Basic Concept of Thermodynamics MORGAN

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University of Mumbai
Class : F. E. (All Branches of Engineering) Semester ± III
SUBJECT: Mechanical (ATD)
Periods per week
Lecture
(Each of 60 min.)
Practical
Tutorial ²
Hours Marks
Evaluation System Theory Examination
Practical
Oral Examination
Term Work
Total

Thermodynamics is defined as science of energy transfer and
it¶s effect on the physical properties of substances.
Thermodynamics forms the basis for the study of vast variety
of devices. The laws of thermodynamics govern the principles of
energy conversion. These laws have been formulated from common
experiences. The application of thermodynamics laws and
principles are found in all field of energy conversion like in steam
and nuclear power plant, internal combustion engines, gas turbines,
air conditioning, refrigeration, jet propulsion, compressor, chemical
process plant, direct energy conversion devices etc.
This subject mainly deals with relations between properties
of working substance and energy interaction.
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There are two approaches to the study of thermodynamic.
They are known as microscopic approach and macroscopic
approach.
In microscopic approach, the matter is composed of atoms
and molecules. Hence changes of events taking place at molecular
level are observed. For example if it is a gas, then each molecule at
a given instant has certain position, velocity and energy. Hence
behavior of gas can be described by summing up behavior of each
molecule. Hence there is a statistic approach to simplify the
problem. This approached is used in kinetic theory of gases.
In microscopic approach a certain quantity of matter is
considered without taking into accounts the events occurring at
molecular level. In this approach time averaged effect of the
particles observed and measured by instruments.
For example pressure exerted by gas on wall. Pressure result
from change in momentum of gas molecules as they collide against
wall. Hence its approach, we are not concerned with collision of
molecule but with time averaged value of force exerted on a unit
area of surface of wall. This is measured by pressure gauge.
# $ $
A thermodynamic system is defined as quantity of matter or
region in space upon which attention is concentrated while
analysing a problem.
%&Every thing external to system is called surrounding
or environment.

&A system is separated from it¶s surrounding by
a system boundary. A system boundary maybe fixed or movable.

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System and surrounding combines from a universe.
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1.
: A closed system is a system in which only energy
cross the boundary of system but there is no mass transfer across
system boundary. Hence, closed system is a system of fixed mass.
) :
Boundary
Work Weight Surrounding
Cylinder

Piston
System Boundary
O

Surrounding
Heat
As shown in figure above a gas enclose in a cylinder and

piston machine represents a closed system. If gas is heated it will
expand and piston will rise. As piston rises boundary of system
moves. Hence, energy in the form of heat and mechanical work
crosses system boundary. But mass does not.
The closed system can be subjected to change in volume if
boundary is flexible.
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.
&It is a system in which both mass as well as energy
can cross system boundary. Hence system and surrounding can
interact in terms of both mass as well as energy.
High pressure Exhaust Gas
Out Out.
Work

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Heat
Work
Air from Air Fuel Heat

Atmosphere IN
Compressor Engine
In a compressor air is taken inside at low pressure and leaves at
high pressure and there are energy transfers across system boundary.
Energy Mass Surrounding
Boundary
System Energy
Mars

& It is a system in which neither mass nor energy
crosses the system boundary. Hence, system and surroundings are
completely isolated from each other. Hence, this system is of fixed
mass and fixed energy. ) : A hot liquid once enclosed in a
thermos flask represents isolated system.
System Surrounding

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# $ &
Every system has certain characteristics by which it¶s
physical condition may be described. Such as volume, pressure,
temperature etc. these characteristics are known as properties of
system.
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When all the properties of system have certain definite
values. Then the system is said to exist in a state.
Hence a property of system defines the state of system.
P
V
Piston
V1 1
V1 System

Let us consider a gas system in cylinder and piston with a

weight being placed on piston. The properties of system pressure
and volume have definite values P1 and V1 respectively. Hence,
system is said to exist in a definite state described by point 1.
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Any operation during which one or more of properties of
system changes isolated change of state.
If in above example, if the weight placed on piston is lifted,
gas will expand and piston moves to position (). Where properties
of system have values P and V.
Hence, they describe another state of system. Hence
properties are state variable of system. They are the space
coordinates to describe the state of system.

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The succession of states passed through during a change of
state is called path of change of state.
) : In previous example if instead of lifting the weight
placed on piston at once, if weight is made of number of small
weights and every piece of weight is removed one by one then the
properties of system at intermediate points between 1 and i.e. a, b,
c, «.as described which are known as succession of state.

&
If path of change of state is completely specified (i.e. it¶s
nature) then change of state is called process. )& Process 1±,
constant pressure process.

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A thermodynamics cycle is defined as series of change of
states (processes) performed in such a way that the final state is
identical with initial state.
In above example if at position () of piston if all weights
that were lifted of same magnitude (mass) are kept back on piston
in different way then system can be brought back to state µ1¶ by
following another path 1. Then processes 1 and 1 combine
constitute a thermodynamic cycle.
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Thermodynamic properties of system are classified into two
categories.
1.
(
&
These properties are those which are independent of mass of system
i.e. they do not change with mass. e.g. Pressure, temperature,
density etc.
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. )
(
&
These are those properties which depends upon mass of the e.g.
Volume, energy etc.
Specific extensive properties i.e. extensive properties pert unit mass
of system are also called as intensive properties.
e.g. Specific volume, Specific energy.

' ' :
Substance may exist in various from A phase is any homogeneous
form of substance that is solid, liquid and gases.
A pure substance is one that is homogeneous and in variable in
chemical composition. It may exist is one or more phase but
chemical composition remain same in all phases.
Ex. Liquid water or solid (ice) or water vapour (steam) is pure
substance.
Mixture of gases such as atmospheric air comprising nitrogen and
oxygen and other few gases such as carbon dioxide, organ can be
treated as pure substance as long ad it remain gas. Since it¶s
chemical composition is constant. But if there is change of phase
like mixture of gaseous and liquid air then it can not be considered
as pure substance, because chemical composition of air in liquid
phase is different from that in vapour phase.
Liquid nitrogen and gaseous nitrogen mixture can be called pure
substance.

#*' #*' $ :
The quantity of matter homogeneous through chemical composition
and physical structure is called a phase. A system constituting
single phase is called homogeneous system. System constituting of
more than one phase is known as heterogeneous system.

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A system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium when there is no spontaneous change in any of property
of system. Hence the system behaves as it is isolated from
surrounding when it is in state of thermodynamics equilibrium.
A system will be called in a state thermodynamic equilibrium
if the conditions for the following three types of equilibrium are
satisfied.
-.&
In absence of any unbalance force within system itself or between
system and surrounding the system is said is said to be in a state of
mechanical equilibrium.
In example discussed earlier the system is in state of
equilibrium when piston is at µ1¶ As weight is lifted, it creates
mechanical unbalance between system and surrounding. This
causes spontaneous change in pressure. The system attains again
state of equilibrium when piston is at () and pressure is P.
Thus if an unbalanced force exist, either system or both
system and surrounding will undergo a change of state till
mechanical equilibrium is attained.
/ -.&
If there is no chemical reaction or transfer of matter from one part
of system to another such as diffusion, solution, the system is said
to exist in a state of chemical equilibrium.
If there is any chemical reaction then it will change state of the
system and hence system will be in non equilibrium state. Like
combustion of fuel mixed with air.
Spark
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Î -.&
When a system existing in mechanical equilibrium is
separated from it¶s surrounding by a diathermia wall (diathermia
mean which allow heat to flow) and even though there is no
spontaneous change in any property of system. Then system is said
to exist in a state of thermal equilibrium.
System under mechanical
System under mechanical

Adiabatic
& chemical equilibrium
& chemical equilibrium

Wall

Gas Gas
Surrounding
Î00C
A B
Let a system separated from it¶s surrounding first by
adiabatic wall (which restricts flow of heat). When insulation is
removed, due to temperature difference that will flow from system
to surrounding and causes change in temperature. Hence, it is in
state of non equilibrium. The thermal equilibrium will be attained if
both system and surrounding reaches to same temperature to stop
further heat flow.
When condition of any one type of equilibrium is not
satisfied then system is said to be in non equilibrium state.
When system is in state of non equilibrium there is no value
of property which is represented by whole system as single fixed
value. Because thermodynamic properties are co ordinates which
are defined and significant only for thermodynamic equilibrium
state.
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P
Final stage P1 Equilibrium State
P V

Piston Initial stage
P1 V1
Equilibrium
System Cylinder State
P
V1 V
Let us consider gas system shown above enclosed in cylinder

and piston machine. Initially system is in thermodynamic
equilibrium state defined by properties P1 and V1 if the weight on
the piston is removed the piston will be pushed by gas due to
mechanical unbalance between system and surrounding. System
again comes to state of equilibrium when piston hits stopper where
its thermodynamic properties are P and V. But intermediate states
passed through by system are non equilibrium states. Hence system
is in thermodynamic equilibrium only at states 1 and . Hence they
are joined by dotted lines.
P
P V P1 a
Weight of b Equilibrium States
small mass c
1 P1 V1 d Quassi Static Process
e (Reversible Process)
f
g
h
P
V1 V
If in above system the single weight is made up of small

parts and each part is removed one by one very slowly then at every
instant the system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium
shown by a, b, c, d «.. etc. In such a case the departure of state of
system from thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitely small.
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Hence every state system passed through is a thermodynamically
equilibrium state. Such a process which is locus of all equilibrium
state passed through by system is kwon as quassi static process or
reversible process. The characteristic, of quassi static process is
infinite slowness.
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: Temperature is property of the system which
distinguishes thermodynamics from other science. Temperature is
used to distinguish hot from cold. When two bodies are maintained
at same temperature then they are said to exist in thermal
equilibrium.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics provides basis for the
temperature measurement equipments.
System 1 System System 1 System
x1 y1 x y x1 y1 x y
Adiabatic Wall Diathermia Wall

(a) (b)
When two system are interacting through by an adiabatic
wall [shown in figure (a)], then they are really isolated systems.
Properties in either system can be varied independent of other
system. They do not affect each other.
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When two systems are interacting across a diathermia wall
then change of state of one affects change of state of other. When
equilibrium is attained then it is assumed that at least one property
acquire a common value for both system. This property is named as
temperature. Hence two systems will attain thermal equilibrium
when equality of temperature is attained between them.
The zeroth law of thermodynamic states that when a body A
is thermal equilibrium with a body µB¶ and µA¶ is also separately in
thermal equilibrium with body µC¶ then both µB¶ and µC¶ will be in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Adiabatic Wall
Body B Body C
Diathermia Wall
Body A
Body A is a reference body which establish the thermal

equilibrium first with body B. then it establish the thermal
equilibrium with µC¶ Then after comparing both, thermal
equilibrium between B and C can be proved. The body A can be
any temperature measurement device like thermometer.
This law forms the basis for all temperature measurement
devices.

&
To measure temperature a reference body is used and a
certain physical characteristic of this body which changes with
temperature is selected. The changes in that selected characteristics
is taken as indication of change in temperature. This selected
characteristics is called thermometric property and the reference
body itself used for measuring temperature is called thermometer
(or any temperature measurement device)
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) : In liquid filled in glass thermometer, displacement of
mercury is taken as thermometric property.
Hence, if x is the thermometric property of a reference body
then for all systems which are in thermal equilibrium with it, let
‫׵‬i.e.
temperature ș (x) is linear function of x.
temperature ș(x)ߙ x.
ș(x) = a x
Where a is any constant.
Hence if this reference body is brought in contact with two
bodies maintained at two different temperatures then let x1 and x
be change in thermometric property of ref. body with body 1 and
body respectively.
ș(x1) = ax1 ֜ a =
șሺଡ଼భ ሻ
ଡ଼భ
Hence
ș(x) = ax
ଶ
șሺଡ଼భ ሻ
ଡ଼భ
ș(x) =
஘ሺଡ଼మ ሻ ଡ଼మ
஘ሺଡ଼మ ሻ ଡ଼భ
=
Hence temperatures on linear scale are to each other as ratio

of corresponding thermometric properties.
To calibrate temperature measurement device some reference
point is considered. Hence triple point of water i.e. a state at which
liquid water, ice and water vapour co exist in thermodynamic
equilibrium is chosen as fixed point. The temperature at which this
state exists is arbitrarily assigned the value ëÎ.160 k.
If șt is triple pt. of water and xt thermometric property of
reference body when it is brought in contact with water at it¶s triple
point then,
șt = a xt
ఏ೟
௫೟
a =
ଶ଻ଷǤଵ଺బ ୏
୶౪

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Now let the ref. Body is brought in contact with any body whose
temperature is to be measured then,
ș = ax ș = Temperature of body whose temperature to be
measured.
x = Value of thermometric property of ref. body when it is
brought in contact with body whose temperature is to be
measured
ଶ଻ଷǤଵ଺
୶౪
= x.
୶
୶౪
!
Now let the ref. Body is brought in contact with any body
whose temperature is to be measured then
ș = ax ș = Temperature of body whose temperature to be measured.
x = Value of thermometric property of ref. body when it is brought
in contact with body whose temperature is to measured.
= ୶
୶౪
ș = ëÎ.16

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$ J#
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In±constant volume gas thermometer the change in pressure
of gas is thermometric property. The temperature which is function
of pressure of gas ș(p) is related to thermometric property as
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ș (p) = ëÎ.16
Po Capillarity twx
Mercury Manometer Hg
Bulb
Flexible tube
Where, pt = Pressure of gas when thermometer is brought in

contact with water at triple point. This thermometer consist of a
small amount of gas enclosed in bulb B which is in communication
via capillary tube with one limb of mercury manometer one limb of
Hg manometer is open to atmosphere and it can be moved
vertically to adjust the Hg level so that mercury just touches L of
capillary. The pressure in the bulb is calculated by equation.
P = po + pHg g Z
Po = Atmospheric pressure.
pHg = Density of mercury = 1Î600 kg/mÎ
Z = Difference in the leveret of mercury across two limbs.
When the bulb of thermometer is brought in contact with
body whose temperature is to be measured, then after some time
bulb comes in thermal equilibrium with body. The gas which
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receives heat from body expands pushing mercury downward. The
flexible limb of manometer is adjusted so that mercury level just
touches L. The difference in Hg level i.e. Z is recorded and pressure
of gas in bulb is calculated as volume remain constant.

*
&
It uses change in volume of gas due to change in temperature
as thermometric property which is related to temperature by,
}
}౪
(v) = ëÎ.16 x
Where, V = Volume of gas when thermometer is brought in contact

with body whose temp is to be measured.
Vt = Volume of gas when thermometer is in contact with
water at triple point.
For constant pressure gas thermometer the Hg level as shown
in figure has to be adjusted to keep Z constant and hence volume V
of gas would vary with the temperature of body.

++ #
O
Wheat stone bridge
R.
In this thermometer the change in resistance of a metal wire

due to it¶s change in temperature is the thermometric property. The
wire used may be platinum. Wire is incorporate in a wheat stone
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bridge circuit. When the temp change in resistance of wire which is
governed by relation
R = R0 (1 + At + Bt)
Where, R0 = Resistance of platinum wire when it is in contact
with water at ice point.
A = Constant measured at steam point.
B = Constant measured at sulphur point. (]]]0C)
The temperature measured by electric resistance thermometer
has high degree of accuracy and hence it is used as a standard for
calibration of other thermometers.

#'+
Wire µA¶
To potentiometer
Wire µB¶
Copper Wires
Test Junction
Ice water mixture
Reference
Junction
A thermocouple is made by forming two junctions by two

wires A and B dissimilar metals. Due to set back effect an e.m.f. is
generated in the circuit which depends upon the temperature
difference between reference (cold) junction and (hot) junction.
Hence e.m.f. is the thermometric property.
The e.m.f. generated is measured by micro voltmeter. The
two metals used depend upon the temperature range. Generally
combinations of copper constantan, chromel alumel and platinum±
rhodium are used.
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To calibrate thermocouple the thermal e.m.f. at various
known temperature is measured. The relationship between e. m. f.
and temperature can be given by equation.
= a + bt + ct + dt
= Thermal e. m. f.
a, b, c, d = constants to be find out at different known temperature
such as antimony point (6Î0.V0C), silver point (Ú60.w0C), Gold
point (106Î.00C)
The advantage of thermocouple over other thermometer is
that is has quick response. Since it¶s comes to thermal equilibrium
with the system whose temperature is to be measured very fast
because it¶s mass is small.
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Work is considered to one of basis mode of energy transfer,
it brings change in properties of system.
The work is said to be done by a force as it acts upon a body
moving in the direction of force. Forces never produce a physical
effect except when coupled with motion and hence force is not
energy. The action of force through a distance is called mechanical
work.
Meter Fan
Work
+ ± Surrounding
Battery
System Boundary
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Thermodynamics looks the work transfer in a border sense.
In thermodynamics work transfer is considered to be occurring
between systems and surrounding. The work is said to be done by a
system if sole effect on the thing external to system can be
expressed to the raising of a weight.
Pulley
Meter
Disp.
Battery
W
System Boundary
Work
Work
System System
Surrounding Surrounding
[W is positive] [W is negative]
(a) (b)
When the work is done by the system it is taken as positive

work transfer. When work is done upon the system [shown in
figure (b)] it is taken as negative work transfer.
Unit of work 1 Joule = 1 Nm
Rate of work i.e. work per unit time is known as power. It¶s
unit in S. I. system is Nm/sec or Joule/sec or watt.
1 watt = 1 Joule /sec.
In M.K.S. system unit of power is horse power. 1HP = ë]6 watts.

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1("0 +"0
P
System P1 1
Quassi Static Process
A

P
W1
1 A
P1 V1 P P V
d V1 dv V
V
Let us consider a gas enclosed in piston and cylinder

machine. The system is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium at
1 defined by properties P1, V1. Let piston moves to final position
which is also equilibrium state of system defined by properties P,
V by following a quassi static path.
At any intermediate state during travel of piston let pressure
is P and volume V which is also an equilibrium state. Let for this
state the piston has moved by an infinitely small distance µdl¶, If µa¶
is the cross section area of piston, the force F acting on piston is
given F = p x a. the small amount of work done by gas on piston.
dw = F x d/
dw = p x a x d/ = P dv
Where dv = ad/ = infinitely small displacement volume.
Hence when piston moves from position 1 to the work
done by gas on piston is given
By «ଵ dw = «ଵ P dv
ଶ ଶ
W 1 = p (V ± V1)
The magnitude of work given by above equation is same as

area under the path 1 on P v diagram.
«ଵ Pdv Can be performed only on quassi static path.

ଶ
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#J'
P
1
P1
C
P
V1 V
V
Let a system be taken from state 1 to state by following

three different quassi static paths A, B and C. Since area under the
curve for a path gives, the amount of work during that process,
hence from above it is clear that area under all three curves A, B
and C will be different. Hence, work done involved during each
path will be different although the end states for all the three paths
being same.
Hence work is a path function. Therefore dw is called an
inexact differential or imperfect differential.
«ଵ dw = W1
ଶ
Hence
«ଵ dw ് W1 ± W
ଶ
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For a given state there is a definite value for each of
thermodynamic property. The change in thermodynamic property
during a change of state depends only upon initial and final states
of system. It does not depend upon the path; the system follows
during change of state. Hence properties of the system are called
POINT FUNCTION. Hence are called exact or perfect differentials.
«ଵ dv = V ± V1 for a change of state

ଶ
dv = 0 for cycle.
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I I
System Boundary
I I
Motor
W= E
E = Potential
++"0
When a current flows through a resistor which which is taken
as systemthere is work transfer to system. This is due to the fact
that current drive a motor, motor can drive a pulley and pulley can
raise a weight.
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SHAFT WORK
MOTOR
If shaft is considered as system is roted by motor there is

work transfer into the system. A shaft can roted pulley and pulley
can raise a weight.
If T is torque applied and ș is angular disp. of shaft then shaft
power = «ଵ Tdș
ଶ
w = «ଵ ൌ
ଶ ୢ஘
ୢ୲
ൌ Ǥ

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+"#+"0

System
Pulley
Paddle
When the weight is moved the paddle will rotate and hence
there is work transfer into system. Here although volume of system
remains constant i.e.
« = 0 but « ്0.

If m is mass that is moved and dz is the distance through
which it is moved then work transfer to system
Dw = mgdz = Tdș
Where T ± Torque transmitted by shaft for rotating it through
an angle dș.
= «ଵ dw = «ଵ mgdz
ଶ ଶ
W
= «ଵ Tdș
ଶ
J+""0
Flow work is the energy transferred across system boundary
which is imparted to fluid by a pump, or compressor to make it
flow across system boundary. Flow work is significant only in flow
process or for open system when mass transfer taken place across
system boundary.
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If p1 is fluid pressure exerted on an imaginary piston moving
with velocity V1, then work.
(dw) flow = p1dv
Where dv is the volume of fluid about to enter the system. If
dm1 is the mass flow rate of fluid across section (1) ± (1) then,
dw = P1 V1 dm1
Where, v = Specific volume of fluid.
Flow
P1 V1
V1
1
V1dt

Force exerted by fluid on imaginary piston of area a1 = p1 x a1
Distance travelled by fluid in time, dt = V1dt. V1 ± Velocity of piston
‫ ׵‬Work associated with fluid, dw = p1 a1 V1 dt
work/time = p1a1V1
From law of conversation of mass.
ୟభ } భ
୴భ
Mass flow rate dm1 =
a1V1 = dm1v1
‫(׵‬work /time) = p1v1 dm1 = (dw)
Work /kg = (dw)flow = p1v1
# J
Heat is a firm of energy that is transferred across the system
boundary the virtue of temperature difference. The heat in called
energy in transient just like work. Heat always flows from higher
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temperature system to lower temperature system. The temperature
difference between two systems is called potential and heat transfer
is called flux.
There are basically three modes of heat transfer. Heat
transfer due to condition, convection and radiation.
Heat transfer is a boundary phenomenon which takes place
only by the virtue of temperature difference. Heat transfer does not
necessarily result in change in temperature e.g. when heat is
transferred to mixture of ice and water is does not cause any change
in temperature unit ill ice is melted completely.
Similarly if a rotating wheel is stopped by applying break
the temperature of break surface increases. But this is not because
of heat transfer. Hence any rise in temperature of system is not
necessarily due to heat transfer only.
Heat transfer rate is transfer of heat per unit time. Heat
transfer is expressed by symbol Q.
Surrounding Q is ± Ve
Q Q

Q is + Ve Surrounding
When heat is absorbed by When heat is rejected by system

system is taken as positive. it is taken as negative.
Unit of heat transfer in S.I. system is Joule.

Heat transfer like work transfer is also a path function and
hence inexact differential.
Hence«ଵ dQ = Q1
ଶ

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J +"J# $
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS APPLIED TO CLOSE
SYSTEM FOR CYCLE:
The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation
of energy. Which states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but can only be transformed from one from to another.
This law is applied to thermodynamics for a closed system
undergoing a cycle by Joule. Heat and work are two different forms
of energy. Energy which enters a system as heat may leave the
system as work or energy which enters system as work may leave
as heat.
Thermometer Pulley
Weight
t
System Water
Work
Surrounding Î0 Q
(a) t = Î0 (b)
Let us consider a closed system consisting of water in an

adiabatic vessel having paddle and thermometer. When weight is
moves a certain amount of work W1 is transferred in to system.
The system which was initially placed at temperature t1, after work
transfer reaches to temperature t due to temperature rise. Hence
system has gone through change of state 1 through work transfer
W1 . This is represent on coordinate axes x y.
1
Q±1
W1±

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Now if the insulation of vessel is removed the system is now

separated from surrounding by diathermia wall. This cause the heat
transfer from system to surrounding due to temperature different.
Thus the system again goes through change of state and thermal
equilibrium between system and surrounding is established when
system return back to original temperature t1 the ±1 represent
another change of state brought in the system due to heat transfer
Q 1
Thus 1 1 represents a thermodynamic cycle executed by
system which consist of work transfer W1 and a definite amount
of heat transfer Q 1. This Q 1is found to be proportional to Q 1
i.e. W 1 ߙ Q 1
W 1 = JQ 1
When J = Joule¶s equivalent or mechanical equivalent A heat.
If cycle involves more than one work and heat transfer then
σ = Jσ
Cycle cycle
Or ‫ = ܹׯ‬J ‫ܳׯ‬
In S.I. system J = 1 Nm/J
‫ ׵‬ර ܹ ൌ ර ܳ

Where µO¶ stand for cyclic integral.

Thus cyclic integral of heat transfer. This is known as
equation of first law of Thermodynamics applied to cycle exerted
by closed system.
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In equation of first law for a cycle i.e., σ ܳ = σ ܹ the

J +"J+ $ ' **
algebraic sum of all energy transfer across system boundary is

equal zero.
When a system undergoes a change of state during
which both heat and work transfer are involved then net energy
transfer I = Q ±W is stored with in the body of system itself.
) : If a gas system is supplied with heat then piston will
move due give energy output as work. But according to Joule
during this change of state the net energy transfer i.e. Q ±W will be
stored within body of system. This energy in storage is neither heat
nor work and it is known as + *$ of the system.
Work (W)

System
(1) ()
Q Heat
i.e. Q ± W = ǻ E
where, ǻE = Increase in Internal energy.
Or Q ± ǻ E + W Equation of first law applied a process.
+*$ $J $

The internal energy i.e. energy in storage is a property of
system can be proved by considering following example.
P
B C
w
J

c

Let a system is taken from state 1 to state by following path
A. Thus for change of state equation of first law is
Q1 = ǻ E + W1
Or
QA = ǻ EA + WA (1)
The system is taken from state to state 1 by following path
B. again for change of state 1 by path B equation of 1st law is
QB = ǻEB + WB ()
Adding equations (1) and ()
QA + QB = (ǻEA + ǻEB) + (WA + WB) (Î)
But processes A and B constitute a thermodynamic cycle for
which equation of 1st law is
σ = σ
Cycle cycle
i.e. QA + QB = W A + W B
equation (Î) becomes 0 = ǻEA + ǻEB
ǻEA = ǻEB (])
Similarly if we consider that system is taken from state to
state 1 by following path µC¶ instead of µB¶ then processes A and C
constitute a cycle for which we can say
ǻEA = ± ǻEC (V)
From equation (]) and (V) we can say that
ǻEB = ǻEC
i.e. change in internal energy of system is same whether it follows
path C.
Hence internal energy is independent of path system follows
during change of state.
Hence, internal energy is a J' and hence
$J $ .

