Root-knot nematode

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Meloidogyne)
Jump to: navigation, search
This Tree of Life article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard
of quality. This may include adding a taxonomy box or adding correct
categorization, as well as any other cleaning up.
See Wikipedia:How to edit a page and Category:Wikipedia help for help, or this article's talk page.

Root-knot nematode

Larva of root-knot nematode,

Meloidogyne incognita, magnified
500X, shown here penetrating a
tomato root
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Secernentea
Order: Tylenchida
Family: Meloidogynidae
Genus: Meloidogyne
Göldi, 1889
Species
Meloidogyne hapla
Meloidogyne incognita
Meloidogyne enterolobii syn.
M. mayaguensis
...

Root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne. They exist in
soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants are susceptible to infection by
root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5% of global crop loss (Sasser and Carter,
1985). Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing the development of root-knot galls
that drain the plant's photosynthate and nutrients. Infection of young plants may be lethal, while
infection of mature plants causes decreased yield.

Root-knot galls
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are one of the three most economically damaging
genera of plant-parasitic nematodes on horticultural and field crops. Root knot nematodes are
distributed worldwide, and are obligate parasites of the roots of thousands of plant species,
including monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous herbaceous and woody plants. The genus
includes more than 60 species, with some species having several races. Four Meloidogyne
species (M. javanica, M. arenaria, M. incognita, M. hapla) are major pests worldwide with
another seven important on a local basis (Eisenback and Triantaphyllou, 1991). Meloidogyne
occurs in 23 of 43 crops listed as having plant-parasitic nematodes of major importance, ranging
from field crops, through pasture and grasses, to horticultural, ornamental and vegetable crops
(Stirling et al., 1992). If root-knot nematodes become established in deep-rooted perennial crops,
control is difficult and options are limited. Vegetable crops grown in warm climates can
experience severe losses from root-knot nematodes, and are often routinely treated with a
chemical nematicide. Root-knot nematode damage results in poor growth, a decline in quality
and yield of the crop and reduced resistance to other stresses (e.g. drought, other diseases). A
high level of root-knot nematode damage can lead to total crop loss. Nematode-damaged roots
do not use water and fertilisers as effectively, leading to additional losses for the grower.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 The root-knot nematode life cycle
• 2 Reproduction
• 3 Species
• 4 References
• 5 External links

