THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA BY HARRIS HANCOCK, Pu.D. (Beruty), Dr.Sc. (Paris) PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IX THE UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON + NEW YORK + CHICAGO - LONDON ATLANTA + DALLAS - COLUMBUS - SAN FRANCISCOcorrricnr, 1917, BY HARRIS HANCOCK ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ara je Atheneum Press GINN AND COMPANY « PRO- PRIETORS + BOSTON + U.S.A,PREFACE Mathematicians have always been occupied with questions of maxima and minima. With Euclid one of the simplest problems of this character was: Find the shortest line which may be drawn from a point to a line, and in the fifth book of the conics of Apollonius of Perga occur such problems as the determination of the shortest Vine which may be drawn from a point to a given conic section. It is thus seen that a sort of theory of maxima and minima was known long before the discovery of the differential calculus, and it may be shown that the attempts to develop this theory exercised considerable influence upon the discovery of the cal- culus. Fermat, for example, after making numerous restorations of two books of Apollonius, often cites this old geometer in his “method for determining maximum and minimum,’ 1638, a work which in some instances is so closely related to the calculus that Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier, and others wished to consider Fermat as the discoverer of the calculus. This he probably would have been had he started from a somewhat more general point of view, as in fact was done by Newton (Opuscula Newtoni, I, 86-88). Maclaurin (4 Treatise of Fluxions, Vol. I, p. 214. 1742), wrote : “There are hardly any speculations in geometry more useful or more entertaining than those which relate to maxima and minima. Amongst the various improvements that began to appear in the higher parts of geometry about a hundred years ago, Mr. de Fermat proposed a method for finding the maxima and minima. How the methods that were then invented for the mensuration of figures and drawing tangents to curves are comprehended and improved by the method of Fluxions, may be understood from what has already been demonstrated. A general way of itiiv THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA resolving questions concerning maxima and minima is also de- rived from it, that is so easy and expeditious in the most common cases, and is so successful when the question is of a higher degree, when the difficulty is greater and other methods fail us, that this is justly esteemed one of the most admirable applications of Fluxions.” The theory of maxima and minima was rapidly developed along the lines of the calculus after the discovery of the latter. Mathematicians were at first satisfied with finding the necessary conditions for the solution of the problem. These conditions, how- ever, are seldom at the same time sufficient. In order to decide this last point, the discovery of further algebraic means was necessary. Descartes had already remarked, in a letter of March 1, 1638, that Fermat's rule for finding maxima and minima was imperfect; and we shall see that many imperfections still existed for a long time after the invention of the calculus by Newton. As introductory to a course of lectures on the calculus of variations, I have for a number of years given a brief outline of the theory of maxima and minima. This outline is founded on the lectures that were presented by the late Professor Weierstrass in the University of Berlin. It treats the ordinary cases; that is, where the functions are everywhere regular and where the forms are either definite or indefinite. It was published as a bulletin of the University of Cincinnati in 1903. At that time I expected to publish another bulletin which was to treat the more special cases; for example, where only one-sided differ- entiation enters, the “ambiguous case,” where the form is semi- definite, etc. A treatment of these cases, the extraordinary cases, required more study than was anticipated. The bulletin has consequently been delayed so long that I have concluded to give an entirely new exposition of the whole theory. In the preface to the German translation by Bohlmann and Schepp of Peano's Calcolo differenziale ¢ principii di calcolo integrale,‘Professor A. Mayer writes that this book of Peano not only is a niodel of precise presentation and rigorous deduction, whose propitious influence has been unmistakably felt uponPREFACE ae almost every calculus that has appeared (in Germany) since that time (1884), but by calling attention to old and deeply rooted errors it has given an impulse to new and fruitful development. The important objection contained in this book (Nos. 133-136) showed unquestionably that the entire former theory of maxima and minima needed a thorough renovation; and in the main Peano’s book is the original source of the beautiful and to a great degree fundamental works of Scheeffer, Stolz, Victor v. Dantscher, and others, who have developed new and strenuous theories for extreme values of functions. Speaking for the Germans, Professor A. Mayer, in the introduction to the above- mentioned book, declares that there has been a long-felt need of a work which, for the first time, not only is free from mis- takes and inaccuracies that have been so long in vogue but which, besides, so incisively penetrates an important field that hitherto has been considered quite elementary. To a considerable degree these inaccuracies are due to one of the greatest of all mathematicians, Lagrange, and they have been diffused in the French school by Bertrand, Serret, and others. We further find that these mistakes are ever being repeated by English and American authors in the numerous new works which are constantly appearing on the calculus. It seems, therefore, very desirable in the present state of