Ú
J

c

'+#J0 23
The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation
of energy which that energy can neither be created nor destroyed it
only transform from one to another.
Hence, there can not be any machine which continuously
supply the work without any other form of energy disappearing or
consuming simultaneously such machine is a fictitious machine
which is not possible since it will violates 1st law and is called
perpetual motion machine of 1st kind PMM1.
The converse of this i.e. there can be no machine consuming
work continuously without some other form of energy appearing
simultaneously is also true.
Q Q
a
Work Machine Work

PMM1 Converse of PMM1

#+$
The enthalpy of a substance is the sum of internal energy and
product of pressure and volume. IT is denoted by H.
H = U + PV Joule
Since enthalpy comprises of all the properties i.e. u, p and v
hence it is also property of system.
Basically enthalpy is the sum of internal energy (u) and flow work (pv).
The specific enthalpy is given by
h = u + pv. J/kg.
Where, u and v are specific internal energy and specific
volume respectively.
Since internal energy is depend upon the temperature. H = f(T).
Î0
J

c

$ J*$
The total energy of system stored within it¶s body, gets
stored in two ways i.e. microscopic mode and microscopic mode.
The microscopic mode of energy includes the energy of
system in the form of kinetic and potential energy.
The kinetic energy of system is the energy associated with a
ଵ
ଶ
fluid when following which is given by Ek = mV where m is
mass of fluid and v is fl0ow velocity.

The potential energy of system is the energy by virtue of it¶s
position with reference to a datum surface given by Ep = mgz.
The microscopic mode of energy is the energy which is
stored in the atomic and molecular structure of the system and it is
known as internal molecular energy denoted by µU¶.
The matter substances are composed of molecules which are
in thermal motion with certain velocity colliding with one another
and walls. Due to this collision molecules may be subjected to
rotation and vibration. Hence they can have translational kinetic
energy, rotational kinetic energy, vibration energy, nuclear energy
etc. if E is the total molecular energy of one molecule then.
İ ൌ İ୲ୟ୬ୱ ൅ İ୰୭୲ୟ ൅ İ୬ୠ ൅ İୣ୪ୣୡ୲ ൅ İ୬୳ୡ୪ୣୟ୰ ൅ İୡ୦ୣ୫

If N is number of molecules the total internal energy is,
U = N
For ideal gas there are no inter molecular forces of attraction
and repulsion and hence internal energy depends only upon
temperature
‫ ׵‬U = f(T) for ideal gases
Hence, internal energy E = Ek + Ep + U
Î1
J

c

Random Thermal Motion of Molecules
Flow (V)
Hence, change in internal energy

ǻE = ǻK.E. + ǻP.E. + ǻU
For a closed system going through change of state there is absence
and gravity changes. Hence for closed system ǻK.E. = 0, ǻP.E. = 0
‫׵‬ ǻE = ǻU
In differential forms, dE = dKE + dPE +dU
Hence, equation of 1st law for a process.
Q = ǻE + W Q = ǻU + WdQ
dQ = dE + dw dQ = dU + dw
dQ = dE + pdv dQ = dU + pdv
« = « + « « = « ൅ «
Q = ǻE + « Q = ǻU + «
+*$J + $

Î
J

c

+*
A perfect gas or ideal gas is the state of the substance whose
evaporation from it¶s liquid state is complete and it follows all the
gas laws at all the condition of pressure and temperature. A perfect
gas is a gas having no forces of molecular attraction.
In actual practice there is no such gas exist in nature. All the
gases are real gases. But since at law pressure and high temperature
the molecules are far apart and hence force of attraction between
them tends to be small, some gas car be called perfect gases like
O, N etc.
$+4 +"
It states for a gas going through change of state if temperature
remains constants then volume of varies inversely with absolute
pressure.
‫׵‬
ଵ
௉
VĮ if T = constant
Or PV = C.
i.e. PV1 = PV = pnvn
#+4 +"&
It state that during a change of state of gas if pressure is kept
constant the volume of gas varies directly with temperature.
VĮ t if P = constant.
}
= C

}భ }మ }
భ మ
Or = = =

*$1+' 4 +"

If states that during the change of state of a gas if the volume is
held constant then the pressure of the gas varies directly with
absolute temperature.
pĮ T if V = constant.
Ê
= C

௉భ ௉మ ௉೙
௉భ ௉మ ்೙
= = =
ÎÎ
J

c

# * ,'
This equation provides relationship between pressure, volume and
temperature of gas.
ଵ
Ê
From Boyles law v Į if T = C.
From Charles¶s law V Į T if P = C

‫ ׵‬Combining Bayle¶s and Charles¶s law.
v Į

Ê
PV = CT
Ê}
Or =C

Êభ }భ Êమ }మ Ê }
భ మ
Or = = =

Ê}
= R

R = Characteristic Gas constant whose value is different for
different gases.
‫׵‬
If m is the mass of gas then V = mv.
8୶୫୴
= mR

R = J/kg ok
PV = mRT
R = wë J/kg ok for air
!* 4 +"
If state that one mole of all the gases occupies same volume
at NT.P which is equal to .] mw/kg mole.
One mole of a gas has n mass equal to it¶s molecular weight.
e.g. 1 kg mole of O weight Î kg.
The characteristic gas equation is given by
PV = mRT
Or pv = RT
Multiplying equation by molecular weight µM¶.
Î]
J

c

MPv = MRT
u =
Where Volume occupied by one mole of gas = Mv.
Known as Molar volume = .]mÎ/kg mole.
= = Universal Gas constant whose value is same for all the
gases = wÎ1].Î J/kg Mole ok. (RM).
J#J* &
The specific heat of a perfect gas is defined as the amount of
heat required by unit mass of the gas to rise it¶s temperature by 10
C. it is denoted by C.
T
C= J/kg ok
்
The gases have to specific heat.

23 #

! 2!3
It is the amount of heat required by unit mass of gas unit rise
in temperature when volume is held constant.
When the gas is heated at constant volume, all the heat
supplied is utilized to increase the internal energy of the gas as
energy in storage. There is no work done by gas.
Hence, specific heat at constant volume (Cv) is the rate of
change of internal energy with respect to temperature when volume
is held constant.
୳
Cv =
୴
i.e.
‫׵‬ du = Cv dT
« = «ଵ
ଶ
ሺܶଶܶଵሻ Joule/kg
Specific heat at constant volume is property of system since
T and V are properties.

ÎV
J

c

#

&23
It is the amount of heat required by unit mass of gas for it¶s
unit rise in temperature when it is heated at constant pressure.
When a gas is heated at constant pressure the part of heat
supplied to it is used for moving piston to do some work and (flow
work) rest is stored within gas to increase it¶s internal energy.
Hence specific heat at constant pressure is defined as rate of
change of enthalpy with respect to temperature when pressure is
held constant.
୦
Cp =
8
dh = Cp dT
« = «
= Cp (T ± T1) J/kg
Just like Cv, Cp is also property of the system since h1 T and
P are all properties.
Value of Cp is always more that Cv since when a gas is
heated at cont. pressure some heat is utilized to do work apart from
increasing internal energy where as at constant volume all the heat
is utilized for increasing internal energy.
Enthalpy of gas h = u + pv
From characteristic gas equation Pv = RT
‫ ׵‬h = u +RT Differentiating the equation.
dh = dU + RdT
‫ ׵‬dh = CpdT CpdT = CvdT + Rdt
du = CvdT Cp = Cv + R

Î6
J

c

The ratio of specific heat at constant pressure Cp and Sp heat
at constant volume (Cv) is known as adiabatic index (r)
‫ ׵‬
େ8
େ୴
=r
Cp ± Cv = R
Dividing equation by µCv¶
େ8 ୖ
େ୴ େ୴
±1 =
ோ
௥ିଵ
Cv =

J +"+ 5J+"
The thermodynamic processes are classified into two categories.
1) Non Flow Process: i.e. takes place in a Closed System.
) Flow process i.e. takes place in an open System.
!+'2 #3
Let us consider a system of gas enclosed in piston and
cylinder machine. The state of the system which is thermodynamic
equilibrium state can be defined by properties p1, V1, t1.
When the gas it heated due to stopper piston can not
move up. Hence, the volume remains constant but pressure and
temperature of gas increase to let p and t. Thus cont volume
process follows Charle¶s law. i.e.
P Į T V = C
Ê Êభ Êమ
భ మ
= C or = = C

Stopper
Piston
P1, V1, t1

Cylinder System

Îë
J

c

P
P
P1
V1 = V
V
All the heat supplied to gas is stored within the body of gas
to increase it¶s internal energy. Hence the work done or pdv work is
zero.
Work transfer : « = « = 0.
Since « = 0
%
%
U = mCv dT
«ଵ = mCv «ଵ
ଶ ଶ
ǻU = U U1 = mCv (T ± T1)
#
& From equation of 1st law
Q = ǻU + W
W =0
Q = ǻU
Q = mCv (T ± T1)

%
& dH = mcpdt
« = « mcpdt =
ଶ ଶ
(H ± H1 = ǻH = mcp c T ± T1)

Îw
J

c

'2 3
() P V t
Piston p1 = p
W kg
System

P1 = P 1
W1± = «
V1 V
V
When a gas is heated at constant pressure the heat supplied to

it is utilized for two purposes.
1. Part of heat is used to overcome the resistance to the
movement of piston as work.
. Rest of heat is stored within gas to increase it¶s internal
energy.
Let p1, v1, t1 be the properties of system at equilibrium state 1.
P, v, t be the properties of system at equilibrium state .
For a quassi ± static path 1 .
dw = pdV
«ଵ = «ଵ
ଶ ଶ
" 6 &
W1 = «ଵ = P (V ± V1)

ଶ
ÎÚ
J

c

%
%&
Since temperature is changing from T1 to T
dU = mCv dT
«ଵ = mCv «ଵ
ଶ ଶ
ǻU = U ± U1 = mCv (T ± T1)

#
& From equation of 1st law.
Q = ǻU + W
= mCv (T ± T1) + P (V ±V1)
= mCv (T ± T1) + P V ± P1 V1 P = P1
= mCv (T ±T1) + mR (T ± T1) PV = mRT
= m (T ±T1) [Cv + R]
Q = mCp (T ±T1) ‫ ׵‬Cp ± Cv = R
Cp = R + Cv
%%
&
dH = mCp dT
«ଵ = «ଵ
ଶ ଶ
ǻH = H ±H1 = mCp (T ±T1)
Thus for cont. pressure process ǻH =Q

]0
J

c

'2 #+3
A process during which the temperature of system remains
constant either during expansion or compression is known as
isothermal process.
To carryout on isothermal process the system and
surrounding should be in perfect thermal contact with each other so
that any energy entering in to the system should be transferred by
the system to the surrounding in some other form at the process
takes place at a very slow rate.
Thus to carry out isothermal process if a system receiver or
reject the energy in the form of heat, it should be compensated
exactly for work done by system or upon the system respectively.
The isothermal process follows Boyle¶s law.
P
P1
Isothermal Expansion
P (Pv = C)
P
V1 V
V
Hence for isothermal process P1V1 = PV = PnVn = C
WORK Transfer for non flow process
dw = pdV
«ଵ = «ଵ «ଵ = «ଵ
ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ
= «ଵ dv
ଶ ୡ
୴
Let any instant pressure is & volume is V
= C «ଵ
ଶ ୢ୙
୴
Hence P1 V1 = PV ± PV = C
‫׵‬ = P1 V1 «ଵ
Êభ }భ ଶ ୢ୙
୴
P =
}
‫« ׵‬ଵ
ଶ ଶ Êభ }భ }మ
= «ଵ
}భ
dV Since P1 V1 = cont. = P1V1Log
}
]1
J

c

W1 = P1V1 «ଵ ଵିଶ ൌ =

ଶ ୢ}

}మ

} }భ
}మ
W1 = P1V1 log e
}భ
}మ Êభ
Êమ
By ref n
}భ
=
֜ ଵିଶ ൌ =
}మ Êభ Êభ

}భ Êమ Êమ
As P1 V1 = P V =
Where,
= =
}మ }୭୪୳୫ୣୟ୤୲ୣ୰ୣ୶8ୟ୬ୱ୧୭୬ Êభ Ê୰ୣୱୱ୳୰ୣୠ୰୤୭୰ୣୣ୶ୟ8ୟ୬ୱ୧୭୬
}భ Êమ Ê୰ୣୱୱ୳୰ୣୟ୤୲ୣ୰ୣ୶ୟ8ୟ୬ୱ୧୭୬
re = =
}୭୪୳୬ୣୠୣ୤୭୰ୣୣ୶8ୟ୬ୱ୧୭୬
Is known as expansion Ratio.

[An adiabatic process is one during which system neither
receiver nor rejects the heat to surrounding during it¶s expansion
or compression. This is possible when the system is perfectly
insulated from it¶s surrounding so that no heat transfer is possible.]
[Thus when the system goes through expansion during this
process the work is done by the system at the cost of it¶s internal
energy.]
[Similarly when the system is compressed adiabatically the
work done on system is used to increase it¶s internal energy.]
Thus for adiabatic process, the change in internal energy of
the system is equal to work done by or upon the system.
P
P1 1
Adiabatic Expansion
(Pvr = C)
P
v1 v
V
]
J

c

Let us consider m kg of gas, taken from state 1 to
adiabatically, p1, v1, t1 be the properties of system at state 1 and p,
v t be the properties at state ± .
From equation of 1st law for any process 1± .
dQ = dU + dw
For adiabatic process dQ = 0.
‫ ׵‬0 = dU + dw
CvdT + PdV = 0
Êୢ୴
୫େ୴
dT = ± (1)
Characteristics equation for a perfect gas PV = mRT

Differentiating above equation.
PdV + vdP = mRdT.
8ୢ୴ା୴ୢ8
୫ୖ
dT = ()
From equation (1) and ()
8ୢ୴ା୴ୢ8 8ୢ୴
୫ୖ ୫େ୴
= ±
8ୢ୴ା୴ୢ8 8ୢ୴
ୖ େ୴
= ±
େ୴ 8ୢ୴
ୖ
= ±
8ୢ୴ା୴ୢ8
ୖ 8ୢ୴ା୴ୢ8
େ୴
= ±
8ୢ୴
= ±1±
ୖ ୴ୢ8
େ୴
Cp ± Cv = R
8ୢ୴
െ ͳ ൌ
େ8 ୖ
େ୴ େ୴
౎
౎ ୴ୢ8 ୖ
୰ିଵ େ୴
= ±1± r±1=
8ୢ୴
ୖ
୰ିଵ
Cv =
r 1 = ±1±
୴ୢ8
8ୢ୴
rpdv = ± vdp
‫ݎ‬ +
ୢ୴ ୢ8
୴
= 0
8
Integrating above equation:

«‫ݎ‬ ൅« ൌ
ୢ୴ ୢ8
୴ 8
]Î
J

c

rloge v + log P =C
loge Vr + loge P = C
loge [PVr] = C
PVr = C
Hence above equation is the equation for an adiabatic process
ଵ ଵୟ ൌ ଶଶ୰ ൌ = ୬ ୬୰ ൌ

in which r is called adiabatic constant (index).
Relatio0nship between p1v1 and T for adiabatic process.
ଶ ୰
ൌ ൬ ൰
ଵ
ଶ ଵ
ൌ
Êభ }భ Êమ }మ
భ మ
From general gas equation
୰
ൌ ቀ మ ቁ ቀ మ ቁ ൌ ቀ మቁ
మ Ê } 8మ ୴
భ Êభ }భ 8భ ୴భ
୴భ ୰ ୴భ ୰
ൌ ቀ ቁ ቀ ቁ ൌ ቀ ቁ
}మ 8మ
୴మ }భ 8భ ୴మ
ଵ ୰ ଵ ୰
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൬ ൰
ଶ ଶ
ଵ ୰
൬ ൰ ൌ൬ ൰
ଶ
ଵ ଶ
ൌ
Êభ }భ Êమ } మ
భ మ
Again
௉మ ଵȀ௥
ൌ ቀ ቁ ቀ ቁ ൌ ቀ ቁ
మ Êమ }మ ௏మ
భ Êభ }భ ௏భ ௉భ
ൌ ቀ మ ቁ ቀ భ ቁ ͳȀ
Ê Ê
Êభ Êమ
ଶ ିଵȀ௥
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൬ ൰
ଶ
ଵ ଵ
୰ିଵ
୰
൬ ൰ ൌ൬ ൰
ଶ ଶ
ଵ ଵ

]]
J

c

"0 & for non flow process.
dw = pdv
ଶ ଶ
ൌ ଵଵ୰ ൌ ଶଶ୰ ൌ

ଵ ଵ
Let at any equilibrium state during the process

Let pressure is p and volume is v.
‫ ׵‬ଵ ଵ୰ ൌ ୰ ൌ
ൌ
Êభ }౨భ
}౨
ଶ ଶ
ଵଵ୰
‫ ׵‬ൌ ୰

ଵ ଵ
ଶ
ൌ ଵ ଵ୰ ି୰ ଵଵ୰ ൌ

ଵ
ଵିଶ ൌ ଵ ଵ୰ Ǩ Ǥ

ଵ ଵ୰ ଵି୰
ൌ ሾଶ െ ଵଵି୰ ሿ
ͳെ
ͳ
ൌ ሾଶ ଶ୰ ଶଵି୰ െ ଵ ଵ୰ ଵଵିୖ ሿଵ ଵ୰ ൌ ଶ ଶ୰
ͳെ
ͳ
ൌ ሾ െ ଵ ଵሿ
ͳെ ଶ ଶ
ଵ ଵ െ ଶ ଶ =ሺ ଵ െ ଶሻ
ଵିଶ ൌ ଵିଶ ൌ
െͳ െͳ
Or OR

dU = mCv dT
‫ ׵‬ȟ ൌ ଶ െ ଵ ൌ ሺ ଵሻ
%
%
ଶ െ
‫ ׵‬ȟ ൌ ଶ െ ଵ ൌ ሺ ଵሻ

Change in Enthalpy dH = mCpdT
ଶ െ
Heat Transfer dQ = du + dw
ൌ ȟ ൅ ଵିଶ
ൌ ሺ െ ଵሻ ൅
୫ୖሺభ ିమ ሻ
ଶ ୰ିଵ
]V
J

c

െ ͳ ൌ

=

=ሺ ଶ െ ଵሻ
୴ ൌ ൌ ሺ െ ଵሻ െ
െͳ െͳ ଶ
െͳ
= =
Q 1 =0
Hence heat transfer Q = 0 for adiabatic process.

+$ &
This is known as general law for expansion and compression.
It follows the law PVn = C. where n is known as polytrophic index,
n can have any value from 0 to ¤. Depending upon the manner in
which expansion or compression takes place.
Constant pressure
n=0
Isothermal
n=1 Polytrophic
r>n>1 Adiabatic
r=¤ n=r
P
P1 1
Pvn C Polytrophic Expansion
P
V1 V
V
* When n = 0 i.e. p = constant. Hence it is a constant
pressure process.
* When n = 1, i.e. pv = constant it is an isothermal process.
]6
J

c

* When n = r i.e. PVr = C it is an adiabatic process.
* When n = ¤ i.e. V = constant it is 0 constant volume
process.
For a polytrophic expansion process 1 ± relation between P1V and
T is given by,
ଵ ୬
ൌ൤ ൨
ଶ
ଵ ଶ
ଶ ୬ିଵ
ൌ൤ ൨
ଶ
ଵ ଶ
ൌ ༌
భ
మ }మ
భ }మ

" 6 &
Work transfer during polytrophic process is given by,
ଵଵ െ ଶ ଶ
ଵିଶ ൌ
െͳ
=ሺ ଵ ଶ ሻ

ଵିଶ ൌ
െͳ
OR

%
%&
ǻU = U ± U1 = m (T ± T1)
%
&
ǻH = H ± H1 = m Cp (T ± T1)
#
&
Q = ¨U + W
Êభ }భ ିÊమ }మ
୬ିଵ
= mCv ( T ± T1) +
୫ୖሺభ మ ሻ
୬ିଵ
= mCv ( T ± T1) +
ሺ ଶ ଵሻ ൅
ୖ ୖ ୫ୖభ మ
୰ିଵ ୰ିଵ ୬ିଵ
Cv = =
]ë
J

c

൅
ଵ ଵ

୰ିଵ ୬ିଵ
Q = mR ( T1 ± T) െ
ି୬ାଵା୰ିଵ
= mR ( T1 ± T) ሺ୰ିଵሻሺ୬ିଵሻ
୰ି୬
= mR ( T1 ± T) ሺ୰ିଵሻሺ୬ିଵሻ

୰ି୬ ୫ୖሺభ ିమ ሻ
୰ିଵ ሺ୬ିଵሻ
Q =
୫ୖሺభ మ ሻ
ሺ୬ିଵሻ
Since W1 = for polytrophic process
ܹଵିଶ
௥ି௡
௥ିଵ
Hence heat transfer
Q=
ൌ
୰ି୬ ୫ୖሺభ ିమ ሻ ோ
୰ିଵ ୬ିଵ ஼௩
r±1=
ൌ ሺ୰ିଵሻ

ሺ୰ି୬ሻ ୫େ୴ሺ୰ିଵሻሺభ ିమ ሻ
୬ିଵ
R= Cv(r ± 1)
ሺ െ ሻ ሺ െ ଶሻ
ൌ
ଵ
െͳ
ሺ െ ሻሺ െ ଶሻ
OR
ൌ
ଵ
ͳെ
െ ‫ ׵‬ሺ

ൌ ȟ ଶ െ ଵሻ ൌ ȟ
ͳെ
= change in internal energy
Prove that for a process governed by PVn = C ± vdp = npdv
For process PVn = C
Differentiating above equation
d (PVn) = 0
p x n Vn ± 1 dv + Vn dp =0
nPVn x V 1
dv + Vndp =0
npVn ± 1 dv + Vndp =0
]w
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Diving above equation by Vn ± 1
‫ ׵‬൅ ൌ Ͳ

}
}భ
൅ ൌ Ͳ
Npdv = ± vdp
Or ± Vdp = np dv

! &
The control volume is defined as the region or a certain
volume in space upon which concentration is focused to analyse an
open system. The control volume is bounded by a surface known as
control surface.
Both mass and energy crosses the control surface. The term
control volume is used in connection to the open system only.
Whenever the matter flows the system is considered to be a volume
of fixed identity known as control volume. Where as in close
system, the system is closed to flow of matter but volume can
change against flexible boundary.
High pressure air out
Motor Air compressor Heat
Control surface
Control volume
Low pressure air in
$J+" &

The equation of 1st law applied to any process is Q = ǻ E + W
Where ǻ E = change in internal Energy of System.
= ǻ K. E + ǻ PE + ǻ U
‫׵‬ Q = K. E + ǻP. E + ǻ U + W
]Ú
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Flow process is a process executed in a system of flowing
mass. Thus the process takes place in an open system can be termed
as flow process since the open system is system of flowing mass.
Hence when there is mass transfer across the system
boundary system is called open system. Thus the above equation of
energy refers to a system having particular mass of substance and it
is free to move from one place to another.
Thus K. E, P.E can not be neglected as in case of close
system (non flow processes)
Steam in
Shaft
Turbine
Control surface
Steam out
Let us consider a steam turbine through which steam is

flowing. Steam expands when it flows, through turbine. For this
energy equation is
Q = ǻ K. E + ǻ PE + ǻ U + W
To analyse open system two methods are followed.
1) According to Lagrange¶s method a certain mass of substance
is considered and it is followed as it travels through device
(turbine) and considering the energy interaction involved
during it¶s flow.
) According to Euler¶s method which is most widely used,
instead of concentrating a certain mass of moving substance
which can be called as moving system in flow process, the
attention is focused upon a certain region is space through
which substance flow known as control volume.
V0
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As the substance flows through control volume it¶s properties
changes. e.g. pressure, volume and temperature, of steam when it
flows through (expands) turbine. The changes in properties takes
place as expansion (flow) proceeds, with respect to space co
ordinates and time. But in most of flow device, constant rate of
flow mass and energy across control surface is maintained known
as steady flow device. Hence, the control volume in course of time
attains the steady state. At steady state, the thermodynamic property
has a fixed value at a particular location and dose not changes with
time. Hence, property changes only with respect to location or
space co ordinates but not vary with time. Steady state means
invariant with time. Hence such a flow process is called steady flow
process.

$7J+"*$,'&
Q
Control surface
dm1 (1)
Flow in Control Volume
W
Ï
P1 మ (1) Aj Steady Flow Device
V1 m/sec. () dm
m
Z v1 mÎ 1kg Flow out
u1 J/kg. A P m
m1 kg/sec. Z v
v
Datum Surface u
Let,
A1, A = Cross sectional area of flow at inlet (1 1) and exit ( )
m1, m = Mass flow rate at inlet and exit respectively kg/sec.
P1, P = Pressure with which fluid enter and leave in N/m
v1, v = Sp. Volume at inlet and exit respectively mÎ/kg.
V1
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V1, V = Velocity of flow at inlet and exit respectively m/sec.
u1, u = Specific internal energy of fluid at inlet and exit J/kg.
Z1, Z = Elevation of (1) (1) & () () from datum surface in
meter.
Ws = Work transfer in the form of shaft work through control
volume in J/kg.
Q = Heat transfer through control volume in J/kg.