[edit] The root-knot nematode life cycle

All nematodes pass through an embryonic stage, four juvenile stages (J1 - J4) and an adult stage.
Juvenile Meloidogynes hatch from eggs as vermiform second stage juveniles (J2), the first moult
having occurred within the egg. Newly-hatched juveniles have a short free-living stage in the
soil, in the rhizosphere of the host plant. They may reinvade the host plant of their parent or
migrate through the soil to find a new host root (Fig 1.1). J2 larvae do not feed during the free
living stage, but use lipids stored in the gut (Eisenback and Triantaphyllou, 1991). An excellent
model system for the study of the parasitic behaviour of plant-parasitic nematodes has been
developed using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model host (Sijmonds, et al., 1991). The Arabidopsis
roots are initially small and transparent, enabling every detail to be seen. Invasion and migration
in the root was studied using M. incognita (Wyss et al., 1992). Briefly, second stage juveniles
invade in the root elongation region and migrate in the root until they became sedentary. Signals
from the J2 promote parenchyma cells near the head of the J2 to become multi-nucleate (Hussey
and Grundler, 1998) to form feeding cells, generally known as giant cells, from which the J2 and
later the adults feed (Sijmons et al. , 1994). Concomitant with giant cell formation, the
surrounding root tissue gives rise to a gall in which the developing juvenile is embedded (Fig.
1.2ii). Juveniles first feed from the giant cells about 24 hours after becoming sedentary. After
further feeding, the J2 undergo morphological changes and become saccate (Fig. 1.2iii). Without
further feeding, they moult three times and eventually become adults. In females, which are close
to spherical (Figs. 1.2i and 2.1i), feeding resumes and the reproductive system develops
(Eisenbach and Triantaphyllou, 1991). The life span of an adult female may extend to three
months and many hundreds of eggs can be produced. Females can continue egg laying after
harvest of aerial parts of the plant (Fig. 1.2i) and the survival stage between crops is generally
within the egg. The length of the life cycle is temperature dependent (Madulu and Trudgill,
1994; Trudgill, 1995). The relationship between rate of development and temperature is linear
over much of the root-knot nematode life cycle, though it is possible that component stages of
the life cycle, e.g. egg development, host root invasion or growth, have slightly different optima.
Species within the Meloidogyne genus also have different temperature optima. In M. javanica,
development occurs between 13 and 34 C, with optimal development at about 29 C.
Gelatinous matrix of root-knot nematodes Root-knot nematode females lay eggs into a
gelatinous matrix (GM), which is produced by six rectal glands and secreted before and during
egg laying (Maggenti and Allen, 1960). The matrix initially forms a canal through the outer
layers of root tissue and later surrounds the eggs, providing a barrier to water loss by maintaining
a high moisture level around the eggs (Wallace, 1968). As the gelatinous matrix ages, it becomes
tanned, turning from a sticky colourless jelly to an orange-brown substance which appears
layered (Bird, 1958).
Egg formation and development Egg formation in M. javanica has been studied in detail
(McClure and Bird, 1976) and is similar to egg formation in the well studied free-living
nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (Wood, 1988). Embryogenesis has also been studied, and the
stages of development are easily identifiable with a phase contrast microscope following
preparation of an egg mass squash. The egg is formed as one cell, with two-cell, four cell and
eight cell stages recognisable. Further cell division leads to the tadpole stage, with further
elongation resulting in the first stage juvenile, which is roughly four times as long as the egg.
The J1 stage of C. elegans has 558 cells, and it is likely that the J1 of M. javanica has a similar
number, since all nematodes are morphologically and anatomically similar (Wood, 1988). The
egg shell has three layers, with the vitelline layer outermost, then a chitinous layer and a lipid
layer innermost.
Egg hatching Preceded by induced changes in eggshell permeability,[disambiguation needed] hatching
may involve physical and/or enzymatic processes in plant-parasitic nematodes (Norton and
Niblack, 1991). Cyst nematodes such as Globodera rostochiensis may require a specific signal
from the root exudates of the host to trigger hatching. Root-knot nematodes are generally
unaffected by the presence of a host but hatch freely at the appropriate temperature when water is
available. However, in an egg mass or cyst, not all eggs will hatch when the conditions are
optimal for their particular species, leaving some eggs to hatch at a later date. Ammonium ions
have been shown to inhibit hatching and to reduce plant-penetration ability of M. incognita
juveniles that do hatch (Surdiman and Webster, 1995).
[edit] Reproduction
The genus root-knot nematodes exhibit a range of reproductive modes including sexuality
(amphimixis), facultative sexuality, meiotic parthenogenesis (automixis) and mitotic
parthenogenesis (apomixis).

This is a relatively new phylum; first observed in 1928, with the first published description
species have been described so far, but more await description. The worms are tiny, usua
and are found in sand which is rich in organic detritus. They live in the spaces between th
they graze on fungi and bacteria. They move through their environment by beating their
striking feature of these worms is that they have jaws and a muscular pharynx, see Gnat
jenneri on the right which is found in water up to several hundred metres deep.
ParisPages

VietnamPages Stonehaven, Scotland (C) Copyright 1997 – 2010

Gnathostomulids, or jaw worms, are a small phylum of nearly microscopic marine animals.
They inhabit sand and mud beneath shallow coastal waters and can survive in relatively anoxic
environments. They were first recognised and described in 1956.[1]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Anatomy
• 2 Reproduction
• 3 Taxonomy
• 4 References

[edit] Anatomy
Most gnathostomulids measure 0.5 to 1 millimetre (0.020 to 0.039 in) in length. They are slender
to thread-like worms, with a transparent body. The neck region is slightly narrower than the rest
of the body, giving them a distinct head.[2]
Like flatworms they have a ciliated epidermis, but are unique in having but one cilium per cell.[3]
The cilia allow the worms to glide along in the water between sand grains, although they also
have muscles that allow the body to twist or contract.
They have no body cavity, and no circulatory or respiratory system. The nervous system is very
simple, and restricted to the outer layers of the body wall. The only sense organs are modified
cilia, which are especially common in the head region.[2]
The mouth is located just behind the head, on the underside of the body. It has a pair of muscular
jaws supplied with minute teeth, and a plate on the lower surface that bears a comb-like structure
which they use to scrape smaller organisms off of the grains of sand that make up their anoxic
seabed mud habitat.[4] This bilaterally symmetrical pharynx with its complex cuticular mouth
parts make them appear closely related to rotifers and their allies, together making up the
Gnathifera. The mouth opens into a blind-ending tube in which digestion takes places; there is no
anus.[2]
[edit] Reproduction
Gnathostomulids are simultaneous hermaphrodites. Each individual possesses a single ovary and
one or two testes. After fertilization, the single egg ruptures through the body wall and adheres to
nearby sand particles; the parent is able to rapidly heal the resulting wound. The egg hatches into
a miniature version of the adult, without a larval stage.[2]
[edit] Taxonomy
There are approximately 100 described species and certainly many more as yet undescribed.[citation
needed]
The known species are grouped in two orders. The filospermoids are very long and are
characterized by an elongate rostrum. The bursovaginoids have paired sensory organs and are
characterized by the presence of a penis and a sperm-storage organ called a bursa.[4]
Gnathostomulids have no fossil record.

