, correspond with the law of primes?” and most importantly, “what will this link between primes

16
of number theory and energy levels of quantum mechanics reveal in both of the respective fields?”

Surely, the answers to these questions hold much promise and hope for both physics and mathematics

and it would definitely be much more exciting for the perfect Hamiltonian matrix to exist and the link

to be made, than a proof to be found purely from math.

DATA EVALUATION

The data regarding the energy levels of atoms was gathered from various lab trials from S.B.

Burton, P.F.A. Goudsmit, and J. Konjin in the Instituut voor Kernphysisch Onderzoek, in Holland. The

journal included the specification of the energy levels of 68Er166. Although the journal could not be held

accountable for every value of the excited states of erbium, 23 of these excited states were crossed

referenced with Stalking the Riemann Hypothesis: The Quest to Find the Hidden Law of Prime Numbers and the

matching energy levels were pointed out. These lab results are not entirely accurate as there are

uncertainties, especially in quantities which are as small as these and even with such respectable labs

such as the one located in Instituut voor Kernphysisch Onderzoek. However, for the purpose of the

comparison to the zeros, the exact value was not depended upon, but rather the relationship between

these values to the critical zeros, which are certain, only the uncertainties which exist for the

observations account for the uncertainty for the whole correlation. Also, these results can be backed up

by the mathematical approach to these energy levels, which have no uncertainty.

The data consulted in the essay are mostly of mathematical nature. Since a mathematic proof is

a reliable truth, the question regarding validity of these sources could be dismissed quite easily.

However, mathematical proofs at this difficult of math are known to be extremely complex and

extensive and commonly contain errors which disproves the proof later on. The proofs which lead up

to the Riemann hypothesis could be considered as accurate, reliable information as for over 150 years,

17
gifted mathematical minds from all the world have reviewed and confirmed these hypothesis, however

the more recent proofs, such as the pair correlation of the zeta zeros could be disproven any day.

SKEPTICS AND CONCLUSION

As the answer is being searched for in the world of quantum physics, there are doubts to

whether the question should now be approached from physics. Apart from the fact that throughout all

of history, physics has been the one to receive help from math, one could ask the question, rather than

being solved, is the question being replaced by a question of the same magnitude? It seems that the

only thing that this quantum system will do is come up with more zeroes, whereas a computer could do

the same thing. What significance does this quantum system serve towards solving the Riemann

hypothesis, other than being an elaborate coincidence? The answer may not be clear now, but the

chaos of Riemann’s harmonics seems to be of a nature and of intellectual complexity which does not

allow for mathematical analysis. Whereas mathematics can explain the unseen world through ways we

can understand, for the purpose of solving Riemann’s hypothesis, it seems that the world of subatomic

physics holds answers more accessible to the world.

18
APPENDIX

PRIME NUMBERS

By definition, prime numbers are numbers whose factors include only itself and 1. The first few

prime numbers include: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and 13. From this definition, various mathematicians have come

up with other features about prime numbers, some which we take granted. First of all, every natural

number, which itself is not a prime, can be written as a product of primes. This is also called unique

factorization and this theorem is true for all natural numbers. This is practiced very early on and is

called “finding prime factors” or “prime factorization”. For example, the number 50 has the prime

factors 2 and 5 as

2 × 5 × 5 = 50

Therefore, the statement that prime numbers are the building blocks of all other non-prime numbers

stays true to its word as in fact all number are indeed a product of a combination of various prime

numbers. Secondly, it can be assumed that there are an infinite number of prime numbers. This

conjecture was proved beautifully by Euclid in the times of the Ancient Greeks. He first assumed that

there was in fact a specific number of prime numbers which made up every possible natural number 2

and by the means of contradiction; he proved that adding one to the biggest number possible would

result in a new prime being needed to factor that number since all the ones before it are odd and

adding one to any of the primes would introduce an even and non-prime number.

PROOF OF EULER PRODUCT

By applying the law that all numbers are a product of prime numbers, as proven in the essay,

the zeta function can be written as a component of prime numbers. Hence, the zeta function can be

19
shown to have a deep and meaningful existence in explaining the fundamental theory behind prime

numbers.

1
Both sides are multiplied by 2𝑠 :

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑠
𝜁 𝑠 = 𝑠 + 𝑠 + + 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑠
2 2 4 6 8 𝑛

That product is then subtracted by the original zeta function:

1 1 1 1 1
𝜁 𝑠 = 𝑠
+ 𝑠 + 𝑠 + 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑠
1 2 3 4 𝑛

By subtracting the second from the first, the equation, all the factors of 2 which existed in the first

equation was removed and redefined outside the function:

1 1 1 1 1 1
1− 𝑠
𝜁 𝑠 = 1 + 𝑠 + 𝑠 + 𝑠 + 𝑠 + ⋯+ 𝑠
2 3 5 7 9 𝑛

Then this same subtracting process can be repeated for all natural numbers, until all the numbers have

been redefined on the other side of the equation. When all numbers of the infinite sum have been

subtracted by it the corresponding modification to the zeta function, the equation becomes all the

natural numbers expressed through the use of prime numbers:

1 1 1 1 1 1
1− 1− 1− 1− 1− … 1− 𝜁 𝑠 = 1
2𝑠 3𝑠 5𝑠 7𝑠 11 𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠

Then, it is simplified giving arise to the celebrated connection between this zeta function and prime

numbers, also named the Euler product:

1
𝜁 𝑠 =
1 1 1 1 1
1 − 2𝑠 1 − 3𝑠 1− 𝑠 1 − 7𝑠 1 − 11𝑠 …
5

20
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝜁 𝑠 = −𝑠
= −𝑠
× −𝑠
× −𝑠
× −𝑠
× …×
1−𝑝 1−2 1−3 1−5 1−7 (1 − 𝑝−𝑠 )
𝑝 prime

FIRST 100 ZEROS OF THE ZETA FUNCTION

14.134725142 107.168611184 173.411536520 231.250188700


21.022039639 111.029535543 174.754191523 231.987235253
25.010857580 111.874659177 176.441434298 233.693404179
30.424876126 114.320220915 178.377407776 236.524229666
32.935061588 116.226680321 179.916484020
37.586178159 118.790782866 182.207078484
40.918719012 121.370125002 184.874467848
43.327073281 122.946829294 185.598783678
48.005150881 124.256818554 187.228922584
49.773832478 127.516683880 189.416158656
52.970321478 129.578704200 192.026656361
56.446247697 131.087688531 193.079726604
59.347044003 133.497737203 195.265396680
60.831778525 134.756509753 196.876481841
65.112544048 138.116042055 198.015309676
67.079810529 139.736208952 201.264751944
69.546401711 141.123707404 202.493594514
72.067157674 143.111845808 204.189671803
75.704690699 146.000982487 205.394697202
77.144840069 147.422765343 207.906258888
79.337375020 150.053520421 209.576509717
82.910380854 150.925257612 211.690862595
84.735492981 153.024693811 213.347919360
87.425274613 156.112909294 214.547044783
88.809111208 157.597591818 216.169538508
92.491899271 158.849988171 219.067596349
94.651344041 161.188964138 220.714918839
95.870634228 163.030709687 221.430705555
98.831194218 165.537069188 224.007000255
101.317851006 167.184439978 224.983324670
103.725538040 169.094515416 227.421444280
105.446623052 169.911976479 229.337413306

21
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