&
According to law of conservation of mass since there is no
accumulation of mass inside control volume.
Mass flow rate at (1) ± (1) = Mass flow rate at () ± ()
M = m1 = m
ଵ ଵ ଶ ଶ
ൌ ൌ
ଵ ଶ

Know as continuity Equation.

% &
Equation of first law to flow device for a process.
Q=ǻE+W (1)
= (E ± E1) + W
Where ǻ E = change in internal Energy of system during process.
= E ± E1 E = KE + PE + U
= (KE + PE + U) ± (KE + PE + U1)
ൌ ቀ ଶଶ ൅ ଶ୥ ൅ ଶ ቁ െ ቀ ଵଶ ൅ ଵ୥ ൅ ଵ ቁ Ȁ

ଵ ଵ
ଶ ଶ
()
W = total work transfer during process. In above flow device

there are two types of work transfer present.
1) Shaft work (Ws)
) Flow Work
Let dm1 = mass of fluid at section (1) ± (1) at a given instant.
dm = mass of fluid at () ± () at same instant.
t = time in sec.
V
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Displacement or flow work done by fluid of mass dm1 when
it enters the flow device (control volume) is,
= ± P1v1dm1 joule = P1v1 Joule/kg. (For unit mass)
± ve sign since work is done by fluid when it enters control volume.
Similarly when fluid leaves the control volume, displacement
or flow work done upon fluid.
= Pvdm Joule,
For units mass = Pv Joule/kg
Total work transfer from control volume.
W = Ws + P V ± P1 v1
W = Ws + P v P1 v1 J/Kg «Î
Substituting values of equation () and (Î) in equation (1)
ଶଶ ଵଶ
ൌ ቈ ൅ ଶ ൅ ଶ ቉ െ ቈ ൅ ଵ ൅ ଵ቉ ൅ ୱ ൅ ଶ ଶ െ ଵଵ
ʹ ʹ
ଵଶ ଶଶ
‫׵‬ ൅ ଵ ൅ ଵ ൅ ൅ ଵଵ ൌ ൅ ଶ ൅ ଶ ൅ ଶଶ ൅ ୱ
ʹ ʹ
ሺଵ ൅ ଵ ଵሻ ൅ ൅ ଵ ൅ ൌ ሺଶ ൅ ଶ ଶሻ ൅ ൅ ଶ ൅ ୱ Joule/kg

}మభ }మమ
ଶ ଶ
The above equation is known as steady flow energy Equation

applied to flow process. All terms are in Joule/kg.
! J
Specific Enthalpy h = u + Pv J/kg.
S.F.E.E. Can be written as,
ଵଶ ଶଶ
ଵ

൅ ଵ ൅ ൌ ଶ ൅ ൅ ଶ ൅ ୱ
ʹ ʹ
Writing Ws as W
ଵଶ ଶଶ
ଵ

൅ ଵ ൅ ൌ ଶ ൅ ൅ ଶ ൅ Ȁ
ʹ ʹ
VÎ
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ୢ୫

ୢ୲
Multiplying Equation by mass flow rate m = m1 = m =
ଵ
ൌ ൌ

ଵଶ ଶଶ
ଵ ቆଵ ൅ ൅ ଵቇ ൅ Ԓଵ ൌ ቆଶ ൅ ൅ ଶ ቇ ଶ ൅ ଶ
ʹ ʹ
ଵଶ ଶଶ
ଵ ቆଵ ൅ ଵቇ ൅ ൌ ଶ ቆଶ ൅ ൅ ଶ ቇ ൅ Ȁ
ʹ ʹ
ୢ୯
ୢ୲
Above equation represents S.F.E.E. in Joule/sec. Where is heat
ୢ୵
ୢ୲
transfer rate and is work transfer rate.
Rewriting S.F.E.E. in J/kg as,
ଶଶ െ ଵଶ
ൌ ሺଶ െ ଵሻ ൅ ሺଶ െ ଵሻ ൅
ʹ
ൌ ȟ ൅ ȟǤ ൅ ȟǤ ൅
In differential form, S.F.E.E. is written as,

dQ = dh + dke +dpe +dw
V]
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+J J J+" !
3 MM+ JJ'
A nozzle is device of varying cross sectional area in the
direction of flow which increases the kinetic energy or velocity of
fluid at the expense of it¶s pressure energy.
Diffuser is also passage of varying cross section which
increases pressure of fluid at the expenses of it¶s kinetic energy.
Adiabatic Wall
(1) Throat
()
P1V1
Flow m PV
Z
Z1 (1)
()
Convergent Portion Divergent Portion
Thermodynamically the expansion through nozzle to be

adiabatic is desirable.
S.F.E.E. is written as,
ଵଶ ଵଶ
ଵ ൅ ൅ ଵ ൅ ൌ ଶ ൅ ൅ ଵ ൅
ʹ ʹ
Here, Q = 0, W = 0, ȟ P. E. = 0.
ଵଶ ଶଶ
‫ ׵‬ଵ ൅ ൌ ଶ ൅
ʹ ʹ
ଶଶ െ ଶଶ
ൌ ଵ െ ଶ
ʹ
ଵଶ ൌ ʹሺଵ െ ଶ ሻ ൅ ଵଶ
ଶ ൌ ටʹሺଵ െ ଶ ሻ ൅ ଵଶ Ȁ
VV
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) ':
Turbine is a device, which gives positive work output.
Whenever fluid flows through turbine it expands. There is
pressure drop. Thermodynamically it is desirable to have
adiabatic expansion through turbine.
m
WT
1 1

Turbine
Control surface

Here also Q = 0, ǻ K.E & ǻ PE are neglected.

‫ ׵‬S.F.E.E. becomes
h1 = h + W
Where tone from turbine W = h1 ± h J/kg
Î3 'J$
Both pump and rotary compressor compress the fluid
to increase it¶s pressure and deliver it. Hence both are power
consuming devices. Thermodynamically it is desirable to
have adiabatic compression process.
Control Surface
() ()
W

Motor Comp.
(1) (1)
Here also Q = 0, ǻ K.E & ǻ PE are neglected.
V6
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‫ ׵‬S.F.E.E. becomes

h1 = h ± W (Compressor or pump consumes work

hence it is ±ve)
W = h ± h1 J/kg
]3
% &
Reciprocating Compressor takes in low pressure air or gas &
compresses it to deliver at high pressure. Thermodynamically
it is desirable that compression should follow isothermal law.
Hence during process, heat is rejected by working fluid to
surrounding.
Low pressure High pressure
air in air out
Control Surface
Here ǻ K.E and ǻ PE are neglected.

h1 + Q = h ± W
W + Q = h ± h1
V3 #8#*2+9 3
The heat exchanger (boiler / condenser) are the devices
which transfer the heat from one fluid to another fluid. Let us
consider a steam condenser which condenses the steam by
using cold water. Water flows through tubes and team flows
over the tubes to cause the tubes to cause the heat transfer
when steam comes in contact with cold tube surface.
Vë
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Steam in
msi
Control Surface
Water in Water out

mwi mwo
mso
Condensate out
Let msi, mso = mass flow rate of steam entering and condensate
leaving kg/sec
mwi, mwo = mass flow rate of water entering and leaving kg/sec
For multi channel devices we use S.F.E.E. in rate form.
Here W = 0, ǻ K.E & ǻ P.E.
Q = 0 since there is no external heat interaction.
Heat interaction between steam and water is only within control
volume.
msi x his + mwi x hwi = mso x hso +mwo xhwo
msi = mso = ms and mwi = mwo = mw
or
ms (his ± hso) mw (hwo ±hwi)
"0 $J+" &

The S.F.E.E. in differential form is expressed as
dq = dh +dke + dpe +dw (1)
The specific enthalpy h = u + pv
Differentiating above equation.
dh = du + d(pv)
dh = du + pdv + vdp ()
For closed system the equation of 1st law is dq = du + pdv
Vw
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‫׵‬

Equation () becomes
dh = dq + vdp
Substituting values of dh in equation (1)
dq = dq + vdp + dke + dpe + dw
0 = vdp + dke + dpe + dw (Î)
In most of engineering system changes in K. E. and P. E. are
negligible dke = 0 and dpe = 0
‫׵‬ O = vdp + dw
dw = vdp
ଶ
ଶ
‫ ׵‬ൌ
ଵ
ଵ
ଶ
ଵିଶ ൌ
ଵ
This is work done for flow process.

P P
1 1
Non flow process Flow process
ଶ
«ଵ
ଶ

«ଵ
Work done for non process V Work done for flow process V
ଶ ଶ
i.e. «ଵ i.e. «ଵ
µ±ve¶ Sign in «ଵ െ

ଶ
makes the above term positive for
expansion process. This «ଵ െ

ଶ
is positive quantity and
represents work done by system in flow process.
VÚ
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$+JJ+" &
Rewriting equation (Î) of above article.
O = vdp + dke + dpe + dw
± «ଵ
ଶ
= ǻ KE + ǻ PE + W
‫׵‬ ǻ PE for most of Engg. Device is negligible.
Ȃ «ଵ = ǻ KE + W
ଶ
For nozzle W = 0, ‫« ׵‬ଵ = ǻ KE

ଶ
ଶଶ
െ ൌ
ʹ
For neglecting Velocity at inlet to nozzle.
For compressor ǻ K. E. = 0 Ȃ « ൌ െ
ଶ
ൌ
ଵ
'J+" &

For flow process, work done is ,
W1± = Ȃ «ଵ
ଶ
W=0 Since dp = 0
S.F.E.E. is dq = ǻ h + ǻ KE + ǻ PE, if ǻ PE = 0 & ǻ KE = 0 then
dq = ǻh
!+'J+" &
W1± = Ȃ «ଵ
ଶ
and if ǻ KE = 0 & ǻ PE = 0
= ±v [P ± P1] dq = ǻu
W1± = v[P1 ± P]
S.F.E.E. is dq = ǻu + pdv + vdp + ǻ KE + ǻ PE Ȃ «ଵ {vdp = Ȃ «ଵ
ଶ ଶ
'2 #+3 &

ଶ
ଵିଶ ൌ െ ଵଶ ൌ ൌ Ǥ ൌ
ଵ
ൌ

60
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ൌ െ

ଵ
ൌ െ ሾ ୣ ሿଵଶ
ൌ െ ୣ
ଶ
ଵ
ܹଵିଶ ൌ
ଵଵ ݈‫݃݋‬௘

ଵ

ଶ

2 3
ଶ
ଵିଶ ൌ െ ଵ ଵ ൌ ଶ ଶ ൌ ଶ ൌ
ஓ ஓ ஓ
ଵ
ଵ
ஓ
ൌ ൬ ൰

ଵ
ஓ
ଵିଶ ൌ െ ൬ ൰

ଶ ଵ
ൌ െ ஓ ஓ
ଵ
ଵ
ିଵ
ଵ ାଵ
ஓ
ൌ െ ൦
ஓ ൪
െͳ
൅ ͳ
ɀ
െͳ ଶ
቏
ଵ
ൌ െ ஓ ቎

െͳ
ଵ
ଵ
୰
ஓି୰ ஓିଵ
ൌ ቈଵ െ ଶ ቉
ஓ ஓ
െͳ
୰ିଵ ଵ ୰ିଵ ଵ
ൌ ቈଵ ሺଵ ଵሻ ୰ െ ଶ ୰ ሺଶ ଶ୰ ሻ ୰ ቉
୰ ୰
െͳ
୰ିଵ ଵ ୰ିଵ ଵ
ൌ ቈଵ ଵ ଵ െ ଶ ୰ ଶ୰ ଶ቉
୰ ୰
െͳ

ଵିଶ ൌ ሾ െ ଶ ଶ ሿ
െͳ ଵ ଵ

61
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+$ &
ଶ
ଵିଶ ൌ െ ଵଵ୬ ൌ ଶ ଶ୬ ൌ ୬ ൌ
ଵ
As approved for adiabatic process, replaying ߛ by n.
୬
୬Ȃଵ
W1± = [P1V1 ± P v]

% &
Throttling is an reversible process in which a fluid flowing
across a restriction undergoes a drop in pressure. Such a pressure
occurs in flow through a porous plug, a partially closed valve and
very narrow orifice. During throttling process the fluid expands
from high pressure to low pressure with out doing work and there is
no change in kinetic energy and potential energy of fluid as also
there is no heat transfer.
The process can be best understood by an experiment known
as Joule Thompson porous plug experiment.
Porous Plug
Thermometer
Flow P1 P
V1 V
T1 T
Insulation
Control Volume
Joule Thompson Porous Plug Experiment.

A steam of high pressure gas as P1 flow through an insulation
porous plug and cones out of lower pressure P.
Energy entering control volume ± Energy leaving control
volume = Energy stored in control volume.
6
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But steady flow energy equation is based on assumption that
sate of fluid at any point in control volume is maintained same.
Also control volume is equal to mass leaving. Hence there can not
be any accumulation f energy in control volume.
‫ ׵‬Energy Entering ± Energy leaving = 0
ቀଵ ൅ ൅ ଵ ቁ ൅ Ͳቀଶ ൅ ൅ ଶ ቁ െ ൌ Ͳ
}మ
భ }మ
మ
ଶ ଶ
For throttling ǻ K.E = 0 ǻ P.E = 0 Q=0 W=0

Hence h1 = h
Hence enthalpy of fluid remains constant during adiabatic

throttling process.
P1 Q are inversion points.
P P, G are inversion points
Cooling Heating Inversion curve
T Constant Enthalpy Covers
G .
P
When series of experiments are performed by Joule ±
Thompson at same initial temperature T1 and pressure P1 but with
different flow rates and different downstream pressure. It was
found that T change up to some extent. The results are plotted as
constant enthalpy curves on temperature ± pressure diagram for
different flow rates at P1 and T1 condition, a series of constant
enthalpy curves are obtained. Maximum point on each curve is
called inversion point. The locus of all such inversion points is
called inversion curve.
6Î
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The slop of constant enthalpy curve is called Joule
Thompson Coefficient (j) and is given by ȝ ൌ ቀ ቁ ୦

஬
஬Ê
j is +ve on left hand side of inversion point and j is ±ve on

right hand side of inversion point. It is zero on inversion point.
Change in pressure P ǻ is always ±ve during throttling process.
Hence on L. H. S of inversion curve throttling produces coding
effect and on R. H. S. of inversion curve it produces heating effect.
6]
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+"J# $

+

+:&
First law of thermodynamics states that when a system
undergoes a change of state a certain energy balance will hold work
and heat are mutually, convertible. But this law does not give any
clue on the direction of process.
Friction Brake
Fx
Flywheel
When a flywheel is stopped by a friction wheel (brake) the

brakes gets not from 1st law the K. E. lost by flywheel will be equal
to heat gained by brake whose temperature increases 1st law will be
equally satisfied if brakes were to cool and give back their internal
energy to flywheel to make it rotate. But this is not possible. Hence
action of brake in stopping flywheel is an irreversible process.
Hence there is directional law which imposes and limitation on
energy transformation which is provided by nd law of
thermodynamics.
According to Joules experiment when energy is supplied to
system in the form of work it can be completely converted into
heat. But complete conversion of heat into work in a cycle is not
possible.
6V
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Work is completely Heat is not completely

converted into heat converted into work
Q0 1 W 1
1±±1
1±±1
Q1
W1 W1 = Q 1 Q1 > W 1
Work is said to be high grade energy and heat as low grade

energy. Complete conversion of low grade energy into high grade
energy in a cycle is impossible.
$+#*&
A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there
is net heat transfer to system and a net work transfer from system.
A system which executes heat engine cycle is called cycle heat
engine.
Q1
WE

O
WC
Q
HO (g) Wt
Turbine
Q1 Condenser
Boiler
Q
Furnace Sea or River
HO (l) Pump
Cyclic Heat engine Wp

(Open system)
A heat engine may be in the form of a mass of gas
enclosed in a cylinder and piston machine or a mass of water
moving in a steady flow through steam power plant.
66
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Net heat transfer to heat engine Qnet = Q1 ± Q

Net transfer in cycle Wnet = WT ± WP or WE ± WP
From 1st law : Q = W
cycle cycle
Qnet = Wnet
Q1 ± Q = WT ± WP
Q1
WP P T WT
Q
Function of heat engine cycle is to produce the work

continuously at the expense of heat input.

#
% &
It is definition of ration of total work (net work) out put of
cycle to total heat input to cycle.
୛౪
Ä Ǥ୉Ǥ =
୕భ
୛౐ ି୛ౌ
୕
=
్భ ్మ
Ǥ୉Ǥୀ
Ș
్భ
ଶ
‫׵‬ ൌ ͳ െ
Ǥ୉Ǥ ଵ
Ș
Also known as thermal efficiency of heat engine cycle.

6ë
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#
( &
A heat reservoir is defined as a body of infinite heat
capacity which is capable of absorbing or rejecting an unlimited
quantity of heat without suffering any change in it¶s
temperature.
'&
The heat reservoir from which heat Q1 is transferred to
system operating in heat engine cycle is called source.
0&
Heat reservoir to which heat Q is rejected from system
during cycle is called sink.
SOURCE
Heat Reservoir
WP P T WT
Q
SINK
Heat Reservoir
0+!5+0

:
It states that ³It is impossible for a heat engine to produce
net work in a complete cycle if it exchanges the heat only with
bodies at a single fixed temperature´.
ൌ ൌ ͳ െ
୛౪ ୕మ
Efficiency of heat engine is given by Ä Ǥ୉Ǥ ୕భ ୕భ

Since heat input Q1 can never can be converted completely into

a work cycle. Hence Q1 > Wnet.
Hence Ș Ǥ୉Ǥ < 100% i.e. a H. E. can never be 100% efficient.
Hence > 0 i.e. there are always to be a heat rejection.
6w
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It is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a
cycle whose sole effect is to transfer heat from single heat reservoir
and its conversion into equal amount of work.
Hence to produce net work in a thermodynamic cycle heat
engine has to exchange heat with two reservoir maintained at
two different temperatures. i.e. source and sink.
SOURCE
at t1
Q1
HE Wnet = Q 1 ± Q
Q
SINK
at t1 t1 > t
t1
Q1
HE Wnet = Q 1
Q = 0
PMM II
If Q = 0 i.e. heat engine with produce net work in cycle
by exchanging heat with only one reservoir thus violating
Kelvin plank statement of II law of thermodynamics such a heat
engine is called perpetual motion machine of second PMM
which is impossible.
PMM ± Violation of Kelvin planks state.
+' '

&
Heat always flow from a body at height temperature to a
body at a lower temperature. The reverse process never occurs
spontaneously. Clausius statement states that ³If it is impossible
to construct a device which operating in a cycle will produce no
6Ú
J

c

effect body´. Hence heat can not flow itself from a body work
must expended to achieve this.
It is impossible to construct device operating in a cycle
whose sole effect is to transfer heat from L.T.R. to H.T.R.
%
&
A refrigerator is a device which operating in a cycle
maintains a body at a temperature lowers than the temperature
of surrounding.
As shown in Figure body A is maintain at temperature t
which is lower than surrounding temperature t1. Heat flow from
higher energy level. Hence there will be leakage of heat Q into
body from surrounding because of temperature difference. In
order to maintain body A at temperature t heat has to be
removed from body at the same rode at which it leaks into body.
This heat is discharged back to atmosphere which is done by
expenditure of work W. Supplied to a device known as
refrigerator which operates in a cycle.
There is performance parameter in refrigerator known as
coefficient of performance (C.O.P)
Atmosphere
at temp. t1
Q1 = Q + W
W R
Q
Body A Q
Maintained at Surrounding at temp. t 1
temperature t
ሾ Ǥ Ǥ Ǥ ሿ ൌ ൌ
t1 > t
ୈୣୱ୧୰ୣୢୣ୤୤ୣୡ୲ ୕మ
୛୭୰୩୧୬8୳୲ ୛
ଶ
ሾ ሿ ൌ
ଵ െ ଶ

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#
&
A heat pump is a device which operated in a cycle and
maintains a body at a temperature higher than the temperature of
surrounding.
Because of temperature difference heat Q1 leaks out of
body A. to maintain body A at temperature t1 the heat is
discharged into body at the same rate at which heat leaks out of
body. This heat is taken from surrounding (low temperature
reservoir) and discharged into body (higher temperature
reservoir) by expenditure of work W supplied to a device known
as heat temperature.
Body A at temp. t1 Q1
Q1 = Q + W
W HP
Q
Atmosphere at t t1 > t
ሾ Ǥ Ǥ ሿ ൌ ൌ
୕భ ୕భ
ǤÊǤ ୛ ୕భ ି୕మ
ଵ െ ଶ
Ǥ Ǥ ሿ ǤÊǤ ሾ Ǥ Ǥ ሿ୰ୣ୤ ൌ ൌͳ
ଵ െ ଶ
ሾ Ǥ Ǥ Ǥ ሿ ǤÊǤ ൌ ሾ Ǥ Ǥ Ǥ ሿ୰ୣ୤శభ

-( 0 (6

&
The equivalence of Kelvin Planck and Clausius statement
can be proved by the fact that violation of one statement implies
violation of second.
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3 %(

&
HTR at t1
Q1 = Q Q1
W=0 HP HE Wnet = Q 1 ± Q
Q Q t1 > t
LTR at t
Violation of Clausisus Statement
Q1 = Q Q1
HP W = Q1 ± Q HE
Q Q
LTR at t
PMM II
Let us consider a Heat Pump transfer the heat from low

temperature reservoir to high temperature reservoir without
expenditure of work thus violating Clausius Statement. Let us
cyclic Heat Engine operating between same two reservoirs
produces net work. Rate of working of Heat Engine is such that
it drawn a heat Q1 from high temperature reservoir. Hence, high
temperature reservoir can be eliminated and heat Q1 discharged
by H. P. can be fed directly to H. E. But this heat Q1 = Q i.e.
heat taken from low temperature reservoir. Hence, Heat Pump
and Heat Engine constitute a heat engine together which
operating in cycle and produce Wnet by exchanging heat only
with one reservoir thus violating Kelvin Planck Statement.
ë
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.3 %(
0 (6

&
Let us consider a heat engine which produces net work in
a cycle by exchanging heat with only one heat reservoir thus
violating Kelvin Planck Statement. Let a heat pump extract heat
Q from cold reservoir and discharge heat to hot reservoir with
expenditure of work W which is equal to work delivered by heat
engine. Hence, H. P. and H. E. constitute a heat pump together
which produces sole effect on transferring heat from cold to hot
reservoir thus violating Clasusius Statement.
HTR at t1
Q1 Q1 ് Q + W
HE W = Q1 HP
Q = 0 Q
LTR at t
Violation of Kelvin Planck Statement

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! +$ ! +$&
( . &
A reversible process is a process which is performed in
such a way that at the conclusion both system and surrounding
are restored to initial states.
Let a system is taken from state A to state B by following
path A. B. if the process is performed in reverse direction by
following same path B A such that both system and surrounding
are brought to initial state then the process A B is called
reversible process. Hence, in a reversible process it will be
impossible to know whether the process has performed or not if
the reversibility is achieved in a process.
A reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with
infinitely small gradient so that every state passed through by
system is an equilibrium state. So a reversible process is like
quassi static.
( . &

A natural process is an irreversible process. It is carried out with
finite gradient. All spontaneous process are irreversible process.
1. Lack of equilibrium during a process.
. Involvement of dissipative effects.
) ( .

6 -.
a) Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference:
A reversible neat transfer process is one in which heat
is transferred through infinitely small temperature
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difference. Hence to transfer a finite amount of heat by
infinitely small temperature difference we need infinite
area and time which is not possible. Hence all actual heat
transfers are irreversible.
.3 +6 -.&
When there exists a difference in pressure between
system and surrounding or within system then both
system and surrounding will undergo change of state. The
system will be brought to initial state when mechanical
equilibrium is achieved. The reverse process is not
possible spontaneously.
3 J ) &
Let a container is divided into two compartments A and B
by thin diaphragm compartment. A contains mass of gas
while B is evacuated. If diaphragm is punctured the gas in
A will expand in to B until pressure in A and B becomes
equal. The reverse of this process can never take place
spontaneously. Hence it is irreversible process.
J ) &
Gas Vacuum

!
Diaphragm

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( .

(
&
3 J&
When brake is applied on flywheel it bough to rest K. E.
of flywheel is stored in brake to increase it¶s molecular
internal energy there by increasing it¶s temperature. But
reversal of this process i.e. to rotate flywheel by cooling
the brake is impossible. Hence, work can be transformed
into internal energy. Reversibility of this ca not is
achieved.
Flywheel Brake
/3 +"#+"0 J&
Work is transferred to a gas in cylinder by paddle wheel
to increase internal energy of gas. But gas can not produce
paddle wheel work by the cost of it¶s internal energy in
reverse process. Hence, dissipation of paddle work into
internal energy is irreversible.
Insulation
Work
Gas
$+&
A Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle. A reversible cycle is
ideal cycle in which all the processes are reversible processes.
Let us consider a close system (gas) in a piston cylinder
machine working between two bodies of infinite heat capacity
source and sink. The cylinder is adiabatic from all sides except
from one face which can be made adiabatic by bringing
ë6
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adiabatic cover when required. A Carnot cycle consists of
following four processes.
Q1
O%) %*+%
!%'(
WE
Pertact Gas
WC O"#$% %&'
I. C. !%'(
Insulation Q
1 Q1 Rev Isothermal Expn.

Wc
WE
Rev. Adiabatic Expn.
Rev.Adia. ]
Compn. Q Î
Rev. Isothermal Compn.
3 ( .