Tomopteris
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Tomopteris
Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Annelida

Class: Polychaeta

Order: Aciculata

Tomopteridae
Family:
Johnston, 1865

Tomopteris
Genus: Eschscholtz,
1825[1]

Species

Tomopteris elegans
Tomopteris helgolandica
Tomopteris pacifica
Tomopteris planctonis
Tomopteris nisseni
Tomopteris renata
Tomopteris cavalli
Tomopteris septentrionalis
Steenstrup

Tomopteris (Neo-Latin from Greek meaning "a cut" + "wing" but taken to mean "fin")[2] is a
genus of marine planktonic polychaete. If disturbed, some species are known to make a flurry of
glowing sparks erupt from their parapodia. One species, Tomopteris nisseni, is one of the few
marine creatures with yellow bioluminescence.[3]
[edit] References
1. ^ ITIS Standard Report Page: Tomopteris
2. ^ Definition: tomopteris from Online Medical Dictionary
3. ^ Tomopteris picture

This annelid-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia

by expanding it.
v • d • e

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomopteris"

Categories: Polychaetes | Annelid stubs

Hidden categories: Articles with 'species' microformats

Personal tools
• Log in / create account

Namespaces
• Article
• Discussion

Variants

Views
• Read
• Edit
• View history

Actions

Search
Top of Form
Special:Search

Bottom of Form

Navigation
• Main page
• Contents
• Featured content
• Current events
• Random article
• Donate

Interaction
• Help
• About Wikipedia
• Community portal
• Recent changes
• Contact Wikipedia
Toolbox
• What links here
• Related changes
• Upload file
• Special pages
• Permanent link
• Cite this page

Print/export
• Create a book
• Download as PDF
• Printable version

Languages
• 日本語
• This page was last modified on 13 October 2010 at 00:10.
• Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a
non-profit organization.
• Contact us

Earthworm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"The Earthworm" redirects here. For other uses, see Earthworm (disambiguation).
Earthworms

Lumbricus terrestris, the Common

Earthworm
 Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Annelida
Class: Clitellata
Order: Haplotaxida
Suborder: Lumbricina
Families
Acanthodrilidae
Ailoscolidae
Alluroididae
Almidae (disputed)
Criodrilidae
Eudrilidae
Exxidae
Glossoscolecidae
Hormogastridae
Lumbricidae
Lutodrilidae
Megascolecidae
Microchaetidae
Ocnerodrilidae
Octochaetidae
Sparganophilidae

Earthworm is the common name for the largest members of Oligochaeta (which is either a class
or subclass depending on the author) in the phylum Annelida. In classical systems they were
placed in the order Opisthopora, on the basis of the male pores opening posterior to the female
pores, even though the internal male segments are anterior to the female. Theoretical cladistic
studies have placed them instead in the suborder Lumbricina of the order Haplotaxida, but this
may again soon change. Folk names for the earthworm include "dew-worm", "Rainworm",
"night crawler" and "angleworm" (due to its use as fishing bait). This is an excellent fish bait for
all anglers.
Earthworms are also called megadriles (or big worms), as opposed to the microdriles (or small
worms) in the families Tubificidae, Lumbriculidae, and Enchytraeidae, among others. The
megadriles are characterized by having a distinct clitellum (which is much more obvious than the
single-layered one of the microdriles) and a vascular system with true capillaries.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Anatomy
• 2 Reproduction
• 3 Regeneration
• 4 Behavior
○ 4.1 Rainstorms and "Stranding" Behavior
 • 5 Locomotion and importance to soil
• 6 Benefits
• 7 Earthworms as invasive species
○ 7.1 Australia
○ 7.2 North America
○ 7.3 United Kingdom
• 8 Special habitats
• 9 Ecology
• 10 Economic impact
• 11 Taxonomy and distribution
• 12 See also
• 13 References
• 14 Further reading
• 15 External links