&
In this process heat Q1 is supplied to system at constant
temperature t1 when cylinder is in contact with diathermia
cover. During this process work is done by system.
Internal energy does not change.
/3 ( . .

&
Cylinder covered with adiabatic cover and gas expands
adiabatically and WE work is done by system reversibly
and adiabatically at the cost of decrease in internal
energy.
Î3 ( .
&
Cylinder is covered with diathermia cover and system
leaves the heat Q at constant temperature to sink which is
equal to energy supplied to system in form of work.
Internal energy is constant.
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]3 ( . .
&
Cylinder is covered with adiabatic cover and gas is
compressed further reversibly and adiabatically with W C
work on system. All energy is utilized to increase internal
energy of system.
A.H.E operating on Carnot cycle is called as Carnot heat engine.
SOURCE
Q1
t1 BOILER t
WP PUMP TURBINE WT
Wnet = WT ± W P
= Q1 ± Q
t CONDENS t
Q Carnot H.E. in steady flow system
SINK t

(
%
A Carnot cycle consist of all reversible processes hence it
can be imagined that all processes are reserved individually and
carried out in reserved order. When a reversible process is
reserved all energy transfer are reserved only in direction not is
magnitude. Such a heat engine is called reserved Carnot heat
engine.
SOURCE t 1
Q1
WP P E T WT
C Wnet = WT WP
Q
SINK t t1 > t
Carnot H.E.
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t1 HTR
Q1
WP P E T WT
C Wnet
Q
t LTR t1 > t
Reserved Carnot H.E.
A reserved Carnot H.E. takes heat from low temp

reservoir and discharge heat to high temperature reserved
reservoir with the expenditure of net work. Hence refrigerator
and heat pump are reserved heat engine.
4 #
I) If states that of all the heat engine operating between a given
constant temperature source and constant temperature sink none
has a higher efficiency then a reversible heat engine.
Let us consider two heat engines EA and EB operating between
source at t1 and sink at t EA be any heat engine and EB is a
reversible heat engine we have to prove
ȘEB > ȘEA
let us assume that ȘEA > ȘEB.
Rate of working is such that
Q1A = Q1B = Q1
‫׵‬ ൐
୛ఽ ୛ా
୕భఽ ୕భా
Since, ȘEA > ȘEB
‫ ׵‬WA > W B
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SOURSE t 1
QIA QIB
EA WA EB WB
QA QB
SINK t
Let EB is reversed
t1 t1
QIA QIB QIA QIB
WA WB WA
EA EB EA WB EB
QA QB QA QB
t t
Since W A > WB some part of W A = W B can be directly fed

to run B and since Q1B = Q1A the heat discharged by B can be
fed to drive A. Hence source can be eliminated so that EA and
EB constitute a H. E. which produce network by exchanging heat
only with one reservoir thus violating Kelvin Planck statement.
Hence ȘEA < ȘEB
II) All reversible heat engines working between same temperatures.
Limits have same efficiency. As shown in Fig. below. Let us
consider two heat engines EA and EB. Let us assume ȘA > ȘB. If
EB is reserved to run as heat pump as shown in figure by
using some part of work output WA of engine EA. Hence
combine system of heat pump (i.e. reserved heat engine) EB and
HE. EA becomes a PMM which violates II law of thermo
w0
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dynamics. Hence ȘA cannot be greater than ȘB. Similarly ȘB
cannot be greater than ȘA. i.e. ȘA should be equal to B.
Hence ȘA = ȘB.
t1 t1
QIA QIB QIA QIB
WA WB WA WB
EA EB EA EB
QA QB QA QB
t t
# $' +&
Water
,-.
Hg
Alcohol
Temp. 1000C
The magnitude of any property of a substance which
changes with temperature known as thermometric property can
be used as measure of temperature and to define temperature
scale. There exist a relationship between thermometric property
of substance and temperature like length of column of liquid
in capillary connected to a bulb, electrical resistance of
wire, and e.m.f. of thermocouple. Temperature scales have been
developed using ice and steam points as references and these
relationship may not agree at all the points on the scale
except the reference points. Because of these temperature
indicated by different thermometers may be different except at
all fixed points at which they are calibrated. This is due to the
fact the points are marked with reference to freezing and boiling
w1
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point of water without calibrating properties of different fluids
in between these two points as shown in figure. Hence, it is
necessary to have some device which should read temperature
without affecting by property of thermometric sub. Such device
can be used to calibrated thermometer over it¶s whole range. A
temp. scale which is independent of property of thermometer
sub is defined as thermodynamic temperature scale.
The efficiency of heat engine (Reversible engine) is given by:
Ä୰ୣ୴ ൌ Äୡୟ୬୬୭୲ ൌ ͳ െ
୕మ
Ǥ୉Ǥ ୕భ
According to cannot theorem the efficiency of all H.E.

operating between same temperature limit is same i.e. Ä ୰ୣ୴
Ǥ୉Ǥ
depends only upon T1 and T is
Fluid used in the cycle. Hence Ä୰ୣ୴ ൌ ͳ െ ൌ ሺଵ ଶሻ

୕మ
୕భ
ͳ െ ൌ ሺଵ ଶ ሻ ൌ ሺଵ ଶ ሻ
୕మ ୕భ
୕భ ୕మ
OR OR
In given arrangement of heat engines
Heat Reservoir t1
QI QIB
Q1
E1
W1
Q
t EÎ
Q
WÎ
E W QÎ
QÎ
Heat Reservoir tÎ
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©భ ©
©మ
= F (t1, t), = F(t,t)
©
For EÎ operating between t1 & tÎ

୕భ
୕మ
= F (t1, tÎ)
୕భ ୕భ Ȁ୕ ൫୲భ ୲
୕మ ୕మ Ȁ୕ ൫୲మ ୲
= =
୕భ ൫୲భ ୲
୕మ ൫୲మ ୲
OR = F (t1, t) =
©భ
©మ
Since ratio depends only on t1 and t not tÎ. Hence cancelling
tÎ from numerator and denominator and writing new functions.

୕భ மሺ୲భ ሻ
୕మ மሺ୲మ ሻ
= F (t1, t) =
As proposed by Kelvin absolute thermodynamic temperature is

defined as Ԅ (T) = T. hence,
୕భ భ
୕మ మ
= F (t1, t ) =
( . #

%
୕ ୕భ
Șrev = Șmax = 1 ± మ = 1 ±
మ భ
୕భ భ ୕మ మ
since =
Since Ș is always less than 1, T is always greater than zero.

The COP of refrigerator is given by
୕మ ଵ
୕భ ି୕మ
= ్భ
ିଵ
[ COP] ref =
్మ
୕భ భ
୕మ మ
For reversible refrigerator = =
ଵ మ
౐భ
ିଵ భ ିమ
[COP]rev ref = =
౐మ
Similarly COP of a reversible heat pump.

మ ୕భ
భ ିమ ୕భ ି୕మ
[COP]rev ref = =

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$
+' ' # J$
Rev. adiabatic process
i
Rev. Isothermal Process
a b
f Any reversible path i f

P
V
Let a system is taken from an equilibrium state i to
another equilibrium state of by a rev. path i ± f. Let two rev.
adiabatic process ia and b f are drawn through i and f
respectively Let a b is a rev. isothermal process drawn in such a
way that
A(i a b f) = A(i f)
Applying 1st law of thermodynamics,
Process i f Qi f = Uf ± Ui + Wif (1)
Process i a b f Qiabf = Uf ± Ui + wiabf ()
Since A(i a b f) = A(i f)
Hence Wif = Wiabf
‫ ׵‬From (1) and ()
Qif = Qiabf
= Qia + Qab + Qbf
But Qia = Qbf = 0 (Reversible adiabatic process)
‫ ׵‬Qif = Qab
i.e. heat transferred in process i f is equal to heat
transferred in isothermal process a b, thus any reversible path
may be replaced by a zigzag path between same and sates. Such
that heat transfer during all isothermal process is equal to heat
transfer in original cycle. Thus original cycle is replaced by
large number of Carnot cycles.
w]
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dQ1
Original Rev. Cycle
dQÎ TÎ
Rev. adiabatic
a b process
Rev. Isotherms
dQÎ
P
T
T]
dQ]
For an element Carnot cycle a b c d in which dQ1 is heat

transferred reversibly at T1 and dQ heat rejected reversibly at
ଵ ଵ
T .
ൌ
ଶ ଶ
Taking heat supplied +ve and heat rejected ±ve.
ൌ
ୢ୕మ ୢ୕మ
భ మ
=0
ൌ
ୢ୕భ ୢ୕
Similarly for cycle efgh =0

ଵ ଶ ଷ ସ
Hence for all Carnot cycle i.e. for original cycle
൅ ൅ ൅ ൅ െ െ െെൌ Ͳ
ଵ ଶ ଷ ସ
‫ୖׯ‬ ൌͲ
ୢ୕
OR

Where R indicates that equation is valid fro reversible

cycle. This is known as Clausis Theorem which states that when
a system is taken through a reversible cycle, Cyclic integral of
dQ/T is zero which is the characteristics of a property. Hence
dQ/T is a property known as empty. The word empty means
energy transformation.
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;

Let a system taken from state i to f by reversible path R1
and then f to i by a reversible path R to constitute a cycle.
i
R
P
R1
f
V
From Clausius theorem

ර ൌͲ
ୖభ ୖమ
୤ ୧

൅ ൌ Ͳ
ୖ౟భ ୖ౜మ
୤ ୧

ൌ െ ൌ Ͳ
ୖ౟భ ୖ౜మ
Since R is a reversible path,

୤ ୧

ൌ െ ൌ Ͳ
ୖ౟భ ୖ౜మ
is
୤ ୢ୕
Thus «ୖ
౟
independent of the reversible path

connecting i and f and it depend only upon the initial and final
entropy is a property of
୤ ୢ୕
state of system i and f. thus i.e. «ୖ
౟
system denoted by S.
If Si and Sf are entropies at initial and final state then
= Sf ± Si
୤ ୢ୕
«ୖ
౟
=

ൌ
ୢ୕
ds is an exact differential and hence entropy (S) is a

point of function.
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+' ','+$&
Rev. adiabatic Process
Rev. Isothermal Process
dQ1
A B
dQ
D C
AB ² General process either reversible of irreversible.

CD ² Reversible isothermal process.
ABCD ² Constitute a cycle.
For an elementary cycle.
Ș ൌ ͳ െ
ୢ୕మ
ୢ୕
Since maximum efficiency is posses by a reversible cycle.

Hence efficiency of a general cycle will be equal to or less than
ଶ ଶ
efficiency of a reversible cycle.
‫ ͳ ׵‬െ ൑ ൬ͳ െ ൰

ଶ ଶ
൑ ൬ ൰

൑ ൬ͳ െ ൰
ଶ ଶ

൬ ൰ ൌ
ଶ ଶ

‫ ׵‬ ൑
ଶ ଶ
= ൑
ୢ୕ ୢ୕మ
మ
(1)

But for a reversible process C ± D.

ൌ
ୢ୕మ
మ
൑/
ୢ୕
‫׵‬
From equation (1)
for a process AB.
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(ds) any process ൑ (ds) rev.

For any cycle ‫ׯ‬ ൑ ‫ ׯ‬

ୢ୕

Since entropy is property ‫ׯ‬୰ୣ୴Ǥ ൌ Ͳ

‫׵‬ ‫ׯ‬
ୢ୕
൑0 known as Clausius in equality.

This equation is known as Clausius Inequality.
If ‫ׯ‬ ൌ 0 then cycle is reversible.

ୢ୕

If ‫ׯ‬
ୢ୕
0 then cycle is irreversible and possible.

If ‫ׯ‬ ൐ 0 then cycle is not possible since it violates II law of

ୢ୕

thermodynamics.

(.
&
For a system undergoes a cycle, as per the CLAUSIUS
INEQUALITY.
‫ׯ‬
ୢ୕
0

Above equation can be written as:
‫ׯ‬ ൅ ൌ 0
ୢ୕

Where I is known as measure of irreversibility which

should satisfy the condition.
൒ Ͳ
For a system executing a process,
൅ ൌ Ͳ
ୢ୕

µI¶ is irreversible during a process which is directly given

by entropy i.e. I = ds.
For a reversible process I ± 0 i.e. ds = 0.
For an irreversible process I > 0 i.e. ds > 0.
Hence I is measure of irreversibility more will be value of
I i.e. ds will be more and process will be more irreversible.
ww
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For any process undergone by system the change in entropy is

related by equation.
൑
OR ൒
ୢ୕

For an isolated system there is no energy interaction with

surrounding. Hence dQ = 0.
For an isolated system dsiso ൒ 0.
For a reversible process dsiso = 0.
S = constant (1)
For an irreversible process
dsiso > 0 ()
Ǥ
Hence from (1) and () it is concluded that entropy of an
isolated system can never decrease. It always increases and
remains constant when the process is reversible. This is known
as principle of increase of entropy.
For all possible process the system has undergone in
surrounding
dsuniv ൒ 0.
dssys + dssurr ൒ 0
System
Surrounding
Isolated System or Universe

Entropy may decrease at some region but it must be
compensated by greater increase of entropy somewhere within
system so that net effect of process is an entropy increase of
whole universe. Since all real processes in universe are
wÚ
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irreversible only those processes can occur in which net change
of entropy of universe increases.
5

&
Let a system is taken from equilibrium state i to
equilibrium state f by an irreversible path. Since entropy is a
point function, finding change in entropy during irreversible
process, the irreversible path is to be replaced by a reversible
path for performing integration.
i R Rev. Path which replaces

the irreversible path
T Actual irreversible path
Si ds Sf
S
୤
୰ୣ୴
‫ ׵‬୤ െ ୧ ൌ ൌ ሺሻ୧୰୰୴ୣ
୧
8ୟ୲୦
ୢ୕౨
For a process ds =
If process is reversible dQ = 0 and ds = 0 ‫ ׵‬s = constant.

dQrev. = T ds
୤
୰ୣ୴Ǥ ൌ
୧
The are under the T S curve is equal to heat transfer in the

process.
Qrev = « ܶ

i R
T
1
i ds f
S
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Unit of entropy is J/oK. It is an extensive property.

%
Considering a perfect gas of 1 kg mass. From equation of
1st law of thermodynamics applied to a process.
dQ = dU + dW
= dU + PdV diving by T
+
ୢ୕ ୢ୙ Ê
=

For a perfect gas of unit mass PV = RT

= ୖ
}
‫׵‬ = Cv x
ୢ୕ ୢ ୢ}
+ R Also dU = C v dT
}
ୢ୕
Integrating above equation, = ds

«ଵ = Cv «ଵ
ଶ ଶ ୢ ଶ ୢ}
+ R «ଵ
}
మ }మ
భ }భ
S ± S1 = Cv loge + R loge
(A)
Êభ } మ Êమ } మ
భ మ
From general gas equation = =
}మ మ Êభ
}భ భ Êమ
= x
‫׵‬ Relation (A) becomes
+ R loge భ
మ Ê మ

భ Êమ భ
S ± S1 = Cv loge
మ భ మ
భ Êమ భ
= Cv loge + R loge + R loge
ሾ } ൅ =ሿ ൅ =
మ Êభ
భ Êమ
= loge
Ê െ } ൌ =
൝= ൅ } ൌ Ê ൡ + R loge
మ Êభ

భ Êమ
S ± S1 = CP loge (B)
Equation of 1st law of thermodynamics

dQ = dU + PdV
h = u + PV
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dh = du + PdV + VdP ‫ ׵‬du = dh ± PdV ± VdP

‫ ׵‬dQ = dh ± PdV ± VdP + PdV

dQ = dh ± Vdp Dividing equation by T.
=
ୢ୕ ୢ୦ }
± dP, PV = RT

} ୖ
Ê
= ,

‫׵‬
ୢ୕ ୢ ୢÊ
Ê
= CP ±R also dh = CP d T

ୢ ୢÊ
Ê
Ds = CP ±R

Integrating above equation
«ଵ = CP «ଵ
ଶ ଶ ୢ ଶ ୢÊ
± R «ଵ
Ê
మ Êమ
భ Êభ
S ± S1 = CP loge ± R loge

For a Polytrophic process in perfect gas the heat
transferred is given by
ୖమ భ
୬ିଵ
ÿି୬
dQ = x dw dw = pdV =
௬ି௡
ÿିଵ
௬ିଵ
dQ = pdV Dividing equation by T.
ୢ୕ ÿି୬ Êୢ}
= x PV = RT
ÿିଵ
Ê ୖ
=
}
ൌ =
Ȗି୬ ୢ}
Integrating the equation
Ȗିଵ }
ଶ ଶ
Ȗെ
ൌ =
Ȗെͳ
ଵ ଵ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ =
Ȗି୬ }మ
}భ
(1)
Ȗିଵ
ଵ
}మ ୬ିଵ
ൌ ቀ ቁ ‫׵‬ ൌቀ ቁ
భ }మ భ ୬ିଵ
మ }భ }భ మ
For polytrophic process
ଵ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ = ቀ ቁ
Ȗି୬ భ ୬ିଵ
Ȗିଵ మ
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ଶ െ ଵ ൌ =
ଵ

భ
୬ିଵ
Ȗି୬
మ
CP ± CV = R
െ ͳ ൌ =
Ȗିଵ
ୡ8
ୡ୴ ୴
} ሺȖ െ ͳሻ
ଵ

భ
(ɀ െ ͳ) = R
୬ିଵ
Ȗି୬
మ
= CV
Ȗିଵ
ɀെ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ } ൬ ൰
ଵ
െͳ ଶ
From equation (1)
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ = R = CV (Ȗ െ ͳ)
Ȗି୬ }మ
}భ
Ȗ ൌ
Ȗିଵ
ି୬
ሺȖ െ ͳሻ
}మ
ౌ

}భ
=
Ȗିଵ
=ቀ െ ቁ ቀ మ ቁ
େÊ }
େ} }భ
ଶ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ ሺ െ ሻ ൬ ൰
ଵ

! &
For constant volume process dw = 0
‫ ׵‬Heat transfer dQ = dU
ൌ
ୢ୕ ୢ୙

‫ ׵‬ ൌ }
ୢ୕ ୢ
Integrating the equation.

ଶ ଶ
ൌ }
ଵ ଵ
For constant voltmeter process
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ } ൬ ൰
ଶ
ൌ
Êభ మ
Êమ
ଵ
మ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ } ൬ ൰ ൌ
ଶ Êభ మ
ଵ Êమ భ
ÚÎ
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% % %

%

&
System Boundary
Q
Reservoir A Reservoir B
T1 T
T1 > T
Let Q be the rate of heat transfer from reservoir B at T.
Since T1 > T
For reservoir A.
Change in entropy ୅ ൌ െ

୕
భ
±ve sign is because heat Q flows out of reservoir A.

For reservoir B.
Change in entropy ୆ ൌ െ

୕
మ
୆ is +ve because heat Q flow into the reservoir B.

Hence net change in entropy of system,
ǻS = ǻS A + ǻSB
= െ ൅
୕ ୕
భ మ
భ ିమ
ǻS = Q
భ మ
‫ ׵‬dQ = dh ± PdV ± VdP + PdV

dQ = dh ± VdP Dividing equation by T.
ൌ െ
ୢ୕ ୢ୦ }
PV = RT

ൌ
} ୖ
Ê
‫ ׵‬ ൌ െ =
ୢ୕ ୢ ୢÊ
Ê
Also dh = CP dT

ൌ െ =
ୢ ୢÊ
Ê
Integrating above equation
Ú]
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ଶ ଶ ଶ

ൌ െ =

ଵ ଵ ଵ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ Ê െ =
ଶ ଶ
ଵ ଵ

&
For a polytrophic process in perfect gas the heat
transferred is given by:
ൌ ൌ ൌ
ୖሺమ Ǥభ ሻ
୬ିଵ
Ȗି୬
Ȗିଵ
ൌ
Ȗି୬
Dividing equation by T.
Ȗିଵ
ൌ
ୢ୕ Ȗି୬ Êୢ}
PV = RT
Ȗିଵ
ൌ
Ê ୖ
}
ൌ =
Ȗି୬ ୢ}
Ȗିଵ }
ଶ ଶ
Ȗ െ
ൌ =
Ȗ െ ͳ
ଵ ଵ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ =
Ȗି୬ }మ
}భ
(1)
Ȗିଵ
ଵ
}మ ୬ିଵ
ൌ ቀ ቁ ‫׵‬ ൌቀ ቁ
భ }మ భ ୬ିଵ
మ }భ }భ మ
For polytrophic process
ଵ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ = ቀ ቁ
Ȗି୬ భ ୬ିଵ
Ȗିଵ మ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ =
ଵ భ
୬ିଵ
Ȗି୬
మ
CP ± CV = R
Ȗିଵ
െ ͳ ൌ =
ୡ8
ୡ୴ ୴
} ሺȖ െ ͳሻ
ଵ

భ (ɀ െ ͳ) = R
୬ିଵ
Ȗି୬
మ
= CV
Ȗିଵ
ɀെ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ } ൬ ൰
ଵ
െͳ ଶ
ÚV
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From equation (1)
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ = R = CV (Ȗ െ ͳ)
Ȗି୬ }మ
}భ
Ȗ ൌ
Ȗିଵ
ି୬
ሺȖ െ ͳሻ
}మ
ౌ

}భ
=
Ȗିଵ
=ቀ െ ቁ ቀ మ ቁ
େÊ }
େ} }భ
ଶ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ ሺ െ ሻ ൬ ൰
ଵ

! &
For constant volume process dw = 0
‫ ׵‬Heat transfer dQ = dU
ൌ
ୢ୕ ୢ୙

‫ ׵‬ ൌ }
ୢ୕ ୢ

ଶ ଶ
ൌ }
ଵ ଵ
For constant voltmeter process
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ } ൬ ൰
ଶ
ൌ
Êభ మ
Êమ మ
ଵ
ଶ െ ଵ ൌ } ൬ ൰ ൌ
ଶ Êభ మ
ଵ Êమ భ
% % %

%

&
System Boundary
Q
Reservoir A Reservoir B
T1 T
T1 > T
Ú6
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Let Q be the rate of heat transfer from reservoir B at T.
Since T1 > T
For reservoir A.
Change in entropy ୅ ൌ െ

୕
భ
±ve sign is because heat Q flows out of reservoir A.

For reservoir B.
Change in entropy ୆ ൌ െ

୕
మ
୆ is +ve because heat Q flow into the reservoir B.

Hence net change in entropy of system,
ǻS = ǻS A + ǻSB
= െ ൅
୕ ୕
భ మ
భ ିమ
ǻS = Q
భ మ
If T1 > T ǻS = +ve and process in irreversible and possible.

If T1 = T ǻS = 0 and process is reversible.
If T1 < T ǻS = ±ve and process is impossible since it violets II
law of thermodynamic.
$% %)%
:

Fluid 1 m1 m Fluid
C1 C
t1 t
When partition is removed two fluids of mass m1 & m

mix. Together. Since t1 > t. Fluid I will loss heat . Let at
equilibrium t f is the final temperature of mixture.
Hence t < tf < t1. Such a system is isolated system since
energy interaction is taking place within system.
(Energy) Heat lost by fluid 1 = (Energy) Heat gain by fluid
Úë
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m1 C1 (t1 ± t f) = m C (tf ± t)
m1 C1 t1 ± m1C1t f = m Ct f ± m C t
tf (m1 C1 + m C) ± m1C1 + C ) ± m1C1t1 + mCt
ଵ ଵଵ ൅ ଶ ଶ ଶ
୤ ൌ
ଵ ଵ ൅ ଶ ଶ
All temperatures in 0 k
Change in entropy of fluid 1.

భ
ଵ ൌ െ െ ϐͳǤ

౜
heat flows away from fluid1.

౜
ൌ െ ଵ ଵ
భ
భ
౜
ǻS1 = m1C1 loge
Entropy change for fluid ,

౜
ǻଶ ൌ
మ
+ve sign since heat dQ flows into fluid

౜
ൌ ଶ ଶ
మ
ଶ ൌ ଶ ଶ
୤
Net change in entropy of universe

ǻS = ǻS1 + ǻS
భ ౜
౜ మ
ǻS = m1C1 loge + mC loge
From general Law

ଵଵ ଶ ଶ
ൌ
ଵ ଶ
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ଶଶ
ൌ

ଶ
ଵ ଵଵ

ൌ ቀ భ ቁ ቀ మ ቁ
} } }
}మ }
ଵ } ଵ ିଵ
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൬ ൰
ଶ ଶ
ଵ ୰ିଵ
ቈ ൌ ൬ ൰ ቉
ଶ
ଵ ଶ
ଶ ଶ
ൌ
ଶ
ଶ ଵଵ
ଵ
ଶ ଵ ଵ ୰
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൬ ൰
ଵ ଶ
ଵ
ଵ ିଵ ଵ ୰
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൬ ൰
ଶ ଶ
భ౨
ቈ ൌ ቀ ቁ ቉
మ Êభ ౨
భ Êమ
Work done on earlier

W = PdV
ൌ

ൌ

௥

ൌ ି௥
ଵି௥
ൌ
ଵ ଵ௥
ͳെ‫ݎ‬
ൌ

ଵଵ
ͳെ
ൌ ܹܴ

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!++$
(. '(. %&
Work is termed as high grade energy and heat as low
grade energy. Work is only form of energy which can be
directly and completely used for fruitful purpose. The other high
grade energy and low grade energy are :
High Grade Energy Low Grade Energy
a) Mechanical work Heat energy
b) Electrical energy Nuclear energy
c) Water power Heat from combustion
d) Wind power of fossil fuel
Bulk of these high grade energy in the form of mechanical
work is obtained from the low grade energy as source through a
cyclic heat engine. But according to II law of thermodynamics
complete conversion of low grade energy i.e. heat into high
grade energy i.e. work is impossible. Part of low grade energy
i.e. heat which is available for the conversion into high grade
energy i.e. work is called as (. %.
Rest part of low grade energy which is rejected by cyclic heat
engine by II law of thermodynamics is known as (.
%
(. %(. %

3 #

( 2 3
(. %&
The maximum work output obtained from a certain heat input in
a cyclic heat engine is called available energy.
Hence W max = A. E.
100
J

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'(. %&
Minimum energy that has to be / rejected to the sink by
cyclic heat engine is called unavailable energy.

Q1 (Heat Input)
E Wmax = A. E.
Q = U. E.

Q = U. E.
If Q1 is heat input then
Q1 = A. E. + U. E.
Wmax = A. E. = Q1 ± U. E.
Efficiency of reversible heat engine is given by,
ÄǤ ൌ ͳ െ
ଶ
Since for given T1. Value of Ș rev. increase as T

decreases. The lowest practicable temperature at which heat is
୫ୟ୶
to be rejected is the temperature of surrounding To
‫ ׵‬Ș ൌ ͳ െ Ș ൌ

୭
ଵ ଵ
ܹ ௫ ൌ ܳଵ ൤ͳ െ ൨
୭
ଵ
For a finite process heat is supplied reversibly. Taking

elemental cycle ? let dQ1 is heat supplied to engine
reversibly at T1 then
T dQ1 y
a b T1
To c d
S
101
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c

A.E = dw max = ͳ െ బ dQ1

்

்భ
For whole process x y.
୫ୟ୶ ൌ ଵ െ ଵ

ÿ ÿ ÿ

୶ ୶ ୶ ଵ
ቄ ൌ ୶ିÿ ൌ ୫ୟ୶ ൌ ୶ିÿ െ ሾሿ୶

ୢ୕భ ÿ
భ
Wmax = A.E = Qxy ± T0 [ Sy ± Sx]
U.E = Qxy ± A.E.

= Qxy ± Qxy + T0 [S y ± Sx ]
U.E = T0 (Sy ±Sx)
Hence U.E is product of lowest temperature of heat

rejection and change in entropy of system during a process of
heat supply.
T y
Qxy
x Wmax = W xy = A.E.
T0
U.E = T 0 (S y ± Sx)
Sx Sy S

(. % :

When heat is transferred from a finite source, the source
decrease as heat flows to heat engine start. While temperature of
working fluid of cycle increases the heat rejection takes place to
surrounding of constant temperature since A.E. i.e. W should be
maximum.
Let a hot gas of mass mg. at temperature T is cooled. At
constant pressure from state 1 to state Î at temperature to by
using a worked fluid of mass mwf. Hence heat Q1 given by gas
10
J

c

is utilized to heat W.F. from state Î to state 1 reversibly along
same part. Hence temperature difference between gas and W.F.
is zero at any in stand and entropy increase of universe is zero
W.F. then expand is entropic ally fro 1 to to produce work WE
and reject heat Q isothermally at constant temperature To and
returns to state Î to complete cycle.
‫ ׵‬ଵ ൌ ሺ െ ሻ ൌ ୵୤ ୵୤ሺ െ ሻ
‫ ׵‬ൌ ୵୤ ୵୤
T Q1 mg
WE =A.E.
mwf

T0

V ] V
Change in entropy of gas (As) gas

்ܳ ்
ൌെ ൌ െ ݃݃
ଵ ܶ
்బ ܶ ்బ ܶ

ሺሻ ൌ െ

ଵ
୵୤ ൌ ൌ ୵ ୵ ൌ ୵ ୵

୭
୳୬୴ ൌ ሺሻ ൅ ሺሻ ൌ Ͳ ୵୤ ୵୤ ൌ Ǥ

୭
ଶ
ൌ ୵୤ ֜ ଶ= U.E. = ୵୤ ୵୤

బ
Q = U.E = T0 mg Cpg log
A.E = Wmax
= Q1 ± Q

బ
= mg Cpg (T± T0 ) ± mg Cpg log

బ
A.E = Wmax = mg Cpg [(T ±T0) ± To log ]
10Î
J

c

#

%

When the heat is supplied to the system with finite
temperature difference then heat transfer process is irreversible
process according to II law. In this case there is decrease in the
available part of energy that is transferred to the system.
To prove this let us consider a reversible Carnot engine i.e.
heat transfer to heat engine is reversible. Operating between
temperature T1 and temperature T0.
SOURCE
T1
T
Q1
T1
HE W= A.E
Q. = U.E. WP WT
Q
SINK
T0 ǻs

S
Fig. 1(a) Fig. 1(a)
ǻS = Change in entropy during both heat addition and heat

rejection process.
Q1 = T1 ǻS.
Q = T0 ǻS.
A.E = Q1 ± Q = ǻS (T1 ± T0) (1)
Now let us assume that heat Q1 transferred to heat engine is
through finite temperature difference. From source at T1 while heat
ଵ ଵ
engine absorbing this heat at temperature ଵ such that T1 > ଵ the
ଵ
available energy of Q1 received by engine at ଵ can be found by
taking engine to operate in a reversible cycle between temperature
ଵ
ଵ
T0. Letଵ
ଶ is heat rejected by H.E. to seem at T0.
10]
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c

SOURCE 1 Q1 SOURCE
T1
Q1
H.E W = A.E.
Q = UE = Q1ܳଶଵ
SINK
T0

Fig. (a)
T Q1
T1
ܶଵଵ
ܳଶଵ
TO
ǻS Increase in U.E.
ǻS1
S
ଵ ଵ
Fig. (b)
ଵ ൌ ଵ ൌ ଵ
ଵ
ଵ
֜ ൌ Ƭଵ ൌ
ଵ ଵ
Since ଵ ൐ ଵ
ଵ Hence ଵ ൐
Also
Q = T0 ǻS
ଵଶ ൌ
ଵ
Since ଵ ൐ Ǥ ‫݁ܿ݊݁ܪ‬ଵଶ ൐ ଶ
Hence ଵଶ i.e. U.E. when heat transfer is irreversible to
engine (through finite temperature difference) is more than Q i.e.
heat transfer to engine reversibly.
Also Ǥ ଵ ൌ ଵ ൌ ଵ െ ଵଶ Ƭ‫ܣ‬Ǥ ‫ ܧ‬ൌ ܹ ൌ ଵ െ ଶ
Since ଵଶ ൐ ଶ
ଵ ܹ‫ܣݎ݋‬Ǥ ଵ ‫ܣ‬Ǥ ‫ܧ‬Ǥ
10V
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c

i.e. A.E. decrease when heat transfer is through finite temperature
difference.
Decrease in A. E. = W ± W1 = Increase in U.E.
= ଵଶ െ ଶ
= T0 (ǻS1 ± S)
Hence from Figure (b) if temperature difference ሺܶଵ െ ܶଵଵሻ
is more heat rejection ܳଶଵ will be more and hence more will be
unavailable part of energy.
): 6 % ( .
Surrounding at
1 Po, To
R
SYSTEM
T
I
Q W
For irreversible Process I, QR = (U ± U1) + WR (1)

Q1 = (U ± U1) + W1 ()
QR ± Q1 = W R ± W 1 (Î)
From (1) ± ()
Now change in entropy of system ǻ Ssys = S ± S1
்బ
©
Change in entropy of surrounding ǻ Ssurr = ±
ve sign since surrounding losing heat. But from II law and

Principle of Entropy,
ǻ Suniv ൒ 0
For rev. process ǻ Suni = 0
ǻSsys + ǻ Ssurr = 0
்బ
©
(S ± S1) ± =0
QR = T0(S ± S1) (])
106
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For irreversible process Suniv. > 0
൐ Ͳ
©భ
்బ
S ± S1 ±
Q1 < T0 (S ± S1) (V)

From equation (]) and (V) QR > Q1
From equation (Î) WR ± W1 > 0
WR > W1
i.e. work done for a closed system when it interacts. With

surrounding at Po, To in a rev. process is more than in irreversible
process.

&
u1,1 u-1,-1-

PoTo
Initial State System at Dead State

Availability of a system can be obtained by bringing the
system to dead state or P0, the temperature of gas may not reach T0
simultaneously and hence although the system is in mechanical
equilibrium but is not in thermal equilibrium, with surrounding at
constant temperature T0 attend thermal equilibrium. Amount Q heat
is rejected to surrounding at temperature T0 to bring temperature of
gas in cylinder to T0 . The pressure, temperature and volume at this
equilibrium conditions are denoted by P0, T0 and V0. The system
when it is in complete equilibrium, with surrounding is said to exist
in dead state.
(.
&
It is defined as useful work that is obtainable in a process in
which system comes to equilibrium with surrounding or dead state.

10ë
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(.
: 6 5J : &
u1,1 u01,010

P0, T0
(a) Q
Initial condition of system
HE WHE
Q1 = T0(S1 ± S0)
Surrounding
at T0
(b)
Figure (a) shows initial condition of system. Figure (b)
shows the condition of system when heat Q is rejected by system
and reaches to thermal and mechanical equilibrium. The
temperature and volume at equilibrium are P0 T0 V0 i.e. at dead
state. In addition to expansion work if heat rejections to
surrounding takes place through a heat engine at temperature T0
then the H.E will also develop some work.
From 1st law for system
Q = W + ǻu
±Q = W + (u0 ±u1)
W = ± Q + (u1 ± u0)
= ± Q ± (u0±u1)
Work develop by H.E. when Q is transferred to it.
WC = Q ± Q1
= Q ± T0 (S1 ± S0)
Total work developed by system
Wt = W + WC
= [± Q ± (u0 ± u1)] + [Q ± T0(S1 ± S0]
= ( u1 ± T0 S1) ± (u0 ± T0S0)
During expansion of working substance in cylinder the actual
work developed by system is not available for delivery. Since
10w
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certain amount of work is spend in pushing out at no Sheri air at P0,
T0 during expansion. If V1 and V0 are initial and final volume. (i.e.
volume at dead state) of system at P0 then.
Wuseful = Wnet = Wt ± P0 (V0 ±V1)
= [u1 ± P0 V ± T0 S1] ± [u0 ± P0 V0 ± T0 S0]
= A1 ± A0
A = (u ± P0 V ± T0 S) is known as non flow availability
function. This function is a composite property. Since it contains
three extensive properties u1 v1 S and two intensive properties P0
and T0.
If condition of system changes from (1) to ()
Wnet = (A1 ± A0) ± (A ± A0)
= A1 ± A
In actual calculations loss due to compression work is
neglected. Neglecting P0(V0 ± V1)
Wnet = (u1 ± T0S1) ± (u0 ± T0S0)

(.
' : 6
J : &
P1, V1, T1 P0, v0, T0

Steady Flow System

Q
H.E WH.E.
Q1 = T0(S1 ± S0)
Surrounding at
T0

Considering initial condition of fluid entering system is P1,
v1, T1 with velocity V1 and discharge at P0, v0 and T0 with zero exit
velocity. It is assumed that ǻP.E. = 0.
Considering that system is first brought to P0 and then T0 by
transfer of heat Q through a heat engine.
10Ú
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Applying S.F.E.E. between initial and final dead state condition
ଵଶ
൅ ଵ െ ൌ ଶ ൅
ʹ
Work done by H.E. WC = Q ± Q1
= Q ± T0(S1 ± S0)
Net work Wnet = W + WC
}మభ
ଶ
= [ ± Q + (h1 ± h0) + ] + Q ± T0 (S1 ± S0)
If initial K.E. is neglected then

Wnet = (h1 ± h0) ± T0(S1 ± S0)
= (h1 ± T0S1) ± ( h0 ± T0S0)
= B1 ± B0
B = (h ± T0S) is known as Steady Flow availability function. It is
also a composite property.
Ò #
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&
Maximum work during non flow reversible process by a
system when it is brought to dead state is given by,
Wa = Wmax = (u1 ± u) ± T(S1 ± S0) if when heat transfer is at
constant temperature T.
= (u1 ± TS1) ± (u0 ± TS0)
Where (u ± TS) is known as Helmholtz Function denoted by F.
Now when a process is executed it has to do work against
the atmosphere. If P0, V0 are pressure and volume referred to
atmospheric condition then this work will be P0 (V0 ± V1) when
system reaches to dead state condition.
Net available work Wnet = W ± P0 (V0 ± V1)
= (u1 ± TS1) ± (u0 ± TS0) ± P0(V0 ± V1)
= (u1 + P1v ± Ts1) ± (u0 + P0V0 ± TS0)
= (h1 ± TS1) ± (h0 ± TS0)
= G1 ± G0
110
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When G = h ± Ts known as Gibb¶s function denot]d by G. it
is also called as free energy function. Gibb¶s and Helmholtz, energy
functions are composite properties of system only.
The availability functions for Closed System A and for open
system B are composite properties of both system and surrounding.
( .
&
Actual work done by system is always less than reversible
work or maximum work due to irreversibility. Difference between
these two works is called irreversibility of process.
I = Wmax ± W
For a non flow process between end states 1 and when
system exchanges heat only with reservoir.
I = Wmax ± W
= [(u1 ± u) ± T0(S1 ± S)] ± [(u1 ± u) + Q
= T0(S ± S1) ± Q
= T0(ǻ S) system + T0 (ǻ S) surrounding
= T0[(ǻ S) sys + (ǻ S) surrounding]
I = T0 (ǻS) univ.
111
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"$+
A thermodynamic cycle consists of series of thermodynamic
process which takes place in certain order and initial conditions are
restored at the end of cycle. The study of thermodynamic air cycle
is necessary for the analysis of various power developing systems.
Since these system uses mixture of air and fuel, but mass of fuel is
used is very small as compared to mass air, hence properties of
mixture can be approximated to the properties of air. The exact
conditions existing within engine cylinder are difficult to determine
but by making suitable assumptions it is possible to get the
approximate conditions.

&
1. The gas in engine cylinder is a perfect gas.
. The compression and expansion processes are reversible
adiabatic. (Isentropic)
Î. No chemical reaction takes place in cylinder. Heat is
supplied or rejected by bringing hot or cold body in contact
with cylinder.
]. The properties of working substance i.e. Cp, Cv R and ߛ do
not change during cycle.
V. Cycle takes place in a closed system with same air is used
again to repeat the cycle.
.

:
%
1. In the theory of air standard cycle it is assumed that same
working fluid passes through series of operation to complete
cycle and cycles are repeated again and again in a closed
system. But in actual engine, it operates an open cycle
principle in which mass of working fluid enters and leaves
for system.
11
J

c

. In air standard cycle it is assumed that heating and cooling
done by bringing ht and cold body in contact with cylinder
and there is n chemical reaction. But in actual engine heat is
liberated due to combustion of fuel in engine cylinder.
Î. In actual engine cycle the properties of working substance
Cp, Cv, y etc do not remain constant throughout cycle since
du to combustion there results mixture of different is gases.
]. In actual engine process of expansion and compression do
not follow reversible adiabatic law due to the presence of
dissipative effects.
%
An±ideal engine is a device which develops the work
continuously with the help of a working fluid while going through
cycle. Combination of piston and cylinder as a device to develop
work serves as an ideal engine.
Clearance
D Cylinder
Strake Length (L)
Piston
BDS
Crank Case
Crank Shaft
Crank
# Air is compressed in engine

# Heat is added to compressed air by external source.
# High Pressure and temperature air then expands producing
work.
# Air after expansion returns to its original state after rejecting
heat to external sink
11Î
J

c

&

Inner diameter of cylinder in which piston moves is known
as cylinder bore. (D).
/
Top Dead Center (TDC) and Bottom Dead Center (BDC) are
two extreme positions in cylinder between which piston
moves.
Î
6 + %

Distance between TDC and BDC position of piston is called
length (L)
] !
Volume occupied by working fluid in the cylinder when
piston is at TDC position is known as clearance volume (Vc)
V :
!
Volume of working fluid swept by piston when it moves
from TDC to BDC position is known as swept or stroke or
displacement volume µVs¶.
Vs = Piston area x stroke length
= ଶ x L
ସ

º
!
Volume occupied by working fluid when piston is at BDC
piston is known as total cylinder volume
V = Vc + Vs
ë.
:
It is the ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume
i.e. ratio of volume fluid occupy when piston is at BDC to

the volume when the piston is at TDC position.
=ୡ ൌ

11]
J

c

ୡ ൅
ൌ

ୡ
ୱ
ൌ ͳ ൅
ୡ
w
( &
Pressure inside cylinder keeps on changing during the
cycle. Mean effective pressure may be defined as constant
pressure acting on piston during working stroke. The
pressure is able to do same amount of work as done by the
actual varying pressure producing in the cycle to stroke
Ȁ
volume. It is denoted by Pm.
ßǤ Ǥ Ǥ ൌ

Ú

It is the ratio of net work output of cycle to the heat input
during the cycle. It is also called theoretical thermal

efficiency.
ö୅୉ ൌ

If Qs = Heat supplied during cycle
Qr = Heat rejected during cycle.
Then
Wnet = Net work output of cycle
ୱ െ ୰
= Qs ± Qr
‫ ׵‬Ä୅୉ ൌ
ୱ
ܳ௥
ൌ ͳ െ
ܳ௦
:
6 J
6 % &
When one cycle is completed in two stroke of the piston
[Two stroke of piston = one revolution of crank shaft]
then it is called two stroke engine.
11V
J

c

When one cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston
[Four Strokes of piston = two revolutions of crank shaft]
then it is called four stroke engine.
N = Speed of crank shaft in revolution per minute (RPM)
For any engine one power stroke (Expansion stroke) is
produced in one cycle i.e. there will be same number of
power strokes as number of cycles.
N = Number of power strokes per minutes.
=N For two stroke engine.
ൌ
୒
ଶ
For four stroke engine.

: &
It is actual power produced by engine available at the piston.
Indicated power is generally calculated from mean effective
pressure.
I.P. = Mean effective pressure x swept volume x
Number of power strokes per second x Number

of cylinders.
ൌ ୫ ୱ ୡ ሺሻ

͸Ͳ
But ୱ ൌ ଶ
ସ

Ɏ
= A x L where A = c/s area of piston or cylinder in m
ൌ ଶ
Ͷ

‫ ׵‬Ǥ ൌ ୫ ሺሻ
͸Ͳ

Pm = M.E.P in N/m
L = stroke length in µm¶
A = c /s area in µm¶
n = No. of power strokes per minute.
nc = No. of cylinders
116
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c

/

It is the ratio of I.P to heat supplied. It is always less than
Ǥ Ǥ
air standard efficiency.
Ä୧୲୦ ൌ
ୱ
Î
(
It is the ratio of indicated thermal efficiency (also called
actual thermal efficiency) to air standard efficiency (also
called theoretical thermal efficiency).
11ë
J

c

$+
It is a reversible cycle or ideal cycle. It consists of two
reversible isothermal processes and two reversible adiabatic
(Isentropic) process. The heat addition and rejection is carried out
during reversible isothermal expansion and compression process
respectively.
Air is enclosed in a piston cylinder machine. Walls of
cylinder of perfect adiabatic whereas bottom (or side) can be cover
with insulating cap whenever is required. Engine is assumed to be
working between to heat reservoir, a hot and cold body.
Isothermal Expansion
P T
Î
] T max = T 1 Î Qs ]
Isentropic
Isentropic Expansion S=c S=c
compression

1 T min= T
Isothermal Qr 1
compression
V S
Let initially air is at state µ1¶where properties are P1, V1, and t.
3
21/3&
By bringing cold body in contact with cylinder air is
compressed isothermally at temperature T from V1 to V.
Energy supplied in the form of work is given to cold body
in form of heat.
Heat rejected during isothermal compression = work done
on air during isothermal compression 1 ±
ଵିଶ ൌ ଵିଶ
ଵ
ൌ ଵ ଵƐ୬
ଶ
ൌ ଵ ଵƐ୬= େ
ଵ
= େ ൌ
ଶ
11w
J

c

/3
2/1Î3&
Insulating cap (I.C.) is brought in contact with cylinder.
Air is compressed isentropically from V to VÎ.
Since Q = 0, therefore ǻu = w ± Î. Hence, temporarily
increase from T to T1 i.e. there is increase in internal
energy.
Increase in internal energy = work done during ± Î.
ଷଷ െ ଶ ଶ
ǻu = w±Î
ൌ
ɀെͳ
=ሺ ଵ െ ଶሻ
ൌ
ɀെͳ
Î3
) 2Î1]3&
I.C. is removed and hot body is brought in contact with
cylinder at temperature T1. Air is expanded as heat is
supplied from hot body at TÎ isothermally from VÎ to V].
Heat supplied during isothermal expansion Î ± ] = work
done during Î ± ].
ସ
ൌ ଷ ଷ κ୬
ଷ
ସ
ൌ = ଵ Ɛ୬
ଷ
ସ ଵ
െ ൌ = େ ൌ = ଵ Ɛ୬= େ
ଷ ଶ
]
) 2]13
I.C. is brought in contact with cylinder and air is expanded
isentropically from V] to V1. Since Q = 0, ‫ ׵‬u = ±W] 1.
Hence, there is decrease in internal energy and therefore
temperature drops from T1 to T.
ସ ସ െ ଵଵ
Decrease in internal energy = work done during ] ± 1
ൌ
ɀ െ ͳ
11Ú
J

c

=ሺ ଵ െ ଶሻ
ൌ

ɀ െ ͳ
Work done during cycle
Wnet = Heat supplied ± Heat rejected
during Î± ] during 1±
= mR (T1 ± T )௡ RC
୬ୣ୲
Cycle efficiency
Șେÿୡ୪ୣ ൌ

=ሺ ଵ െ ଶ ሻƐ୬ = େ
ൌ
= ଵ Ɛ୬ = େ
ൌ
భ ିమ
భ
Äୡÿୡ୪ୣ ൌ ͳ െ
ଶ
Äୡÿୡ୪ୣ ൌ ͳ െ
୫୧୬
୫ୟ୶

& An Engine working on Carnot cycle with air as working
substance is theoretical engine. Because in actual
practice it is difficult to operate engine at two different
speeds during same cycle for executing an isothermal
(very slow) process and isotropic process (very fast).

$+&
To overcome disadvantage of Carnot cycle a practical
cycle was introduced which is successfully applied for working
of petrol and gas engine known as Otto Cycle. This cycle is
taken of standard of compression for spark Ignition (S.I)
internal combination engines. It is also known as volume cycle
since heat addition to air takes place at constant volume. An
ideal Otto Cycle consist of,
10
J

c

a) Isentropic Compression Process

b) Constant volume Heat addition process
c) Isentropic Expansion process
d) Constant volume cooling (heat rejection) process.
hot body
Qs
IC
TDC BDC
Qr
Cold body
T Î
TÎ Qs S =C
V= C ]
Qr
S=C1 V=C
T1 S
Expansion ஓ = c1
Isentropic
P1 Î
Cont Volume
Heating
] Cont Volume
Isentropic Cooling
Compression 1
Vc Vs V
3
21/3&
Air is compressed isentropically from V1 to V, temperature
increases from T1 to T. The energy supplied as work is
stored in the system to increase it¶s internal energy:
11
J

c

Increase in internal energy = w.d. during isentropic compression
=ሺ ଶ െ ଵሻ
1 ± .
ൌ
ɀ െ ͳ
/3

!
%2/1Î3
By bringing hot body in contact with cylinder the air is
heated at constant volume V. The piston does not
displace. Temperature and pressure increases to TÎ and P Î
respectively.
Heat applied during constant volume heating Q ± Î.
ଶିଷ ൌ ୴ ሺ ଷ െ ଶሻ
Î3
) 2Î1]3&5
By bringing I.C.in contact with cylinder, air is allowed to
expand insetropically from VÎ to V] temperature. Falls to
T] work is done at the cost of internal energy.
Decrease in internal energy = W.D. during insetropic
During Î ± ] Expn Î ± ]
୫ୖሺ ି ሻ
ஓିଵ
=
]3

( %2]13&
The C.B. is brought in contact with cylinder; air is cooled at
constant volume. V] piston does not displace Temperature
and pressure falls to P1 and T1.
Heat rejected during cont = Qr = mC v (T] ± T1 )
Volume cooling Q] ± 1
Net work done per cycle
Wnet = Qs ± Qr
= mC v (TÎ ± T ) ± mC v (T] ± T1 )
= mC v [(TÎ ± T) ± (T] ± T1)]
୬ୣ୲
Air standard efficiency
Ș୅୉ ൌ
ୱ
1
J

c

୴ ሾሺ െ ଶሻ െ ሺ ସ െ ଵ ሻሿ

Ä୅୉ ൌ
ଷ
୴ ሺ ଷ െ ଶ ሻ
ሺ െ ଵሻ
ൌͳെ
ସ
ሺ ଶ െ ଶሻ
ଵሺ ସȀ ଵ
െ ͳሻ
ൌ ͳ െ ǥ ǥ ǥ ǥ ǥ ǥ ሺͳሻ
ሺ Ȁ
ଶ ଷ ଶ െ ͳሻ
= େ ൌ
}భ
}మ
ସ

ଷ
But V] = V1 and VÎ = V
ଵ ସ
‫ ׵‬ ൌ ൌ =େ
ଶ ଷ
For process 1 ± :
ଵ ஓିଵ
ൌ൬ ൰ ൌ ሺ= ୡ ሻஓିଵ
ଶ
ଵ ଶ
For process Î ± ] :
ଷ ஓିଵ ͳ ஓିଵ
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ൬ ൰
ସ
ଷ ସ =ୡ
ସ ஓିଵ
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ ሺ= ୡ ሻஓିଵ
ଷ
ସ ଷ
‫׵‬ ൌ ൌ ሺ= ୡ ሻஓିଵ

ଶ ଷ
ଵ ସ
‫׵‬ ൌ
ସ ଷ
ଵ ଶ
Equation (1) becomes

ͳ
Ä୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ ቈ ൌ ஓିଵ ቉
ଵ ଵ
୭୲୲୭ ଶ ଶ =ୡ
ͳ
Ä ୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ ஓିଵ
୭୲୲୭ =ୡ
1Î
J

c

V3
( &
A(Equivalent Rectangular)= A(1 Î ])

PVȖ = C
P
Î Î ]

V=C ] 2 .
Pm .