[edit] Anatomy
The basic body plan of an earthworm is a tube, the digestive system, within a tube, the muscular
slimy, moist outer body. The body is annular, formed of segments that are most specialized in
the anterior. Earthworms have a simple closed circulatory system. They have two main blood
vessels that extend through the length of their body: a ventral blood vessel which leads the blood
to the posterior end, and a dorsal blood vessel which leads to the anterior end. The dorsal vessel
is contractile and pumps blood forward, where it is pumped into the ventral vessel by a series of
"hearts" (aortic arches) which vary in number in the different taxa. The blood is distributed from
the ventral vessel into capillaries on the body wall and other organs and into a vascular sinus in
the gut wall, where gases and nutrients are exchanged. This arrangement may be complicated in
the various groups by suboesophageal, supraoesophageal, parietal and neural vessels, but the
basic arrangement holds in all earthworms. Most earthworms are decomposers feeding on
undecayed leaf and other plant matter, others are more geophagous.
[edit] Reproduction
This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality
standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (August 2010)
Earthworm reproduction
Earthworms are hermaphrodites: They typically have two pairs of testes, surrounded by 2 pairs
of testes sacs. There are 2 or 4 pairs of seminal vesicles which produce, store and release the
sperm via the male pores, and ovaries and ovipores in segment 13 that release eggs via female
pores on segment 14. However, most also have one or more pairs of spermathecae (depending on
the species) that are internal sacs which receive and store sperm from the other worm in
copulation. Some species use external spermatophores for transfer instead.

Earthworm cocoons
Copulation and reproduction are separate processes in earthworms. The mating pair overlap front
ends ventrally and each exchanges sperm with the other. The clitellum becomes very reddish to
pinkish in color. The cocoon, or egg case, is secreted by the clitellum band which is near the
front of the worm, but behind the spermathecae. Some time after copulation, long after the
worms have separated, the clitellum secretes the cocoon which forms a ring around the worm.
The worm then backs out of the ring, and as it does so, injects its own eggs and the other worm's
sperm into it. As the worm slips out, the ends of the cocoon seal to form a vaguely lemon-shaped
incubator (cocoon) in which the embryonic worms develop. They emerge as small, but fully
formed earthworms, except for a lack of the sex structures, which develop later in about 60 to 90
days. They attain full size in about one year, sometimes sooner. Scientists predict that the
average lifespan under field conditions is 4–8 years, still most garden varieties live only one to
two years. Several common earthworm species are mostly parthenogenetic, that is, with asexual
reproduction resulting in clones.
[edit] Regeneration
Earthworms have the ability to regenerate lost segments, but this ability varies between species
and depends on the extent of the damage. Stephenson (1930) devoted a chapter of his monograph
to this topic, while G.E. Gates spent 20 years studying regeneration in a variety of species, but
“because little interest was shown”, Gates (1972) only published a few of his findings that,
nevertheless, show it is theoretically possible to grow two whole worms from a bisected
specimen in certain species. Gates’s reports included:
• Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826) with head regeneration, in an anterior direction, possible
at each intersegmental level back to and including 23/24, while tails were regenerated at
any levels behind 20/21.[1]
• Lumbricus terrestris Linneus, 1758 replacing anterior segments from as far back as 13/14
and 16/17 but tail regeneration was never found.
 • Perionyx excavatus Perrier, 1872 readily regenerated lost parts of the body, in an anterior
direction from as far back as 17/18, and in a posterior direction as far forward as 20/21.
• Lampito mauritii Kinberg, 1867 with regeneration in anterior direction at all levels back
to 25/26 and tail regeneration from 30/31; head regeneration was sometimes believed to
be caused by internal amputation resulting from Sarcophaga sp. larval infestation.
• Criodrilus lacuum Hoffmeister, 1845 also has prodigious regenerative capacity with
‘head’ regeneration from as far back as 40/41.[2]
An unidentified Tasmanian earthworm shown growing a second head is reported here:.[3]

Hirudo medicinalis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Hirudo medicinalis

Conservation status

Near Threatened (IUCN 2.3) [1]

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Annelida
Class: Clitellata
Order: Hirudinida
Family: Hirudinidae
Genus: Hirudo
Species: H. medicinalis
Binomial name
Hirudo medicinalis
Linnaeus, 1758
Medicinal leeches are any of several species of leeches, but most commonly Hirudo
medicinalis, the European medicinal leech.
Other Hirudo species sometimes used as medicinal leeches include (but are not limited to)
Hirudo orientalis, Hirudo troctina and Hirudo verbana. The Mexican medical leech is
Hirudinaria manillensis, and the North American medical leech is Macrobdella decora.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Morphology
• 2 Range and ecology
• 3 Medicinal use
○ 3.1 In the past
○ 3.2 Today
• 4 See also
• 5 References
• 6 External links