1
1
Vs
Vc Vs V
V
Indicator Diagram
Mean effective pressure can be obtained by an indicator
diagram. If a piston is pushed at contact pressure throughout the
stroke and develops same work as actual varying then it is
called M.E.P. Equivalent rectangle is drawn in such a way that
is area is same as area actual P.V. diagram and length of
rectangle is equal to stroke length then height of rectangle
represent M.E.P.
ଷ ଷ െ ସ ସ ଶ ଶ െ ଵଵ
Wnet = W.D. during Expansion Î ] ± W.D. during compression 1
ൌ െ ǥ ǥ ǥ ǥ Ǥ ሺͳሻ
ɀെͳ ɀെͳ
Work done considering M.E.P.
Wnet = A(Equivalent Rectangle)
= Pm x V s «««« ()
ଷଷ െ ସ ସ ଶ ଶ െ ଵଵ
From (1) and ()
୫ ୱ ൌ െ
ɀെͳ ɀെͳ
ͳ ଷ ଷ െ ସ ସ ଶ ଶ െ ଵଵ
‫ ׵‬୫ ൌ ൜ െ ൠ ǥ ǥ ሺ͵ሻ
ୱ ɀെͳ ɀെͳ
For process 1 ± :
ஓ
ൌ ቀ భቁ ൌ ሺ= େ ሻஓ
Êమ }
Êభ }మ
‫ ׵‬ଶ ൌ ଵ ሺ= େ ሻஓ
1]
J

c

For process Î ± ]:
ଷ ஓ ͳ ஓ
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ ൬ ൰
ସ
ଷ ସ =େ
‫ ׵‬ସ ൌ ଷ ൬ ! ൰

ଵ
ୖ
For process ± Î:
ൌ
ଶ ଷ
ଶ ଷ
ൌ
ଷ ଷ
ଶ ଶ
ൌ = Ê = Ê ൌ Ȁ
Ê

Êమ
‫ ׵‬ଷ ൌ = Ê ଶ ֜ ଷ ൌ = Ê ሺ= େ ሻஓ ଵ
ͳ ஓ
‫ ׵‬ସ ൌ ଷ ൬ ൰
=େ
ͳ
ൌ ଶ = Ê ቆ ஓ ቇ
=େ
ͳ
ൌ ൫ଵ = େ = Ê ቆ ஓ ቇ ‫ ׵‬ଶ ൌ =େ
ஓ ஓ
=େ
ସ ൌ =ଵ= Ê
Substitute values of P, PÎ and P] in equation (Î).

V = V Î = V C, V] = V1 = (V C + VS )
ͳ ଵ= Ê = େ େ െ ଵ = Ê ሺେ ൅ ሻ െ ଵ= େ େ ൅ ଵሺେ ൅ ሻ
ஓ ஓ
୫ ൌ ቋ
ሺɀ െ ͳሻ
ͳ ଵ= Ê = େ େሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ െ ଵ ሺେ ൅ ሻሾ= Ê െ ͳሿ
ஓ
୫ ൌ ቋ
ሺɀ െ ͳሻ
Êభ ሺୖౌ ିଵሻൣୖ } ିሺ} ା}" ሻ൧
ൌ ൜ ൠ
ଵ
!
ሺஓିଵሻ େ
=େ ൌ
ଵሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ ஓ
}"
େ
ൌ ൛= େ େ െ = େ େ ൟ
ሺɀ െ ͳሻ
ሺ ൅ େሻ ൌ = େ େ
ଵሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ ஓ
ൌ ൛= େ େ െ = େ େ ൟ
ሺɀ െ ͳሻ
1V
J

c

ൌ ൣେ൫= େ െ = େ ൧
Êభ ሺୖౌ ିଵሻ ஓ

}" ሺÿିଵሻ
൅ େ ൌ = େ େ
ൌ ൣେ ൫= େ െ = େ ൧
Êభ ሺୖౌ ିଵሻ ஓ
} ሺୖ ିଵሻሺÿିଵሻ
ୀ େ ሺ= େ െ ͳሻ
ଵሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ
ൌ ൣ= େ൫= େ െ ͳ൧
ሺ െ ͳሻሺ= େ െ ͳሻ
ÿିଵ
ଵ ሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ= େ = େ െ ͳ
ஓିଵ
୫ ൌ ቈ ቉
െͳ =େ െ ͳ
ሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ =ஓିଵ െ ͳ
‫ ׵‬# ൌ ଵ= େ େ
ሺ െ ͳሻ ሺ= େ െ ͳሻ

+$+
This cycle is also known as constant pressure cycle since
heat is added as constant pressure. This cycle is taken as
standers comparison, ignition (C.I.) or diesel engines. And ideal
diesel cycle consists of following processes.
Cut off point T

P Î Isent
Expn PVȖ=C Qs Î
P=C
] S=C
]
Isent compn S=C
PVȖ =C 1 1 V=C Qr
V VS V
S

21/3&5
Air compressed isentropically from V1 to V temperature
increase from T1 to T. The energy supplied as work is
stored in the system to increase it¶s internal energy. Piston
moves from TDC to BDC.
Increase in internal energy = W.D. during isentropic
=ሺ ଶ െ ଵሻ
compression 1 ±
ൌ
െͳ
16
J

c

/
#
%2/5Î3&
By bringing hot body in contact with cylinder the air is
heated at constant pressure P. The piston displaced by
small amount from TDC to BDC. Hence volume increases
from V to VÎ and also temperature from T to TÎ.
Heat supplied during constant QÎ = mcp (TÎ ± T)
Pressure heating ± Î.
Î
) 2Î1]3&
By bringing insulating cap in contact with cylinder, air is
allowed to expand isentropically from VÎ to V]. Temperature
decreases to T], work is done at the cost of internal energy.
Decrease in internal energy during Î ± ] = W. D. during
=ሺ ଷ െ ସሻ
isentropic expansion Î ± ].
ൌ
ɀെͳ
]

! %2]13&
Cold body is brought in contact with cylinder; air is cooled
at constant volume V]. Piston does not displace temperature
and pressure decreases to T1 and P1 respectively.
Heat rejected during constant volume cooling ] ± 1
Qr = mCv (T] ± T1)
୰
Air standard efficiency of Diesel Cycle:
Ä୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ
ୱ
୴ ሺ െ ଵሻ
ൌ ͳ െ
ସ
୴ ሺ ଷ െ ଶሻ
ሺ ସ െ ଵሻ
ൌ ͳ െ ǥ ǥ ǥ ǥ ǥ Ǥ ሺͳሻ
ɀሺ ଷ െ ଶ ሻ
1ë
J

c

ଵ
= େ ൌ
ଶ
ସ
= ୣ ൌ
ଷ
ଷ
ɏ ൌ
ଶ
ଵ ଷ
ൌ ሼସ ൌ ଵሽ
=େ
=ୣ ଶ ସ
ଷ
ൌ
ଶ
ൌ ɏ
=େ
=ୣ
J 1/& PVȖ = C

ଵ ஓିଵ
ൌ൬ ൰ ൌ ሺ= େ ሻஓିଵ
ଶ
ଵ ଶ
‫ ׵‬ ൌ ଵ ሺ= େ ሻ
ஓିଵ
ଶ

J /1Î& P = C
ଶ ଷ
‫ ׵‬ ൌ
ଶ ଷ
ଷ ଷ
ଷൌ ଶ ൜ ൌ ɏൠ
ଶ ଶ
‫ ׵‬ ଷ ൌ ሾ ଵ ሺ= େ ሻஓିଵሿɏ

J Î1]: PVȖ = C
ଷ ஓିଵ
ൌ൬ ൰
ସ
ଷ ସ
ͳ
ൌ
ሺ= ୣ ሻஓିଵ
1w
J

c

ɏ ஓିଵ
ସ ൌ ଷ ൬ ൰ ඌ= ୣ ൌ ඐ

=େ
=େ ɏ
ɏ஛ିଵ
ൌ ଵ = େ ɏ ஛ିଵ
ஓିଵ
=େ
ൌ ଵ ɏ ɏ
ଵ ஛ିଵ
ସ ൌ ଵɏ
ஓିଵ
ሺ ଵ ɏஓ െ ଵሻ
Substituting T, TÎ and T] in equation (1)
Ä୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ
ɀሾ ଵ = େ ɏ െ ଵ =େ ሿ
ஓିଵ ஓିଵ
ଵ ሺɏ െ ͳሻ
ஓ
ൌ ͳ െ
ɀሾ ሺɏ െ ͳሻሿ
ஓିଵ
ଵ େ
=
ሺɏஓ െ ͳሻ
ൌ ͳ െ
ɀሾ= େ ሺɏ െ ͳሻሿ
ஓିଵ
ͳ
ሺɏஓ െ ͳሻ
ൌ ͳ െ ஓିଵ ൤ ൨
ɀሺɏ െ ͳሻ
Ä ୅୉
ୈୣ୧ୱୣ୪ = େ
Since ߩ is always greater than unity. Hence, for same

compression ratio, efficiency of Diesel cycle is less than efficiency
of otto cycle.
'+$+= >&

The efficiency of Diesel cycle can be increased by reducing
value of µߩ¶ Dual cycle is the combination of otto and Diesel cycle
in which total heat applied is divided into partly at constant volume
and rest at constant pressure. An ideal dual cycle consists of,
a) Isentropic Compression Process.
b) Constant Volume Heating Process.
c) Constant Pressure Heating Process.
d) Isentropic Expansion Process.
e) Constant Volume Cooling Process.
1Ú
J

c

Count pressure heating

Î ] Qs
P Isentropic T ]
Cont volume Expansion PVȖ = c P=C
Heating Qs Î S=C
V=C
V V
S=C
Count Qr
Vol cooling V=C
Isentropic 1 1
Compression PVȖ = c
Vc Vs V S
Heat supplied at constant volume during ± Î

ଶିଷ ൌ } ሺ ଷ െ ଶሻ
Heat supplied at constant pressure during Î ± ]

ଷିସ ൌ Ê ሺ ସ െ ଷሻ
Heat rejected at constant volume during V ± 1

୰ ൌ } ሺ $ െ ଵሻ
Heat supplied during cycle :

ൌ ଶିଷ ൅ ଷିସ
ൌ } ሺ ଷ െ ଶሻ ൅ Ê ሺ ସ െ ଷሻ
୰
Air standard efficiency of dual cycle :
Ș୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ
ୱ
} ሺ $ െ ଵ ሻ
ൌ ͳ െ
} ሺ ଷ െ ଶ ሻ ൅ Ê ሺ ସ െ ଷሻ
ሺ
െ ଵሻ
ൌ ͳ െ
ሺ ଷ െ ଶ ሻ ൅ ɀሺ ସ െ ଷሻ
$
ଵ
= େ ൌ
ଶ
$
= ୣ ൌ
ସ
ସ
ɏ ൌ
ଷ
1Î0
J

c

= Ê ൌ
ଷ
ଶ
ଵ ସ ൌ ଵ
ൌ ൜ $ ൠ
=େ
=ୣ ଶ $ ଶ ൌ ଷ
ସ
ൌ
ଷ
ൌ ɏ
=େ
=ୣ

J 1/& PVȖ = C
ଵ ஓିଵ
ൌ൬ ൰ ൌ ሺ= େ ሻஓିଵ
ଶ
ଵ ଶ
‫ ׵‬ ൌ ଵ ሺ= େ ሻ
ஓିଵ
ଶ

J /1Î& V = C
ൌ
ଶ ଷ
ଶ ଷ
‫ ׵‬ ଷ ൌ ଶ

ଷ
ଶ
ൌ ଵ ሺ= େ ሻ = Ê
ஓିଵ
ଷ

J Î1]: P=C
ଷ ସ
ൌ
ଷ ସ
ସ
‫ ׵‬ ସ ൌ ଷ
ଷ
ସ ൌ ሾ ଵ = େ ஓିଵ= Ê ሿɏ
J ]1V&PVȖ = C
ସ ஓିଵ ͳ ஓିଵ
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ ൬ ൰
$
$
ସ =ୡ
1Î1
J

c

ͳ ஓିଵ

ൌ ସ ൬ ൰ ൜= ୣ ൌ ൠ
=େ
$
= ɏ
ஓିଵ
ൌ ሾ ଵ = େ ஓିଵ
=ሿ ஓିଵ
=େ
ൌ ଵ = Ê
ଵ ஓିଵ
ൌ ଵ =Ê
ஓିଵ
Substitut T, TÎ, T] and

$
ሺ ଵ = Ê ɏஓ െ ଵሻ
$ in equation (1)
Ä୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ
ൣ ଵ =େ =Ê െ ଵ =େ ൧ െ ɀሾ െ ଵ =େ =Êሿ
ஓିଵ ஓିଵ ஓିଵ ஓିଵ
ଵ =େ =Ê
ଵ ሾ= Ê ɏ െ ͳሿ
ஓ
ൌ ͳ െ
ଵ ሼ= େ ሾሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ െ ɀሺ= Ê ɏ െ = Ê ሻሿሽ
ஓିଵ
ሺ= Ê ɏஓ െ ͳሻ
ൌ ͳ െ
= େ ሾሺ= Ê െͳሻ െ ɀ= Ê ሺɏ െ ͳሻሿ
ஓିଵ
ͳ ሺ= Ê ɏஓ െ ͳሻ
ൌ ͳ െ ஓିଵ ൤ ൨
୅୉
ሺ= Ê െ ͳሻ െ ɀ= Ê ሺɏ െ ͳሻ
Ä
ୈୣ୧ୱୣ୪ = େ
%
7

P Î T Î*
Î* Î¶
Î´
]´
]´ ]¶
]¶ ]
]
1
1
6 V V¶ V´
VC VS V S
1 ± ± Î ] ֜ Otto Cycle
1 ± ± Î* Î¶ ± ]¶ ֜ Dual Cycle
1 ± ± Î´ ± ]´ ֜ Diesel Cycle
For same R c and Qs, temperature attained at the end of
heating process (i.e. maximum cycle temperature) will be same
1Î
J

c

in all three cycles. Ä୅୉ in this case depends upon heat rejected

since Ä୅୉ increases as heat rejected during cycle decreases.

Heat rejected = Area under heat rejection process on T ± S
diagram.
From T±S diagram, area under heat rejection process for
the cycles has following relationship.
A (] ± 1) < A (]¶ ± 1) < A (]´ ± 1)
Hence, ୰ሺ୭୲୲୭ሻ ୰ሺୢ୳ୟ୪ሻ ୰ሺୈୣ୧ୱୣ୪ሻ
Therefore, Ä୅୉ሺ୭୲୲୭ሻ Ä୅୉ሺୢ୳ୟ୪ሻ Ä୅୉ሺୈୣ୧ୱୣ୪ሻ
Hence, Ä୅୉ of dual cycle lies in between Ä୅୉ of Otto and

Diesel Cycle. For same compression ration and heat supplied Otto
Cycle has maximum efficiency.
%
7

?
.
Î
Î¶ Î¶
P Î* T Î*
Î´ Î´
]
]
1 1
VC VS V S
For same R c and heat rejected,Ä୅୉ increases and increased heat

is added. From T±S diagram,
A ( ± Î´) < A ( ± Î* ± Î¶) < A ( ± Î)
Hence, ୢ୧ୱୣ୪ ୢ୳ୟ୪ ୭୲୲୭
1ÎÎ
J

c

%
7 )

P ´ Î¶ Î T
Î
Î¶
* ]
* ]

1
1
Vc Vs V S
1 ± ± Î ± ] ± Otto cycle
1 ± * ± Î¶ ± Î ± ] Dual Cycle
1 ± ´ ± Î ± ] Diesel Cycle
Ä୅୉ increases as Qs increase since Qr constant.
‫ ׵‬ሺʹᇱᇱ െ ͵ሻ ൐ ‫ܣ‬ሺʹ ‫ כ‬െ͵ᇱ െ ͵ሻ ൐ ‫ܣ‬ሺʹ െ ͵ሻ
‫ ׶‬Ä ൐ ߟ%&݈ ൐ ߟ‫݋ݐݐ݋‬
$$+&
Also called as Joule Cycle is used as standard of comparison for
Gas Turbine Plant. An ideal Brayton Cycle consist of,
1. Isentropic Compression Process.
. Constant Pressure Heating.
Î. Isentropic Expansion Process.
]. Constant Pressure Cooling.
Layout of a constant pressure gas turbine plant working on
Brayton Cycle.
Heater (Î) P , T Î
()P , T WT
Compressor Turbine
Generator
Wc Wnet=W T W c
(1)P 1, T 1
]
P 1, T ]
Cooler
1Î]
J

c

Constant Pressure Heating

Isentropic Expansion P
P PVȖ = C
P Î T Î
TÎ QS
P1
P=C

]
Isentropic 1 ] Qr
P1 Compression T1 P=C
PVȖ = C 1
V S
Constant pressure cooling

21/3&
Air is passed through a rotary compressor where it¶s pressure
increases from P1 to P and temperature from T1 to T. Ideally it is
assumed that there is no friction between air and the blade of
compressor and process is reversible adiabatic work is consumed
by compressor (W c).
/

#
%2/1Î3&
Air is passed through a heater (Heat Exchanger) which heats the
air with the help of a hot fluid (indirect heating) at constant
pressure P. This increases temperature of air to TÎ.
Heat supplied at constant pressure Qs = mC P (TÎ ± T )
Î
) 2Î1]3&
Air after heating at P and TÎ is passed through turbine where it
expands from pressure P to P1. Temprature decreases from TÎ
to T]. Ideally it is assumed that there is no friction between air
and blade of turbine and the process is reversible adiabatic.
Work is produced by turbine (WȖ ). Part of WȖ is given to
compressor (W c) and Wnet is given to generator.
]

%2]13&
After expansion air is passed through cooler where it is cooled
at constant pressure P1 from T] to T1 with the help of cold fluid.
Heat is rejected at constant pressure Qr ± mC P (T] ± T1 ).
1ÎV
J

c

୰

&
Ä୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ
ୱ
Ê ሺ െ ଵሻ
ൌ ͳ െ
ସ
Ê ሺ ଷ െ ଶሻ
ሺ െ ଵሻ
ൌ ͳ െ െ െ െ െ െ ሺͳሻ
ସ
ሺ ଷ െ ଶሻ
= Ê ൌ
ଶ
ଵ
For process 1 ± : PVȖ = c
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ ሺ= Ê ሻ
ଶ ଶ
Ȗିଵ
Ȗ Ȗିଵ
ଵ ଵ
Ȗ
‫ ׵‬ ൌ ଵ ሺ= Ê ሻ Ȗ
Ȗିଵ
ଶ
For process Î ± ] : PVȖ = c
ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ ሺ= Ê ሻ Ȗ
ଷ ଶ
Ȗିଵ
Ȗ Ȗିଵ
ସ ଵ
‫ ׵‬ ൌ ସ ሺ= Ê ሻ Ȗ
Ȗିଵ
ଷ
ሺ
ସ െ ଵሻ
Substituting value of T and TÎ in equation (1)
Ä୅୉ ൌ ͳ െ ஓିଵ ஓିଵ

ஓ െ = ஓ
ସ Ê ଵ Ê
ሺ
ସ െ ଵሻ
=
ൌ ͳ െ ஓିଵ
= Ê ஓ ሾ ସ െ ଵ ሿ
ͳ
୆୰ୟÿ୲୭୬ ൌͳെ
஗ఽ"'
ஓିଵ
ሺ= Ê ሻ ஓ

) : 6

In gas turbine plant objective is to maximum Wnet.
Wnet = WT ± WC
= mCP (TÎ ± T] ) ± mC P (T ± T1 )
1Î6
J

c

For unit mass
Wnet = CP {(TÎ ± T] ) ± (T ± T1)}
ൌ Ê ൜ ൤ͳ െ ൨ െ൤ െ ͳ൨ൠ

ସ ଶ
ଷ
ଷ ଵ
ͳ ஓିଵ
ൌ ஓିଵ ൌ ሺ= Ê ሻ
ସ ଶ ஓ

ଷ
ሺ= Ê ሻ ஓ ଵ
ͳ ͳ
‫ ׵‬୬ୣ୲ ൌ Ê ଷ ቎ͳ െ ஓିଵ ቏ െ ଵ቎ ஓିଵ െ ͳ቏ቑ
ሺ= Ê ሻ ஓ ሺ= Ê ሻ ஓ
Usually T1 and TÎ are fixed due to atmospheric
temperature (T1 ) and maximum temperature that can be used for
turbine (TÎ ). Hence Wnet depends upon RP. To find optimum
୬ୣ୲ െͳ
value RP to maximize Wnet.
ൌ Ͳ ൜ ൌ ൠ
= Ê
ͳ
൜ ൤ ଷ ൤ͳ െ ൨െ ଵ ൫= 8 െ ͳ൨ൠ ൌ Ͳ
= Ê Ê
ÿ
=Ê
‫Ͳ ് ׵‬

‫ ׵‬ ൛ ଷ ൣͳ െ = Ê ൧ െ ଵ ൣ= Ê െ ͳ൧ൟ ൌ Ͳ
ିÿ
= Ê
ÿ
ଷ ൣͲ െ ሺെሻ= Ê ൧െ ଵ ൣሺሻ= Ê െ Ͳ൧ ൌ Ͳ
ିÿିଵ ିଵ
ଷ = Ê ൌ ଵ= Ê
ିሺÿାଵሻ ÿିଵ
ሺÿିଵሻ
ൌ
ଷ =Ê
ିሺÿାଵሻ
ଵ =Ê
= Ê ൌ
ሺÿିଵሻାሺÿାଵሻ ଷ
= Ê ൌ ൬ ൰
ଶÿ ଷ
ଵ
ଵ
ଷ ଶÿ Ȗെͳ
= Ê ൌ ൬ ൰ ൜ ൌ ൠ
ଵ Ȗ
ൌ ൤ ൨ ଶሺÿିଵሻ
ଷ
ÿ
Ê
ଵ
=
Ê୲
1Îë
J

c

J' '
# J * &
In general pure substance exists in following three phases:
1. Solid.
. Liquid.
Î. Gaseous.
The phase transformation from one phase to another is shown as
below:
MELTING EVAPORATION VAPOUR

SOLID LIQUID
(GASEOUS)
FREEZING CONDENSATION
HEATING
COOLING
+*J' &
When pure substance like water is heated to transform it from
solid to liquid phase it is called Melting or Fusion process.
/ !&
When liquid water is heated to transform it into liquid vapour
or gaseous phase, it is called condensation.
Î &
When vapours are cooled it transform into liquid water and
process is called condensation.
] JM*&
When liquid water is cooled it transforms into solid (i.e. ice) it
is called freezing process.
All these processes are performed at constant temperatures.
The temperature at which melting or freezing processes are
performed is called melting point or freezing point of the water.
The temperature at which evaporation or contention processes
are performed is called boiling point or condensation
temperature.
1Îw
J

c

(

Patm. Patm. Patm. Patm.