[edit] Morphology
General morphology follows that of most other leeches. Fully mature adults can be up to 20 cm
in length and are green, brown or greenish brown with a darker tone on the dorsal side and a
lighter ventral side, the dorsal side also has a thin red stripe. These organisms have two suckers,
one at each end, called the anterior and posterior sucker. The posterior is mainly used for
leverage while the anterior sucker, consisting of the jaw and teeth, is where the feeding takes
place. Medicinal leeches have three jaws (tripartite) that look like little saws, and on them are
about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark which is an inverted Y
inside of a circle. After piercing the skin and injecting anti-coagulants (Hirudin) and anaesthetics
they suck out blood. Large adults can consume up to ten times their body weight in a single
meal, with 5-15 ml being the average volume taken.[2] These leeches can live for up to a year
between feeding.
Medicinal leeches are hermaphrodites which reproduce by sexual mating, laying eggs in clutches
of up to 50 near (but not under) water, and in shaded, humid places.
[edit] Range and ecology
Tonicella lineata
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Lined chiton
 Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Polyplacophora
Order: Neoloricata
Family: Ischnochitonidae
Genus: Tonicella
Species: T. lineata
Binomial name
Tonicella lineata
Wood, 1815
Synonyms
Tonicella blaneyi Dall, 1905

Tonicella lineata, commonly known as the lined chiton, is a species of chiton.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Size and description
• 2 Similar species
• 3 Distribution and habitat
• 4 Biology
• 5 References
• 6 External links

[edit] Size and description

T. lineata is a very colorful chiton, having blue, purple or black straight or zig-zag lines on each
of the eight valves. The background color of the valves is often brown or red, but can also be
bright blue or yellow to orange. The girdle is hairless and brown to red or pink, often with
regular yellow or white patches. This species grows to 5 cm in length.
[edit] Similar species
Tonicella lokii is extremely similar but has radiating bands on the girdle. Tonicella undocaerulea
is very similar but lacks a dark border to the concentric blue lines on the anterior plate. Mopalia
spectabilis looks superficially similar due to its bright blue wavy lines on the valves, but has a
hairy girdle.[1] It can also be confused with Tonicella insignis (Reeve, 1847) which retains the zig-
zag pattern in concentric rings on the first and eighth valves and also the lines are most often
white.[2]
[edit] Distribution and habitat
The natural range of T. lineata stretches from the Aluetian Islands of Alaska to San Miguel
Island of California, as well as the Sea of Okhotsk of Russia and northern Japan. This species has
also been found in Puget Sound, Washington on floats[3]. It has been recorded from intertidal and
subtidal waters to a depth of 30 m to 90 m (100 - 300 feet).[4][2]
[edit] Biology
T. lineata often occurs on rocks that are encrusted by coralline algae; presumably this is what
their coloration is intended to camouflage against. If knocked from its substrate, T. lineata will
contract into a ball in order to protect it's vulnerable ventral side, similar to many isopods.
Coralline algae are also the major food item of T. lineata. On the Oregon coast this species can
be found living under purple urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus). This species is predated
on by the sea stars Pisaster ochraceus and Leptasterias haxactis.[5] Animals out of water only
have about 73% the respiration of submerged animals, and likely incur an oxygen debt while out
of water that must be repaid once resubmerged.[6] When submerged, gas exchange occurs by
water flowing from the anterior portion of the chiton into the mantle cavity where the ctenidia
(gills) reside in the pallial grooves. This also takes care of waste produced as the water passes
over the anus after the ctenidia and carries away feces[7]

Helix pomatia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Roman snail

Helix pomatia

Scientific classification

Kingdom
Animalia
:

Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda

clade
Heterobranchia
informal group
(unranke Pulmonata
d): clade Eupulmonata
clade
Stylommatophora
informal group
Sigmurethra
Superfa
Helicoidea
mily:

Family: Helicidae

Subfamil
Helicinae
y:

Tribe: Helicini

Genus: Helix

Binomial name

Helix pomatia
Linnaeus, 1758[1]

Helix pomatia, common names the Burgundy snail, Roman snail, edible snail or escargot, is a
species of large, edible, air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the
family Helicidae.
This species is frequently farmed, and is called by the French name escargot when it is used in
cooking.
Cooked snails are called escargot

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Distribution
• 2 Description
• 3 Ecology
○ 3.1 Habitat
○ 3.2 Life cycle
• 4 Conservation
• 5 In popular culture
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links

[edit] Distribution

Distribution map of Helix pomatia shows European countries, where the species is
present.