Melting ice Liquid Liquid
at Ice at 00c water at water at
± V0c 00c 1000c

Heat
(Solid) (Saturated Solid) (Liquid Only) (Saturated Liquid)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Patm Patm Patm.
Mixture of Saturated Super heated

saturated vapour at vapour
liquid + 1000c
water vapour
! #

#
@ #
@
Liquid
Wet steam Dry saturated Super heated

(vapour) Steam Steam
(e) (f) (g)
Saturated vapour
For P = 1Atm
heating
Super
T V. Diagram
Temp. sup Temp(k)
Temp. G
(oc)
E Evap F ÎëÎ.1V0c E Vaporization F
D
tsat=tbp
t.m.p ëë.1V0c D
= 00c B Fusion C
melting ëÎ.1V0c fusion
Solid C B
A
00cA Heat Added Specific Volume
L. H. of S.H. L.H. of Heat Superheat

fusion evaporation
M. P. Melting point tsat = tbp = Saturated or Boiling point temperature

bp = Boiling point S. H. = Sensible Heat L. H. = Latent Heat
1ÎÚ
J

c

The mechanism of formation of Super Heated vapour from ice is
explained as below.
Let us consider ice maintained at atmospheric pressure at a
temperature below it¶ freezing point temperature which is 00C at
P atmosphere. Let heat the ice be at constant pressure.
p First ice gets warmer and it¶s temperature rises close to melting
point i.e. 00C. the warming up process is shown by Line AB.
The volume increases marginally during this process. This ice at
00C is called saturated solid.
p With further heating, the ice begins to melt and we get two
phases mixture of liquid water ice. This process is called fusion
process and temperature does not change during this process.
This continues till all ice gets transformed into liquid water.
Amount of heat required to transformed complete ice at 00C into
liquid water at 00C is called latent heat of fusion. This process is
represented by BC.
p If the water at 00 C is further heated then it¶s temperature starts
increasing. This also accompany with increase in volume. This
continues till water reaches boiling point.
p If the water at boiling point temperature is further heated it
starts vaporization i.e. liquid starts transform into vapour. This
temperature does not change during vaporization. Thus the
temperature at which vapor formation begins is called saturation
temperature and water at saturated temperature is called as
saturated liquid. Thus we get mixture of two phases of liquid
water and vapour. This mixture of liquid water and dry vapour
(Both are saturated) at saturated temperature is commercially
called as wet steam or wet vapour.
p The process of evaporation continues till all liquid particles are
not transformed into vapour. Which is shown by EF. At µF¶ we
get dry saturated vapour i.e. vapour with not a single liquid
1]0
J

c

particle. This dry vapour at saturated temperature is called dry
saturated vapour (steam).
p When dry saturated vapours are further heated then it¶s
temperature start increasing. This steam with temperature more
than saturated temperature (i.e. temperature of dry saturated
steam) is called as super heated steam. Temperature of super
heated steam is denoted by tsup. Super heating process is
shown by µFG¶.
The boiling point temperature and milting point temperature of
water both are the functions of temperature. If pressure acting
on substance increases during heating then boiling point
temperature increases but melting point temperature decreases.
Similarly when pressure acting on water during heating is less
than atmospheric, then boiling point temperature decreases and
melting point temperature increases. Hence if the substances
heated bellow atmospheric pressure its start melting above 00C.
While it start boiling below 1000C. The T.V diagram shown
below, shows heating process for different values of pressure
below atmospheric pressure.
Critical point
tc=Îë].1Vc G
(6]ë.Î 0 k) N
p > patm
Temp. p = patm
E F
p < patm.
D
ëÎ.160k c B p = 0.00611 bar
B (Triple point line) f
A a
Special Volume
1]1
J

c

As the pressure acting on substance decrease, the drop in boiling
point is significant when increase in melting point is not
appreciable. At pressure 0.00611 bar, the substance attain
common melting and boiling point i.e. at the same temperature
both fusion and vaporization process takes place. Hence, change
of phase from ice water steam takes place along the line µbcf¶ at a
temperature ëÎ.160k which is taken as fixed point for absolute
temperature scale. Only at P = 0.00611 bar and T = ëÎ.160k ice,
water and steam co exist in thermodynamic equilibrium and hence
µbcf¶ is called as triple point line.
At a pressure above atmospheric pressure, the change of volume
during evaporation decreases as well as latent heat of
vaporization also decreases. Both reach to zero at sufficient high
pressure given by 1. bars, which are referred to as critical
point.
The properties for water at critical points are, Pc = 1. bar,
Tc = Îë].1V0C = 6]ë.Î0 k
At critical point water changes from liquid to vapour phase
without passing through two phase system.
+#JJ' &
It is the amount of heat required to transform ice at
melting point temperature for corresponding pressure into liquid
water at same temperature when substance is heated at constant
pressure. At atmospheric pressure latent of fusion = ÎÎ].Î kJ/kg.
+#2 3&
It is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of
water of unit mass from melting point temperature to saturation
temperature (i.e. boiling point temperature), when water is
heated at constant pressure. It is also known as liquid heat of
water OR Enthalpy of water. It is denoted by (hf). As pressure
increases, sensible heat also increases.
Hf = m x Cpw(tsat ± tinitial)
1]
J

c

''2

3&
The temperature of water at which further heating starts
the phase transformation from liquid to vapour phase (i.e.
vaporization starts) is known as saturation temperature (tsat ).
+#J! 2% 3&
It is amount of heat required to transform unit mass of
liquid water at saturation temperature for corresponding pressure
into dry saturated vapour (steam), when it is heated at constant
pressure. It is denoted by hfg. It¶s value decreases as the pressure
increases and becomes zero at critical pressure PC = 1. bar.
#J '#&
It is the amount of heat required to transform dry
saturated vapour at a given pressure and corresponding
saturation temperature into superheated vapour at a particular
temperature tsup.
Heat of Superheat = m x Cps x (Tsup ± tsat)
= 1 x Cps x (tsup ± tsat)
Where tsat = Saturation temperature corresponding to
given pressure of steam.
Tsup = temperature of superheated steam.
Cps = Specific heat of superheated steam.
= .1 to .Î kJ/kg0k
*J '#&
It is the difference in the temperature of superheated
steam and saturation temperature for the same pressure of given
steam.
‫ ׵‬Degree of superheated = (tsup ± tsat)0C at pressure µP¶.
" $ &
It is the mixture of two phase¶s system i.e. liquid water
and dry vapour. It is also defined as steam having liquid
particles in suspension with dry vapour. When water is heated
1]Î
J

c

from saturation temperature and if it is not supplied with it¶s
complete latent heat of vaporization (hfg) for corresponding
pressure then we get mixture of dry vapour and liquid water
which is known as wet system.
$ J&
It is defined as the fraction of dry vapour that a given
quantity of wet steam contains. As explained above, wet steam
contains dry vapour with liquid particles in suspension. Hence,
fraction of dry vapour that wet steam contains represents it¶s
dryness fraction.
If mg is the mass of dry vapour in one kg of given wet
steam and mw is the mass of suspended liquid water in one kg
of given wet steam then dryness fraction µx¶ is given by
ൌ

ൌ

൅
) :
If a sample of 1kg of wet steam contains 600 gm of dry vapour
͸ͲͲ
and ]00 gm of liquid water then mg = 600 gm, mw = ]00 gm.
‫ ׵‬ൌ
͸ͲͲ ൅ ͸ͲͲ
x = 0.6
OR in term of % we can say that given steam is 60% dry.

Hence, dryness fraction represents % of dry vapour in a
given wet steam. Hence, dryness fraction is also called as
quality of wet steam.
$ '' &
A given sample of steam not containing a single liquid
water particle is called dry saturated steam. Hence, dryness
1]]
J

c

fraction of a dry saturated steam x = 1. Since mw = 0. A dry
saturated steam absorbed it¶s complete latent heat of
vaporization.
Steam whose temperature is more than saturation
temperature at the given pressure is called as superheated.
#+$J &
3

&
Enthalpy of dry saturated steam is the sum of sensible heat and
latent heat of vaporization, it is denoted by µhg¶
‫ ׵‬Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam = Sensible Heat + Latent
heat hg = hf + hfg
This can be obtained directly from steam table.
/3

&
Specific volume of superheated steam is denoted by µvsup¶.
This can be directly read from steam table at a given pressure
and temperature of superheated steam.
It can also be calculated using Charles¶s Law.
୳8 ୥
ൌ
୳8 ୟ୲
‫୳ ׵‬8 ൌ ୥

୳8
ୟ୲
"0 '*!'
Water at Water at Dry saturated

00C t saturated steam ug
1]V
J

c

When water is heated from milting point temperature to
saturated temperature amount of part of heat supplied is stored
within substance to increase it¶s internal energy, whereas
change in volume in negligible.
But when saturated water heated further, phase
transformation takes place from liquid to vapour and there is
tremendous increase in volume from vf to vg. The amount of
heat supplied during this phase of heating is called latent heat of
vaporization is utilized for two purposes.
1. Some part of energy is utilized to overcome the internal
resistance offered by water molecules against phase
transformation. This is known as internal work.
. The remaining part of energy supplied is used to overcome the
external resistance offered against increase in volume during
vaporization from vf to vg. This is known as external work done
during evaporation. This is calculated as follows,
For dry saturated steam, volume changes from vf to vg.
‫ ׵‬External work done Wex = p ( vg ± vf) J/kg
p
Where p is in N/m
And v is in mÎ/kg
But usually p is given in bar, Hence.
Wex = p x 10V (vg ±vf) J/kg
ͳͲ$
ൌ ൫୥ െ ୤ Ȁ
ͳͲଷ
ൌ ͳͲͲ൫୥ െ ୤ Ȁ
If vf is neglected, then,
Wex = 100 p vg
p For wet steam,
Wex = 100p x vg
p For superheated steam,
Wex = 100p Vsup
1]6
J

c

$J &
In general there are three stages in which heat is supplied to
transform liquid water into super heated steam.
When water is heated from initial to saturation temperature. At
cont. pressure, there is increase in entropy of water which is
given by,
୤ ൌ
ୱୟ୲
୧୬୧୲୧ୟ୪
This can be directly read from steam table at the stated pressure.
p When saturated water is further heated to get transformed into
dry saturated steam, there is increase in entropy. This is known
as increase in entropy during vaporization denoted by Sfg.
Increase in entropy during vaporization
୤୥
୤୥ ൌ
ୱୟ୲
p When dry saturated steam is further heated at constant pressure

it¶s temperature also increases to get superheated steam. The
change in entropy is called increase in entropy during super
heating which is given by,
ሺሻୱ୳8ୣ୰୦ୣୟ୲୧୬୥ ൌ 8ୱ
ୱ୳8
ୱୟ୲
‫ ׵‬Entropy of dry saturated steam is given by Sg = Sf + Sfg

Sf = Entropy of saturated liquid kJ/kg0k
Sfg = Increase in entropy during vaporization, Sg can be directly
read from steam table.
Entropy of wet steam S = Sr + x Sr + S fg
x = Dryness fraction of wet steam.
1]ë
J

c

ୱ୳8 ൌ ୰ ൅ ୤୥ ൅ 8ୱ

ୱ୳8
ୱୟ୲
ୱ୳8 ൌ ୥ ൅ 8ୱ
ୱ୳8
ୱୟ୲
Ssup can be directly read from steam table at given pressure p

and temprature tsup.
''!&
p P ± V diagram
p T ± S diagram
For entropy we have following relations.
୰ ൌ െ െ െ െ െ െሺͳሻ

ୱ୳8
ୱୟ୲
୤୥
and S g = Sr + S fg
ൌ ൅ െ െ െ െ െ െሺʹሻ

ୱୟ୲
ʹ͹͵Ǥͳ͸ ୱୟ୲
If the value of µS¶ are plotted against saturated temperature for

different temperature for different pressure in equation (1) then
the curve obtained is shown by line 1 ± on T ± S. Plot as
shown in diagram below.
Critical point
Liquid N
Temp. Region Constant pressure line
୤୥
(T)0 k
୤୥ ൌ
ୱୟ୲
8୵ 8ୱ
ୱୟ୲ ୱ୳8
ʹ͹͵Ǥͳ͸ ୱୟ୲
T sat p = c Î
Wet steam region
Saturated
liquid line p1 = c Saturated vapour line
1 ]
Sf Sp. Entropy S g (S)
If value of µS¶ are plotted against saturated temperature in

equation () for different pressures we get curve Î ± ].
1]w
J

c

These two curves when plotted for further higher and
higher pressure corresponding to higher and higher saturation
temperature they will finally merge at point µN¶ which is critical
point. Latent heat of vapourisation is zero at µN¶.
The left hand curve is called saturated liquid line. This
line separates liquid and wet region. On right hand side of liquid
line, condition of substance is always two phase system i.e. wet
steam.
The right hand line is called as dry saturated vapour
(steam) line. This line separated wet steam region from
superheated steam region. Dryness fraction at all the point on
this line will be µ1¶. The curve formed combined by liquid line

( െ ૅ
and dry vapour line is called saturation curve.
N Critical point
Pressure (1)
Liquid region
Superheat region
Liquid Line
Superheated
Wet Region Vapour line
b=c
Vf Vg Vsup
S p1 Volume

1
%25%3=
>
Isentropic Line Constant SP volume
Superheated region
Specific
Enthalpy
(h) KJ1kg
Cont. Temp. Lines

Cont Pressure Lines
x=1
Dryness fraction line
x=0.ÚV
Wet region
Isenthalpy lines
Specific Entropy
(S) KJ1kg0
1]Ú
J

c

J : &
Neglecting change in K. E. and P. E.
q1 = (h ± h1) + W
q =0
‫ ׵‬O = (h ± h1) + W
W = ± (h ± h1)
W = h1 ± h for reversible expansion.
= h1 ± h for irreversible expansion.
Also for isentropic process. i.e. 1 ±
S1 = S
ୱ୳8ȀଵƬ ୱ୳8 െ ୤ Ȁଶ

Ssup/P1 & tsup = Sf/p + x S fg/P
‫ ׵‬ଶ ൌ
୤୥ Ȁଶ
#+ &
Gaseous state
N
Isothermal process
p Critical isothermal
(Passing through point N)
p1 Isothermal compression
p1 1
P
1
P 1
2 OO
S S1 S
1V0
J

c

P±V diagram shows various isothermal processes. It can be
seen that with higher temperature above critical isotherm, the
curve approach the typical isothermal curve for a perfect gas.
Above this system will behave as perfect gas and follows the law
pV±C. otherwise for vapour the law for isothermal process pV±C
does not hold good.
#
&
q1 = T(S ± S1)
S1 = Ssup/p1 tsup, S = S f/p + x Sfg/p
" 6
J : &
q1 = (u ± u1) + W1
W = (u1 ± u) + q
J : &
W = (h1 ± h) + q

+$ &
It is considered as general law for expansion and
compression. It has very useful application in the steam during
non flow expansion and compression process. Also in flow
process it has application in steam turbines during flow
accompanied by expansion process.
P
p1 1
Pvn = c
p
1V1
J

c

" 6 &
J : &

ଵିଶ ൌ
ଵ ଵ െ ଶ ଶ
8ୢ୴
ൌ
െͳ

܎‫ܛܛ܍܋ܗܚܘܟܗܔ܎ܚܗ‬ଵିଶ ൌ െ
୴ୢ8

ൌ ሺ െ ଶ ଶ ሻ
െͳ ଵ ଵ
*****************
1V
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c

!'"$+
$+&
The Carnot Cycle using vapour as working substance
consists of two reversible isothermal and two reversible
adiabatic or isentropic processes.
The basic difference between Carnot Cycle using perfect
gas as working substance and that with vapour is heating and
cooling isothermal process with vapour can be accomplished
with high speed since in vapour these involve evaporation and
condensation. Whereas with perfect gas to perform isothermal
process it is required to be performed at low speed which is
impracticable.
Isothermal heating (Evaporation).

P
a b
Isentropic Expansion
Isentropic
Compression
d c
Isothermal Cooling (Condensing)
T1 a b
T a c
Sa= Sd Sd = Sc
S

1VÎ
J

c

1.&
Itis the reversible isothermal heating process. The saturated
liquid at temperature. T1 is heated at constant pressure, causing
evaporation of liquid to transform in saturated vapour.
.1&
It is reversible adiabatic expansion process in which
vapour is expanded from P1 to P.
1&
It is reversible isothermal cooling process or condensation
process at constant pressure P and temperature T. This
condensation process is cut off at point µd¶ where substance
exist as mixture of vapour and liquid.
1&
It is reversible adiabatic compression process in which
wet vapour is compressed from p to p1 to restore it to original
liquid state.
Heat supplied in cycle is during isothermal evaporation
process, which is given by
QS = T1 (Sb ± Sa)
Heat is rejected during isothermal condensation process,
which is given by
Qr = T (S c ± Sa ) = T (Sb ± Sa)
Wet work during cycle = Qs ± Qr
= T1 (Sb ± Sa) ± T (Sb ± Sa )
Wnet = (Sb ± Sa ) (T1 ± T ).
‫׵‬Thermal Efficiency of Carnot vapour cycle

Ș୲୦ ൌ

ሺୠ െ ୟ ሻሺ ଵ െ ଶሻ
ൌ
ଵ ሺୠ െ ୟ ሻ
ሺ െ ଶሻ
ൌ
ଵ
ଵ
1V]
J

c

ܶଶ
ߟ௧௛ ൌ ͳ െ
ܶଵ
x=0
T
T1 a b x=1
ܶ
ߟ௧௛ ൌ ͳ െ
ܶ
௡
T d c
௫
Thus efficiency of Carnot vapour cycle depends upon the

temperature range of cycle and not on particular fluid. The
upper temperature T1 depends upon the boiler pressure and
lower temperature T depends upon condenser pressure.
+ J$+&
Although the efficiency of Carnot cycle is maximum but it is
not used as a standard for reference for steam power plants
because of following difficulties in actual practice.
1) In Carnot cycle during isothermal condensation process,
the condensation is stopped before saturated liquid state is
reached at point µd¶. This is necessary in order to reach to
saturated liquid condition after compression. So that
evaporation may start from point µa¶. Thus compressor
has to deal with non homogeneous mixture i.e. wet
vapour.
Because of large specific volume of liquid vapour mixture
before compression, the size of compressor required is
large as well as work input required is also large.
) The work ratio is defined as :
െ
ൌ

1VV
J

c

The higher work requirement for compression thus reduces plant
efficiency and work ratio.
Î) The specific steam consumption is higher and hence plant
size for specific power is large.
0$+&
The Rankine Cycle is used as standard for reference for thermal
power plant. The components of steam (vapour) power plant
working on Rankine Cycle, p V and T S diagram are shown
below:
QS
WT
Boiler
Prime Mover
(Turbine)
Condenser
Water In
Water Out
QR
WP Pump

:
Condition while entering turbine (before expansion)
b ² Dry Saturated
b¶ ² Wet
b¶¶ ² Super Heated
1V6
J

c

Constant Pressure Heating
P1 b¶¶
e a b T1 a b¶
Isentropic
expansion
Isentropic
Compression
(Pumping)
P T
d c d c¶ c c¶¶
Constant Pressure Cooling
V S
3 1 &

The saturated water at condenser pressure P and
corresponding saturation T stated by point µd¶ is pressurized
adiabatically by a pump from condenser pressure P to boiler
pressure P1 shown by d±e. this process is carried in a pump
while handle only liquid. There is marginal rise in the
temperature of water during expression de. The enthalpy of
water increase due to pumping as work is given input.
/3 11.&
The water at pressure p1 from the pump is supplied to
boiler represented by point µe¶. First heat is supplied to
water to rise it¶s temperature equal to saturation
temprature. T1 corresponding to boiler pressure p1 shown
by process e ± a. At point µa¶ evaporation of water begins
at constant pressure p1 and temperature T1 to transform it
either into wet or saturated vapour. The enthalpy increases
by large value during evaporation. The vapour can also be
converted to superheated vapours. Hence condition of
vapour at point µb¶ may be wet, try saturated or
superheated.
1Vë
J

c

Î3 .1&
During this process, the vapour is expanded isentropically
in the prime mover (Turbine). During this work is done by
steam as it expands from boiler pressure p1 to condenser
pressure p. Temperature at end of expansion represented
by point µC¶ is saturation temperature corresponding to
pressure in condenser p.
]3 1&
At point µc¶ vapours enter the condenser at pressure P after
leaving prime mover. During condensation process at
constant pressure P the vapour is transformed into liquid by
rejecting heat to circulating water through condenser. The
temperature remains constant i.e. µe¶ saturation temperature
T corresponding to condenser pressure P. At µd¶ it then
enter again into pump to repeat cycle.
Let hb = Specific enthalpy of steam at b i.e. at P1 pressure.
hC = Specific enthalpy of steam at µc¶ at P pressure.
hfe = Specific enthalpy of water at point µe¶.
hfd = Specific enthalpy of water at point µd¶ at pressure P.
hfa = Specific enthalpy of water at µa¶ at pressure P1.
hfa = hf / p1 bar , hfa = hf / P bar.
hp = hf / P1 bar + x hfg1 / P1 bar for wet vapour.
hb = (hf + hfg) / p1 bar for dry saturated vapour.
hb = hsup / p1 bar and Tsup for superheated vapour.
hc = hf / p bar, hfe = ( hfd + Wp)
Wp = Pump work / kg of water.
Heat supplied in boiler / kg of steam
QS = hb ± hfe
QS = hb ± (hfd + Wp) kJ/kg
Work done / kg of steam in prime mover.
WT = hb ± hc kJ/kg
1Vw
J

c

Pump work / kg of water supplied to boiler.

WP = VW (p1 ± p ) J/kg p1 and p are in bar.
WP = VW X 100 (p1 ± p) kJ/kg
Where VW = Specific volume of water at point µd¶
VW = Vf /P bar
Net work available /kg
Wnet = WT ± WP
= (hb ± bc) ± VW X 100 (p1 ± p )
= (hb ± hc) ± W P

Terminal efficiency of cycle or Rankline¶s Efficiency
Șୖୟ୲୦ ൌ

ሺୠ െ ୟ ሻ െ 8
Ș୲୦ ൌ
ୖ ୠ െ ൫୤ୢ ൅ 8
If pump work is neglected since it is very small.
ୠ െ ୟ
Ș୲୦ ൌ
ୖ ୠ െ ୤ୢ
T b¶¶
a b¶ b
d c¶ c c¶¶
S
T ± S plot with pump work neglected.

1VÚ
J

c

.
:
6% &
1) The Rankine cycle is more practical cycle since vapour is
completely condensed to saturated liquid after expansion
instead of partial consideration is Carnot cycle is
overcome by compressing just liquid in case of Rankine
cycle.
) Carnot cycle consist of isothermal heating and cooling
processes. Thus an ideal Carnot cycle is not possible with
the use of superheat steam as steam can not be
superheated at constant temperature.
In Rankine cycle heating and cooling takes place only at
constant pressure. Hence superheated steam can be used.

#$+
The efficiency of Rankine cycle can be improved by using
reheat and regenerative heating. Both are used to improve
overall efficiency reduce size of plant and increasing the
working life of plant. The efficiency of Rankine cycle can
be increased by increasing pressure and temprature of
steam entering the prime mover. But as the initial pressure
increases the expansion ratio in turbine also increases and
hence steam becomes too wet at end of expansion which
causes erosion of turbine blades, increases losses and
reduces turbine blade and nozzle efficiencies.
In heat recycle expansion process of steam in turbine is
divided in two stages. The steam from boiler is expanded
partially from initial pressure to some intermediate
pressure in final turbine. Then steam is extracted at a
suitable point from turbine when it becomes just wet and
reheated by passing through reheat with the help of fuel
gas in boiler furnace.
The reheating increases the dryness fraction of steam
passing through second stage. Dryness fraction of steam
160
J

c

at exit of last stage should not be less than 0.ww. The used
reheat cycle reduces specific steam consumption and
increases thermal efficiency.
The increase in Thermal efficiency depends on the ratio of
reheat pressure to origin pressure of steam. The reheat
pressure should be ]0% of initial pressure of steam. The
reheat cycle is useful for high capacity plants having more
than V0 M. W. and when pressure of steam is above 100
bar.
Fuel gases
Reheater
Super heater
Second stage
1 Î Condenser
Boiler
]
First stage turbine
Pump V
Turbine
P1 P P1 (P ǻP)
P
h 1 Î PÎ h 1
Î
0 1 P
x=1
] ]0 ]1
x=1
S S
(Theoretical Reheat Cycle) (Reheat Cycle considering pressure
losses in Reheat and reheating in
turbine due to friction)
Heat supplied / kg of steam
Qs = (h1 ± hf6 ) + (hÎ ± h )
161
J

c

Work done / kg of steam = W. D. for 1st stage + W. D. for nd stage ± pump work
= (h1 ± h) + (hÎ ± h]) ± (hf6 ± hfV )
Pump work Wp = hf6 ± hfV = 100 vf / p c (pb ± p c) KJ / kg
‫ ׵‬Efficiency of reheat cycle

ሺÄሻ୦ୣୟ୲ ൌ

ሺଵ െ ଶ ሻ ൅ ሺଷ െ ସ ሻ െ ሺ଺ െ $ሻ
Ä୦ୣୟ୲ ൌ
ሺଵ െ ଺ሻ ൅ ሺଷ െ ଶ ሻ
If pump work is neglected then
ሺଵ െ ଶ ሻ ൅ ሺଷ െ ସ ሻ
Ä୰ୣ୦ୣୟ୲୲୦ୣ୰ୣ୲୧ୡୟ୪ ൌ
ሺଵ െ ଺ሻ ൅ ሺଷ െ ଶሻ

Considering pressure losses and reheating of steam in

turbine due to friction the expansion does not follow isentropic
law. Hence efficiency of reheat cycle is given by
ሺଵ െ ଵଶ ሻ ൅ ሺଷ െ ଵସ ሻ

ൌ
ሺଵ െ ଺ ሻ ൅ ሺଷ െ ଵଶ ሻ
Ä୰ୣ୦ୣୟ୲ୟୡ୲୳ୟ୪

*!$+&
The efficiency of Rankine Cycle is less than that of
Carnot Cycle since all heat is not supplied at highest
temperature water is heated upto saturation temperature as well
as evaporation takes place in boiler. Heating of feed water in
boiler takes place with large temperature difference. The
efficiency of Rankine Cycle is made equal to that of Carnot
Cycle if temperature of water is raised to saturation temperature
before it enters the boiler. The process by which it is done is
called regenerative process of heat which involves reversible
inter change of heat between steam and feed water.
16
J

c

Casing to heat fuel water
Heat transferring surface
Rotor blades of turbine
1
Condenser
Î
Boiler
Pump
T1 ] 1
T
Î 6 V
10 Ú w ë
S
Dry saturated steam coming out of boiler enters turbine at

temperature T1 and expand isentropically to temperature. T
shown by process 1±. The condensate coming out from
condenser at T is pumped back through an annular space
surrounding the turbine before entering boiler. The feed water is
heated with the help of steam in turbine casing in reversible
manner. Since heat is transferred from steam to feed water in
turbine casing 1 shows drop in entropy. The heating of feed
water is shown by Î ]. Under ideal regenerative condition the
16Î
J

c

temperature of steam entering turbine and temperature of feed
water leaving turbine is same. The steam give it¶s part of latent
heat to feed water in turbine. The feed water enters the boiler at
temperature T1 as shown by point ].
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by water.
A (1ëw1) = A (Î]Ú0Î)
This type of arrangement gives (non extraction feed
heating) efficiency equivalent to that of Carnot cycle.
This type of arrangement can not be used in actual
practice since steam will become too wet at end of expansion. In
actual practice the principle of regenerative heating is used by
µbleding¶ i.e. extracting a part of steam out from turbine at
certain stage of expansion and using this steam for heating the
feed water coming from condenser in a separate feed heater.
This arrangement does not reduce dryness fraction of remaining
steam passing through turbine. By considering the cost factor
the number of feed heater used are maximum 6 to Ú.