Distribution of Helix pomatia include:

south-eastern and central Europe:[2]
• Germany - Listed as specially protected species in annex 1 in
Bundesartenschutzverordnung.
• Austria
 • Czech Republic - least concern species (LC). Its Conservation status in 2004-
2006 is favourable (FV) in report for European commission in accordance with
Habitats Directive.[3]
• Poland
• Slovakia
• Hungary[2]
• In south-western Bulgaria up to more than 1600 m.[2]
• north and central Balkans[2]
• Slovenia
• Republic of Macedonia[2]
western Europe:
• Great Britain: in the west and south England[2] southern areas on chalk. Its
common name in the UK is Roman snail as was introduced to the by the
Romans during the Roman period (AD 43-410). In England only (not the rest
of the UK) the Roman snail is a protected species under the Wildlife and
Countryside Act 1981, making it illegal to kill, injure, collect or sell them.[4]
• central France[2]
• Belgium
• Netherlands [5]

• Switzerland
northern Europe:
• Denmark - Listed as a protected species.[citation needed]
• south Sweden[2]
• Norway[2]
• Finland[2]
• In central and southern parts of Sweden, Norway and Finland, in isolated and
relatively small populations. It is not native to these countries but is likely to
have been imported by monks from Southern Europe during medieval times.
eastern Europe:
• Latvia
• Estonia[2]
• western Belarus[2]
• western Ukraine (Uzhgorod)[2]
• Moldavia[2]
• Russia: introduced to Moscow,[2] Kursk[2]
• Ukraine: introduced to Kyiv [2]

southern Europe:
• Italy - in northern Italy[2]
[edit] Description

apertural and abapertural view of the shell of Helix pomatia

Reproductive system of Helix pomatia

The shell is creamy white to light brownish, often with indistinct brown colour bands.[2] The shell
has 5-6 whorls.[2] The aperture is large.[2] The apertural margin is white and slightly reflected.[2]
The umbilicus is narrow and partly covered by the reflected columellar margin.[2]
The width of the shell is 30–50 mm.[2] The height of the shell is 30–45 mm.[2]
[edit] Ecology
[edit] Habitat
In south-eastern Europe Helix pomatia lives in forests and open habitats, gardens, vineyards,
especially along rivers, confined to calcareous substrate.[2] In central Europe in open forests and
shrubland on calcareous substrate.[2] It prefers high humidity and lower temperatures, needs loose
soil to burrow in order to hibernate and lay its eggs.[2] It lives up to 2100 m in the Alps, usually
below 2000 m.[2] In south England it is restricted to undisturbed grassy or bushy wastelands,
usually not in gardens, with a low reproduction rate and low powers of dispersal.[2]
[edit] Life cycle
Average distance of migration reaches 3.5–6 m.[2]
This snail is hermaphroditic. Reproduction is in central Europe from end of May onwards.[2]

Antalis vulgaris
From Wikispecies
Jump to: navigation, search

Antalis vulgaris
[edit] Taxonavigation
Main Page
Regnum: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Classis: Scaphopoda
Ordo: Dentaliida
Familia: Dentaliidae
Genus: Antalis
Species: Antalis vulgaris
[edit] Name
Antalis vulgaris (Da Costa, 1778)

Tusk shell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Tusk shells
Fossil range: Mississippian–
Recent[1][2]
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
 T
J
K
Pg
N

A shell of the scaphopod Antalis

vulgaris from France
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Scaphopoda
Bronn, 1862
Orders
Dentaliida
Gadilida
Seashell topics

About mollusc
shells
Clam shells
Chiton shells
Snail shells
Tusk shells

Conchology
Nacre
About other
seashells
Brachiopod
shells
 Crustacean
shells
Horseshoe crabs
Sea urchin tests
This box:
view • talk • edit

The tusk shells or scaphopods are a class of shelled marine mollusks. The scientific name of
this class is Scaphopoda, meaning "shovel-footed". Shells of species within this class range
from about 15 cm to about 5 mm in length. The Dentaliida are generally significantly larger than
the Gadilida.
These molluscs live on soft substrates offshore (usually not intertidally). Because of this subtidal
habitat and the small size of most species, many beachcombers are unfamiliar with them; their
shells are usually not nearly as common or as easily visible in the beach drift as the shells of sea
snails and clams.
Molecular data suggests that the scaphopods are a sister group to the cephalopods, although
higher-level molluscan phylogeny remains somewhat unresolved.[3]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Anatomy
• 2 Shell description
• 3 Habitat and distribution
• 4 Classification
• 5 Anatomy of the soft parts
• 6 Reproduction and development
• 7 The fossil record
• 8 Human use
• 9 References

[edit] Anatomy
[edit] Shell description
A fossil Dentalium shell from the Pliocene of Cyprus.
The aragonitic[4] shells of scaphopods are conical and curved in a planispiral way, and they are
usually whitish in color. Because of these characters, the shell somewhat resembles a miniature
elephant's tusk, hence the common name tusk shell. However, unlike an elephant's tusk, the
shells of these molluscs are hollow and open at both ends; the opening at the larger end is the
main or anterior aperture of the shell. The smaller opening is known as the apical aperture. Some
tusk shells are minute, and most are 4 to 6 centimetres (1.6 to 2.4 in) long; however, a few
species reach 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in length.
The scaphopod shell bears a prominent cross-lamellar layer,[5] and has a bioeroded tip.[5]
[edit] Habitat and distribution
Tusk shells live in the bottom sediment, where they feed on detritus, foramanifera and
microscopic animals.[6]
[edit] Classification
The group is composed of a two subtaxa, the Dentaliida (which may be paraphyletic) and the
monophyletic Gadilida.[1] The differences between the two orders is subtle and hinges on details
of the radula and shell.[6]
[edit] Anatomy of the soft parts
The mantle of a scaphopod is entirely within the shell. The foot extends from the larger end of
the shell, and is used to burrow through the substrate. The scaphopod positions itself head down
in the substrate, with the apical end of the shell (at the rear of the animal's body) projecting up
into the water.
Water enters the mantle cavity through the apical aperture, and is wafted along the body surface
by cilia. There are no gills; the entire surface of the mantle cavity absorbs oxygen from the
water. Unlike most other molluscs, there is no continuous flow of water with a separate exhalant
stream. Instead, dexoygenated water is expelled rapidly back through the apical aperture through
muscular action once every ten to twelve minutes.
A number of minute tentacles around the foot, called captacula, sift through the sediment and
latch onto bits of food, which they then convey to the mouth. The mouth has a grinding radula
that breaks the bit into smaller pieces for digestion. The remainder of the digestive system
consists of an oesophagus, stomach, and intestine. A digestive gland secretes enzymes into the
stomach, but, unlike some other molluscs, does not digest the food directly itself. The anus opens
on the underside of the animal, roughly in the middle of the mantle cavity.
The scaphopod vascular system is rudimentary, lacking both heart and blood vessels; the blood is
held in sinuses throughout the body cavity, and is pumped through the body by the rhythmic
action of the foot. Metabolic waste is excreted through a pair of nephridia close to the anus.
The nervous system is generally similar to that of gastropods. One pair each of cerebral and
pleural ganglia lie close to the oesophagus, and effectively form the animal's brain. A separate
set of pedal ganglia lie in the foot, and a pair of visceral ganglia are set further back in the body.
Scaphopods have no eyes, or other distinct sensory organs.[7]
[edit] Reproduction and development
Scaphopods have separate sexes, and external fertilisation. They have a single gonad occupying
much of the posterior part of the body, and shed their gametes into the water through the
nephridium.
Once fertilised, the eggs hatch into a free-living trochophore larva, which develops into a veliger
larva that more closely resembles the adult, but lacks the extreme elongation of the adult body.[7]

Benthoctopus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Benthoctopus

Benthoctopus sp. and clam on the

Davidson Seamount at 1,461 m
depth
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Cephalopoda
Order: Octopoda
Family: Octopodidae
Subfamily: Bathypolypodinae
Genus: Benthoctopus
Grimpe, 1921
Species
Around 25, see text.
Benthoctopus is a genus of octopuses comprising around 25 species. It is thus the most species-
rich genus of the deep-sea subfamily Bathypolypodinae. They seem to occur worldwide, and
most specimens have been brought up from depths of 200-3,000 m.[1]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Species
• 2 Footnotes
• 3 References
• 4 External links

[edit] Species

Unidentified Benthoctopus species and orange-stalked crinoid on the Davidson Seamount at