=)% > %
(
#
%
1 kg.at (1 m1 m )kg
Pb b Turbine
1 PC
p m kg
1kg Boiler
P1
m1 kg Condenser
w Î
Pump Î Pump Pump 1
ë 6 V ]
1kg (1 m1 ) (1 m 1 ± m )
Feed Heater Feed Heater
(Mixing) (Mixing)
16]
J

c

Ú P0 10
T w 1kg
P1
1kg ë 1
6 m1 kg (1 m1 ) kg
(1 m1 ) V P
m kg kg(1 m1 m ) kg
]
(1 m1 m)
Î c
(1 ± m1 ± m ) kg
S
In direct contact or mixing type regenerative heating the
blade steam after extracting from turbine is used to heat the
condensate by mixing it with steam directly at the pressure of
bled steam. For calculating efficiency of regenerative cycle
following assumption are made
1. The condensate gets the heat in feed heater from bled
steam and leaves the heater at the saturation temperature.
Corresponding to pressure of bled steam.
. The bled steam in feed heater while transferring it¶s heat
to condensate (feed water) gets condenser itself. This
condensation of bled steam upto saturation temperature
and heating of feed water upto saturation temperature.
Takes place corresponding to pressure of bled steam.
As shown in figure and T. S. diagram the point µb¶
represent the condition of steam entering turbine. Let m1 kg of
steam at P1 and m kg of steam at P is extracted from turbine
for heating the feed water in feed heater. Point µC¶ represents
the condition of steam entering condenser at pressure Pc and
having mass (1±m1±m ) processes Î ], V 6 and ë w represents
the pump processes. Process ] V and 6 ë represents the heating
of feed water in feed heater in boiler. The feed water enters the
boiler at w and at pressure pb and heated for small part upto
16V
J

c

saturation temperature corresponding to pb and then evaporated
represented by process Ú 10, 10 b represent super heating.
W.D/kg of steam in turbine
W = (hb ± h1 ) + (1 ± m1 ± m ) (h ± hc)
Total pump work, Wp = Wp1 + Wp + WpÎ
Let Vw = Specific volume of feed water
= Vw (1 ± m1 ± m ) (p ± p c) + Vw (1 ± m1 )
(p1 ± p) + V w (1) (pb ± p1)
Net work done /kg of steam Wn = WT ± Wp
Heat supplied by boiler/kg of steam = hb ± hg
Efficiency of regenerative cycle Ș୰ୣ୥ୣ୬ୣ୰ୟ୲୧୭୬ ൌ
୛
ୣୟ୲ୱ୳88୪୧ୣୢ
ൌ
୛౐ ି୛౦
୦ୠି୦୤
For finding m1 and m required to be bled from turbine

neglecting losses of heat in feed heater and applying heat
balance for each feed heater. Neglect the enthalpy rise of feed
water due to pump action.
Heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by water
m (h ± hfV) = (1 ± m1 ± m) (hfV ± hfÎ)
m1 (h1 ± hfë) = (1 ± m1) ( hfë ± hfV)

Efficiency of indirect contact regenerative Heating Cycle:
Pb
Turbine
1 kg of steam (1 ± m1 ± m )kg
b 1 Pc
P1 P C
Condenser
m1 m = (1 m1 )
(1kg) Boiler Feed heater

(1 m1 ± m )
6 V Î
m1
Feed Heater ]
m 10 Ú ë
Pump Î (1 m1 m )
w Pump 1
Pump
166
J

c

b
Pb
T Pc 1kg
10 1kg
P1
6 Ú 1 (1 m 1 ) kg
w m1
V ë P
(m =(1 m 1 )
] (1 m 1 m ) kg
Î (1 m 1 m ) c
In indirect heating bled steam does not come in direct

contact with feed water but it heat the water in a heat exchanger.
As shown in flow diagram and T±S diagram. The bled system at
p1 and p of masses m1 and m respectively enters in heat
exchanger. The condensate or feed water of mass (1±m1±m ) at
pressure pc i.e. from condenser is pumped to the boiler pressure
pb in pump 1 as shown by Î±] process and then asses through
feed heater where it takes heat from m kg of steam a P.
The bled system at p gives it¶s heat and cooled up to
saturation temperature corresponding to p. Then the feed water
takes heat in another feed heater from bled steam of mass m1 in
the same way as in first feed heater. The condensed bled steam
from both feed heater are pumped upto boiler pressure pb. In pump
and pump Î as shown by processes ë ± w and Ú ± 10 respectively
and feed back to boiler again along with the feed water. Condition
of feed water at inlet of boiler is represented by x.
W. D. / kg of steam in turbine
W = (hb ± h1 ) 1 + (1 ± m1) (h1 ± h) + (1 ± m1 ± m) (h ± hc)
Total pump work Wp = Wp1 + Wp + Wp Î
Assuming the specific volume of feed water Vw is constant
Wp = Vw ( 1± m1 ± m) (pb ± p c) + Vw (pb ± p ) + Vw (pb ± p1 )
16ë
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c

Wet work done Wn = W ± Wp
Heat supplied in boiler/kg of steam
= hb ± hfx.
hfx = Enthalpy of feed water at inlet of boiler.
୬
Efficiency of regenerative cycle
Ș୰ୣ୥ୣ୬ୣ୰ୟ୲୧୭୬ ൌ

െ
ൌ
െ
For finding mass of steam to be bled in turbine applying
balance in feed heater neglecting losses and neglecting the
enthalpy rise due to pump action.
Heat lost by bled steam = heat gained by feed water
(1± m1 ) (h ± hfë) = (1± m1 ± m) (hfë ± hfÎ)
m1 (h1 ± hfÚ) = (1± m1 ± m) (hfÚ ± hfë )
Enthalpy of feed water and bled steam leaving heat
exchanger are equal.
Hence hfë = hfV and hfÚ = hf6
hfg and hgë are entropies of water corresponding to p1 and p
respectively. Condition of feed water entering boiler is given by
1 x hx = (1 ± m1 ± m) hfÚ + m1 hfÚ + m (hfë )
hx = hfÚ [ 1 ± m1 ± m + m1 ] + m hfë
hx = hfÚ (1 ± m ) + m hfë
16w
J

c

:
) !
&
Observer moves along with wave front
Sound wave front 1
e d
P + dp P P + dp P
C C
T + dT T T + dT T
ߩ + dߩ ߩ ߩ + dߩ ߩ
Fig. (A) Fig. (B) C. V.

p New Eulerian approach It is used in Engg
Observer is stationary because of its simplicity
Eulerian approach
Consider an imaginary piston is used to create a small pressure

disturbance wave, which is traveling at sonic speed µC¶. When
the wave front passes downstream, the gas, which is in
immediate contact with wave, will approach the wave front with
a velocity of d as shown in fig ³A´.
When the pressure wave is generated the pressure immediately
near to piston will increase and hence the wave front passes
down stream.
Principles of flow can be applied to above problem assuming
that observer is traveling along with the wave front (i.e.
Eulerian approach) as show in fig ³B´.
By continuity equation applied to C.V of fig ³B´, we get;
σ ‫ܨ‬௘௫௧ ȁ௡௧௛௘ௗ௥௘௧௡( = rate of change of momentum in

Now by momentum equation applied to control volume, i.e.
the direction of flow.

16Ú
J

c

We get;
The change of state is so fast, that it must be essentially

adiabatic and in absence of any internal friction, we can take it
as isentropic.
Hence, sonic velocity can be written as;
For isentropic process;
1ë0
J

c

Differentiating above equation, we get;
By equation of state,
Substituting in equation (V), we get;
Substituting in equation (V), we get;
ൌ ඥɀ ȉ = ȉ ǥ ǥ ሺ͸ሻ
ͺ͵ͳͶ
= ൌ ǥ ǥ ǥ Ǥ ሺ ȀȂ ሻ
ß
From equation (6), we can say that;
i. Sonic speed increases as temperature of fluid increases.
ii. Sonic speed increases as molecular weight of fluid
decreases.
For air7

G . 23&
It is defined as the ratio of actual velocity of fluid to the sonic
velocity C. Mathematically;
1ë1
J

c

If,
< C, M < 1 i.e. flow is subsonic.
= C, M = 1 i.e. flow is sonic.
> C, M > 1 i.e. flow is supersonic.
G
%

%
&
The isentropic stagnation state is defined as the state, a fluid in
motion would reach if were brought to rest isentropically, in a
steady flow, adiabatic, zero work output device. This is a
reference state (know as stagnation state) in a compressible
fluid flow and is commonly designated with a subscript zero.
The stagnation enthalpy ho is related to the enthalpy and
velocity of the moving fluid by,

‫ ׵‬ ൌ ൅

ʹ ȉ Ê
Dividing throughout by T, we get;
1ë
J

c

Where;
T0 = stagnation temperature.
Also; for the isentropic process between static and stagnation
state, we can write;
Substituting the values from equation (1), we get;
Where;
Po = stagnation pressure.
Also; for isentropic flow between actual (i.e. static point) and
stagnation point, we can write;
Above equation relates densities at static and stagnation points.
1ëÎ
J

c

Reversible adiabatic one dimensional steady flow of ideal gas
through varying cross sectional area:
ߩP
ߩ ߩ dߩ
P P +
+
T T + dT
A A + dA
J v + dv
C C + dC
M M + dM
1st Step
Let us first develop the relationship between (dA) and (dP), by

principle of energy conservation i.e. 1st law of thermodynamics,
we can write;
nd Step
1ë]
J

c

Step Î
From equation () and (Î), we get,
1ëV
J

c

Above equation gives relationship between (dA) and (dP).

Conclusions that can be made from equation (A):
In case << , dP is always negative, hence; If,
i. M < 1, dA will turn out to be negative, i.e. the nozzle
should be of convergent shape, and will be referred as
subsonic nozzle.
ii. M = 1, dA will turn out to be zero, i.e. in a nozzle as
velocity increases from subsonic to sonic (in the
convergent part) and once it becomes sonic the further
small part of nozzle should be of same cross sectional
area which is known as throat.
iii. M > 1, dA will turn out to be positive, i.e. the nozzle
should be of divergent shape, and will be referred as
supersonic nozzle.
From above three cases one thing is clear that C D nozzle is the
only option that we have for acquiring supersonic speed from
subsonic flow.
µIn case , dP is always positive, hence;
If,
i. M > 1, dA will turn out to be negative, i.e. the diffuser
should be of convergent shape, and will be referred as
supersonic diffuser.
ii. M = 1, dA will turn out to be zero, i.e. in a diffuser as
velocity decreases from supersonic to sonic (in the
convergent part) and once it becomes sonic the further
small part of diffuser should be of same cross sectional
area which is known as throat.
iii. M < 1, dA will turn out to be positive, i.e. the diffuser
should be of divergent shape, and will be referred as
subsonic diffuser.
1ë6
J

c

+
: (

.
: (&5
From equation. (A), we know;
And,
And from equation (), we have;
Then, from above two equations, equation (V) can be written as;
G
) :
2 6%
<< 3&5
By continuity equation,
By equation of state,
1ëë
J

c

Substituting values from eqn. (i) and (ii) in eqn. (1), we get;
But we know
ɀെͳ
ൌ ͳ ൅ Ǥ ßଶ ǥ ǥ ǥ Ǥ ሺሻ
ʹ

1ëw
J

c

For to be maximum, denominator (which is a function of M)

must be minimum.
Hence differentiating denominator with respect to M and
equating it to zero, we can write.
1ëÚ
J

c

Taking ͳ ൅ ß
ஓିଵ ଶ ଶሺ)ିଵሻ
)ାଵ
ଶ
common and zero of R.H.S. divide
by this term will give again zero, hence equation reduces to;
Now multiplying throughout with we get;
For mass flow rate to be maximum, Mach number should be

equal to one and we know Mach number is one only at the
throat in the nozzle.
Hence, we can say when M =1 occurs at throat, there is a
maximum discharge flowing through a nozzle and such state of
maximum discharge is known as the 6%

<<
Note:
For choked nozzle (i.e. the nozzle operating under maximum
mass flow rate conditions), the properties at throat are called
1w0
J

c

critical properties and are denoted by superscript* i.e. P*, T*
and ߩ. Following relationships can be used to calculate critical
properties.
Since;
We know under choked conditions, Mach number at throat is

one and properties at throat under such condition are critical
properties, hence;
1w1
J

c

Ȁ̶ß̶
‫כ‬
୅
୅‫כ‬
M
m<1 m>1
For a given value i.e. A/A* other than one we will get two
corresponding Mach Nos. one Subsonic and other is Supersonic.
G 5 . 2 /3&

It is defined as the ratio of actual fluid velocity to the critical
fluid velocity.
i.e.
G
.
: 2Ò323&5(Not important *)
We know,
1w
J

c

Squaring both sides,
1wÎ
J

c

G
(% .6
( %
<< &5
Po Exit Back
؆ PE PB
To Valve
P B/P O
1 1
PE = PB
Î M=1
0.Vw
]
PE > PB
Length
0.Vw 1 P/P 0
Let, the inlet condition of the fluid be stagnation state at P0 &

T0. The pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle is denoted by P E
and back pressure is PB which can be varied by the valve.
୆
1. When = 1, there is no flow and pressure everywhere will

be same as shown by point ³1´.

. If back pressure PB is now reduced to a value as designated by
‫כ‬
point ³´, such that is greater than critical pressure ratio

the mass flow rate has a certain value and PE = PB. The exit
Mach number is less than one.
Î. If the back pressure is further lowered to critical pressure,
designated by point ³Î´. The Mach number at exit now becomes
1w]
J

c

unity and PE = PB = P* and mass flow rate through the nozzle is
maximum and nozzle is said to be operating under choked
conditions.
]. If the back pressure is further lowered below the critical
pressure, indicated by point ³]´, there is no increase in the mass
flow rate, and PE remains constant at the value equal to critical
pressure and match number at exit is one. The drop in pressure
from PE to P B occurs outside the nozzle exit.

(% .6 1
<< &
E
؆
Po PE
PB
To
P/Po
1 1

y a
0.Vw Design value
x ] (to reach m as in)
V
Length
୆
1. Point ³1´ designates the condition when =1, and there is

no flow.
. If back pressure PB is now reduced to a value as designated by
୆
point ³´, such that is greater than critical pressure ratio

‫ כ‬, the mass flow rate has a certain value in which rate has a

1wV
J

c

certain value. In this case, the velocity increases in the
convergent portion in such a way that M < 1 at throat, as a result
the divergent section acts as a diffuser wherein pressure
increases and velocity decreases.
Î. Point ³Î´ indicates the back pressure at which the Mach number
just becomes one at the throat, but the diverging portion still
acts as a diffuser since back pressure is more than critical
pressure which opposes the flow thereby velocity decreases and
pressure increases as shown.
]. If back pressure is further lowered as indicated by point ³]´
୆ ‫כ‬
wherein is lower than a critical pressure ratio , then

even the divergent part acts as a nozzle (supersonic nozzle)

thereby increasing the velocity and decreasing the pressure from
P* at throat to PE = P B at exit. This condition of supersonic flow
past the throat with isentropic condition is called %

<<
V. If back pressure is further lowered as indicated by point ´V´ ,no
further decrease in exit pressure occurs and the drop in pressure
from PE = P B occurs outside the nozzle exit.
6. If the back pressure is in between point ³Î´ and ³]´, then for
small distance, fluid travels is entropically (upto point ³x´) in
the divergent portion thereby decreasing pressure below the
critical value and increasing the velocity to supersonic value.
Since the pressure at exit, designated by point ³a´ is more than
point ³x´, the further part of divergent portion should act as a
diffuser (so that it can increase the pressure). We know for a
divergent portion to act as a diffuser, velocity at entry should be
subsonic, but the velocity at point ³x´ is supersonic. Hence,
the fluid adjusts itself by undergoing a highly irreversible
phenomenon known as 67 wherein kinetic energy is
1w6
J

c

converted into pressure energy and flow transforms from
supersonic to subsonic. Now the divergent portion acts as a
diffuser and pressure increases from point ³y´ to point ³a´.
The process of shock is no more isentropic. Hence, properties
before and after shock are not calculated by applying isentropic
law.
G 6"( :
Shock wave is a special kind of wave referred to a steep finite
pressure wave. In some situations, shocks are undesirable
because they interfere with normal flow behavior. E.g. flow of
gases through gas turbines.
' :
Some useful applications of shock wave are in Shock tubes &
Supersonic compressors. On account of sudden changes in
pressure, density etc. across the shock wave, they are profitably
used in Supersonic compressors to obtain considerably high
pressure ratio (in the range of 10 1) in single stage.

&
Properties before shock, i.e. upstream properties are denoted by
subscript ³x´ and properties after shock i.e. downstream
properties are denoted by subscript ³y´.
By 1st law of thermodynamics for flow system;
As per Prandtl Meyer relation,
G
.
: ) &
By Prandtl Meyer relation;
ä‫ כ‬ä‫ כ‬
1wë
J

c

Squaring both sides, we get;
Also we know;
Hence, equation (1) can be written as;
Dividing the numerator and denominator of second term ä௬ଶ

We get;
ɀ൅ͳ ଶ ଶ ɀെͳ
ͳ ቀ ቁ ß୶ ቀ ቁ
‫ ׵‬ଶ ൌ൦ ʹ ൪ െ ʹ
ɀെͳ ͳ
ͳ ൅ቀ ቁ ß୶
ଶ
ʹ
ßÿ
1ww
J

c

1wÚ
J

c

G
.
: )&
By energy equation;
On differentiating, we get;
1Ú0
J

c

On integrating:
Substituting; in the above equation, we get;
constant
For section x, we can write;

Constant «« (i)
And for section p, we can write;
. Constant «« (ii)
From equation (i) and (ii) we get,

௫ ȉ ‫ ͳہ‬൅ ߛ ȉ ä௫ଶ ‫ ۂ‬ൌ
௬ ȉ උͳ ൅ ߛ ȉ ä௬ଶ ඏ

A
By continuity equation;

1Ú1
J

c

For section x and y, we can write;
G J % :

We know for some back pressure values, abrupt changes in fluid
properties occur in a very thin section of a C D nozzle under
supersonic flow conditions, creating a shock wave. The flow
process through the shock wave is highly irreversible.
For obtaining properties before and after the shock, we apply

à? ?
? (i.e. continuity equation), à?
? p (i.e. energy equation), law of
conservation of momentum (i.e. Newton¶s nd law) ? p
à across the control volume that contains the shock.
1Ú
J

c

In the process we assume steady flow with no heat and work
interactions, and no potential energy changes. Denoting the
properties upstream and downstream of shock as x and y
respectively as shown below.
Fanno Rayleigh
M=1
M=1
M>
Normal shock
By law of conservation of mass;
By law of conservation of energy;
By law of conservation of momentum;
By principle of entropy;
1ÚÎ
J

c

If we combine the law of conservation of mass and energy into a
single equation and plot it on h s diagram, the resultant curve is
called J
Likewise, combining law of conversation of mass and
momentum equation into a single equation and plotting it on h s
Diagram yields a curve called as % .
The h s diagram for flow across normal shock is shown above.
Fanno and Rayleigh line intersect at two points at which all
three conservation equations should be valid. Since normal
shock satisfies all three conservation equations, hence these
intersection points should be x and y. Therefore, we can say that
end states of normal shock lie on both Fanno and Rayleigh line.
One of these (state x) corresponds to the state before shock, and
the other (state y) corresponds to state after shock. Note that
flow is supersonic before shock and subsonic afterwards.
xxxxx
1Ú]
J

c

-

(.

6 :.
(.
:
The useful work potential of a system (i.e. maximum possible work

that the system can deliver) as it undergoes a reversible process
from a specified initial state to the state of its environment (i.e.
dead state) is called as availability or available energy or energy.

&5
A system is said to be in dead state when it is in thermodynamic

equilibrium with the surrounding. Also the system at dead state
does not have kinetic or potential energy relative to the
surrounding. At dead state properties of the system are denoted by
subscript ³0´, for example ³P0´, ³T0´, ³h0´, ³u0´ and ³s0´. Unless
specified otherwise, the dead state pressure ant temperature are
taken as P0 = 1.01ÎV bar and T0 =V C = Úw K. A system which
is not at dead state can produce work. In other words if system is at
dead state it does not produce work.
'(. %&
It is that portion of energy which can not be converted in to work

even by using a reversible heat engine operating between specified
initial state and dead state.
( .
&5 The actual work done by a system is always less
than the idealized reversible work, and the difference between the
two is called irreversibility.
xxxxxxxxx
1ÚV
J

Basic Concept of Thermodynamics MORGAN

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c 

   !"

As shown in figure above a gas enclose in a cylinder and

Air from Air Fuel Heat

Let us consider a gas system in cylinder and piston with a

System under mechanical

& chemical equilibrium

Let us consider gas system shown above enclosed in cylinder

If in above system the single weight is made up of small

System 1 System  System 1 System 

Adiabatic Wall Diathermia Wall

Body A is a reference body which establish the thermal

Hence temperatures on linear scale are to each other as ratio

Where, pt = Pressure of gas when thermometer is brought in

Where, V = Volume of gas when thermometer is brought in contact

In this thermometer the change in resistance of a metal wire

A thermocouple is made by forming two junctions by two

When the work is done by the system it is taken as positive

Let us consider a gas enclosed in piston and cylinder

The magnitude of work given by above equation is same as

«ଵ Pdv Can be performed only on quassi static path.

Let a system be taken from state 1 to state  by following

«ଵ dv = V ± V1 for a change of state

If shaft is considered as system is roted by motor there is

« = 0 but «  ്0.

‫(׵‬work /time) = p1v1 dm1 = (dw)

Work /kg = (dw)flow = p1v1

When heat is absorbed by When heat is rejected by system

Unit of heat transfer in S.I. system is Joule.

Let us consider a closed system consisting of water in an

Now if the insulation of vessel is removed the system is now

Where µO¶ stand for cyclic integral.

In equation of first law for a cycle i.e., σ ܳ = σ ܹ the

algebraic sum of all energy transfer across system boundary is

+*$ $J $ 

PMM1 Converse of PMM1

mass of fluid and v is fl0ow velocity.

İ ൌ İ୲ୟ୬ୱ ൅ İ୰୭୲ୟ ൅ İ୬ୠ ൅ İୣ୪ୣୡ୲ ൅ İ୬୳ୡ୪ୣୟ୰ ൅ İୡ୦ୣ୫

Random Thermal Motion of Molecules

Hence, change in internal energy

*$1+' 4 +"

From Charles¶s law V Į T if P = C

The gases have to specific heat.

Work transfer : «  = « = 0.

ǻU = U U1 = mCv (T ± T1)

Q = mCv (T ± T1)

(H ± H1 = ǻH = mcp c T ± T1)

When a gas is heated at constant pressure the heat supplied to

" 6 &

W1  = «ଵ  = P (V ± V1)

ǻU = U ± U1 = mCv (T ± T1)

ǻH = H ±H1 = mCp (T ±T1)

Thus for cont. pressure process ǻH =Q

W1  = P1V1 «ଵ ଵିଶ ൌ = 

Is known as expansion Ratio.

Characteristics equation for a perfect gas PV = mRT

Integrating above equation:

ଵ ଵୟ ൌ ଶଶ୰ ൌ = ୬ ୬୰ ൌ

Relatio0nship between p1v1 and T for adiabatic process.

  ൌ   ଵଵ୰ ൌ ଶଶ୰ ൌ

Let at any equilibrium state during the process

‫ ׵‬ଵ ଵ୰ ൌ ୰ ൌ

ൌ ଵ ଵ୰   ି୰   ଵଵ୰ ൌ 

c

!"

System 1 System System 1 System

Let a system be taken from state 1 to state by following

«ଵ dv = V ± V1 for a change of state

« = 0 but « ്0.

+*$ $J $

*$1+' 4 +"

Work transfer : « = « = 0.

ǻU = U U1 = mCv (T ± T1)

Q = mCv (T ± T1)

(H ± H1 = ǻH = mcp c T ± T1)

" 6 &

W1 = «ଵ = P (V ± V1)

ǻU = U ± U1 = mCv (T ± T1)

ǻH = H ±H1 = mCp (T ±T1)

W1 = P1V1 «ଵ ଵିଶ ൌ =

ଵ ଵୟ ൌ ଶଶ୰ ൌ = ୬ ୬୰ ൌ

ൌ ଵଵ୰ ൌ ଶଶ୰ ൌ

‫ ׵‬ଵ ଵ୰ ൌ ୰ ൌ

ൌ ଵ ଵ୰ ି୰ ଵଵ୰ ൌ

ଵିଶ ൌ ଵ ଵ୰ Ǩ Ǥ

‫ ׵‬ȟ ൌ ଶ െ ଵ ൌ ሺ ଵሻ

ൌ ሺ୰ିଵሻ

െ ‫ ׵‬ሺ

‫ ׵‬൅ ൌ Ͳ

$J+" &

ൌ ቀ ଶଶ ൅ ଶ୥ ൅ ଶ ቁ െ ቀ ଵଶ ൅ ଵ୥ ൅ ଵ ቁ Ȁ

ሺଵ ൅ ଵ ଵሻ ൅ ൅ ଵ ൅ ൌ ሺଶ ൅ ଶ ଶሻ ൅ ൅ ଶ ൅ ୱ Joule/kg

ଶ ൌ ටʹሺଵ െ ଶ ሻ ൅ ଵଶ Ȁ

h1 = h ± W (Compressor or pump consumes work

"0 $J+" &

expansion process. This «ଵ െ

For nozzle W = 0, ‫« ׵‬ଵ = ǻ KE

'J+" &

'2 #+3 &

HO (l) Pump

Net heat transfer to heat engine Qnet = Q1 ± Q

( . &

3 ( .

/3 ( . .

Q Carnot H.E. in steady flow system

QA QB QA QB

QA QB QA QB

# $' +&

depends only upon T1 and T is

Fluid used in the cycle. Hence Ä୰ୣ୴ ൌ ͳ െ ൌ ሺଵ ଶሻ