2,422 m depth

Benthoctopus levis
New species are being described at a rate of approximately 1-2 per year on average.
 • Benthoctopus abruptus
• Benthoctopus berryi
• Benthoctopus canthylus
• Benthoctopus clyderoperi
• Benthoctopus ergasticus
• Benthoctopus eureka (= B. hyadesi; tentatively placed here[1])
• Benthoctopus fuscus (nomen dubium[1])
• Benthoctopus hokkaidensis
• Benthoctopus januarii – January Octopus
• Benthoctopus karubar
• Benthoctopus leioderma – Smoothskin Octopus
• Benthoctopus levis
• Benthoctopus longibrachus
• Benthoctopus lothei (nomen dubium)
• Benthoctopus macrophallus
• Benthoctopus magellanicus (nomen dubium; tentatively placed here[1])
• Benthoctopus oregonae
• Benthoctopus oregonensis
• Benthoctopus piscatorum
• Benthoctopus profundorum
• Benthoctopus pseudonymus (nomen dubium[1])
• Benthoctopus rigbyae[2]
• Benthoctopus robustus
• Benthoctopus sibiricus
• Benthoctopus tangaroa
• Benthoctopus tegginmathae
• Benthoctopus thielei
• Benthoctopus yaquinae
• Benthoctopus sp. A "Villarroel et al. 2001"[1]
• Benthoctopus sp. B "Villarroel et al. 2001"[1]
• Benthoctopus cf. januarii "Nesis 1973" (may be B. januarii or B. longibrachus)[1]
[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ a b c d e f g h Ibáñez et al. (2006)
 2. ^ Michael Vecchione, Louise Allcock, Uwe Piatkowski, Jan Strugnell (2009).
"Benthoctopus rigbyae, n. sp., a new species of cephalopod (Octopoda; Incirrata) from
near the Antarctic Peninsula". Malacologia 15 (1): 13–28. doi:10.4002/040.051.0102.
[edit] References
• IBÁÑEZ, CHRISTIAN M.; SEPÚLVEDA, ROGER D. & CHONG, JAVIER (2006): A new species of
Benthoctopus Grimpe, 1921 (Cephalopoda: Octopodidae) from the southeastern Pacific
Ocean. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 119(3): 355–364. DOI:
10.2988/0006-324X(2006)119[355:ANSOBG]2.0.CO;2 HTML abstract

[edit] External links

• CephBase: Benthoctopus

This article related to the octopus is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v•d•e
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthoctopus"
Categories: Cephalopod stubs | Octopodidae

Duck mussel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Anodonta anatina)
Jump to: navigation, search
Duck mussel

Duck mussel, Anodonta anatina

Conservation status
NE[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Order: Unionoida
Family: Unionidae
Genus: Anodonta
Species: A. anatina
Binomial name
Anodonta anatina
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Duck mussel, Anodonta anatina, is a species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in
the family Unionidae, the river mussels.
Synonym: Anodonta piscinalis Nilsson, 1823
Subspecies:
• Anodonta anatina anatina (Linnaeus, 1758)
• Anodonta anatina radiata (O. F. Müller, 1774)
• Anodonta anatina attenuata Held, 1836
[edit] Distribution
Its native distribution is European-Siberian.
• Croatia
• Czech Republic - in Bohemia, in Moravia,[2] least concern (LC)[3]
• Germany
○ Germany - (Arten der Vorwarnliste)[4]
○ Listed as specially protected species in annex 1 in Bundesartenschutzverordnung.
• Isle of Man - found at Lhen mouth (1922-25) and at Guilcagh (1985). Not protected by
Wildlife Act 1990.
• Ireland - found sporadically throughout the Shannon-Erne waterways and in Lough
Neagh[5]
• Netherlands - yes [6]
• Russia
○ Sverdlovsk oblast - yes [7]
• Slovakia
• Sweden - it is the most widely distributed large freshwater bivalve in Sweden [8]
[edit] References
Bivalvia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bivalve" redirects here. For the community in California, see Bivalve, California.
Bivalvia
Fossil range: early Cambrian–
Recent[1][2]
PreЄ
Є
O
 S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N

"Acephala", from Ernst Haeckel's

Kunstformen der Natur (1904)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Linnaeus, 1758
Subclasses
Anomalosdesmata
Cryptodonta
Heterodonta
Paleoheterodonta
Palaeotaxodonta
Pteriomorphia
see text
Mussels in the intertidal zone in Cornwall, England

Fossil gastropod and attached mytilid bivalves in a Jurassic limestone (Matmor Formation) in
southern Israel

Aviculopecten subcardiformis; an extinct pectenoid bivalve from the Logan Formation of

Wooster, Ohio (external mold)
Bivalvia is a class of marine and freshwater mollusks known for some time as Pelecypoda, but
now commonly referred to simply as bivalves. As with Gastropoda and Cephalopoda, the term
Pelecypoda is in reference to the animal itself while Bivalvia simply describes the shell. Other
names for the class include Acephala, Bivalva, and Lamellibranchia. The class contains some
30,000 species, including scallops, clams, oysters and mussels.
Bivalves have a shell consisting of two asymmetrically rounded halves called valves that are
mirror images of each other, joined at one edge by a flexible ligament called the hinge. The shell
is typically bilaterally symmetrical, with the hinge lying in the sagittal plane.
Bivalves are unique among the molluscs, having lost their odontophore and radula in their
transition to filter feeding.
Some bivalves are epifaunal; they attach to surfaces. Others are infaunal; they bury themselves in
sediment. These forms typically have a strong digging foot. Some bivalves such as scallops can
swim.
The term bivalve is derived from the Latin bis, meaning 'two', and valvae, meaning leaves of a
door[3] Other bivalved animals include brachiopods, ostracodes, and conchostrachans.