mathematical science in this country that more attention be given to the theory of maxima and minima; for it has a high interest as a topic of pure analysis and finds immediate appli- cation to almost every branch of mathematics. I have therefore prepared the present book for students who wish to take a more extended course in the calculus as intro- ductory to graduate work in mathematics. I do not believe in making university students study abstruse theories in foreign languages, and in this treatise it will be found that the peda- gogical side of the presentation is insisted upon; for example, the Taylor development in series is given under at least half a dozen different forms. HARRIS HANCOCKCONTENTS CHAPTER I FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE I. Orprvary Maxima anp Minima SECTION PAGE 1. Greatest and smallest value of a function in a fixed interval ; maximum and minimum. Several maxima or minima in the same interval. Ordinary and extraordinary, proper and improper maxima and minima, The extremes of functions; upper and lower limits; absolute and relative maxima and minima . : 1 2. Criterion for maxima or minima values . 2 8. Other theorems. : 4 4, Résumé of the above expressed in a somewhat different form . 5 II. Exrraorprvary Maxima anp Minima A. Functions which have Derivatives only on Definite Positions 5. Left-hand and right-hand differential quotients... 2.2... . 6 6. Criteria as to whether a root of the equation f(z) = 0 offers an extreme of the function f(2). Statement and proofs of certain theorems . . 7 B. Functions which have only One-Sided Differential Quotients of a Certain Order for a Value « =, 7. Theorems and their proofs... 2... ee ee ee ee C. Upper and Lower Limits of a One-Valued Function which is Continuous for Values of the Argument within a Definite Interval 8, Greatest and least values ; upper and lower limits. Examples. cos 9. An interesting example given by Liouville . 18 10, Examples in which the functions are discontinuous ; cases in which the upper and lower limits are not reached... 2.2... - Wd PROamMe Cgc een viiTHEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA viii CHAPTER II FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES L Orpivary Maxima anp Minima Preliminary Remarks SECTION PAGE 11. Proper and improper extremes w 12. Criteria for maxima and minima . . . . wv 18. Definite, semi-definite, and indefinite forms - 19 14. Criterion for a definite quadratic form . 19 IL Revarive Maxima anp Minima 15. Statement of the problem. Derivation of the conditions . 21 PROBLEMS 22 CHAPTER III FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES I. Orpivary Exrremes 16. Definitions and derivation of the required conditions. Statement of different cases after Goursat . 23 17. The indefinite case . 25 18. The definite case . 25 19, Summary of the results derived for the two cases above. Example taken from the theory of least squares . 26 PROBLEMS at Introduction to the Ambiguous Case B® — AC = 0 20-23. Exposition of the attending difficulties which are illustrated by means of geometric considerations due to Goursat . se OT 24, The classic example of Peano showing when we may and may not expect extremes... . 4. 31 II. Incorrecryess or Depuctions MADE By EARLIER AND Many Movery Wrrrers 25. The Lagrange fallacy followed by Bertrand, Serret, Toahunter, etc. Geometric explanation of this fallacy . eer oo TIL Dirrerenr ATTEMPTs TO IMPROVE THE THEORY 26. Failure in deriving the required conditions by studying the behavior of the function upon algebraic curves eaneenad 35 27. Statement of the Scheffer method 387 28. The method of Von Dantscher outlined 39 29. The Stolzian theorems 39CONTENTS CHAPTER IV THE SCHEEFFER THEORY L. Geyeran Crrrerta ror a Greatest ap a Least Vanur oF 4 Fenctron or Two Varrapies; IN particunarn rae Exrraor- DINARY EXTREMES SECTION PAGE 80. Stolz's analytic proof of the Scheeffer theorem. . 1. 48 81. Stolz's added theorem by which the nonexistence of extremes may be often ascertained... . as 82, Scheeffer's geometric proof of his own theorem... 46 88, Failure of thistheorem . 2 2... ee 48 II. Homoeenrovus Functions 84, Scheeffer’s criteria of extremes for such functions”... . . . 49 III. Exrremes ror Funcrions THAT ARE Not HomocEenrous 35. In particular the case where the terms of lowest dimension consti- tute a semi-definite form. Ketreme curves. . oe 86. The criteria established... . . a4 81-40. A direct and more practical method due to Stolz of deriving the above results Le ee ee 41. Exceptional cases... . ee 58 cs ee 50 IV. Tue Mernop or Vicror v. Dantscuer 42. The goneral method outined sng applied to the definite and indenter 48-44, Treatment of the semi-definite case. 64 Propuems ... . . ee) V. Functions or Taree VARIABLES Treatment in Particular of the Semi-definite Case 45, Extensions of the theorems and proofs given by Stolz and Scheffer for functions of two variables... 2... 70 46. Evident generalizations of §§ 87-41... . 7 PROBLEMS oe 2x THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA CHAPTER V MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES THAT ARE SUBJECTED TO NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS I, Orpinary Extremes SECTION 47, Nature of the functions under consideration. Definition of regular Functions : 48. Definition of mazima and minima of functions of one and of several variables 49. The problem of this chapter proposed, Taylor's theorem for functions of one variable ; 50. ‘Taylor's theorem for functions of several variables 51. The usual form of the same theorem . 62. A condition of maxima and minima of such functions II. Tarory or tux Homoceyeous Quapratic Forms 68, No maximum or minimum value of the function can enter when the corresponding quadratic form is indgfinite. When is a quadratic form a definite form? fe ee 54. Some properties of quadratic forms. The condition that the quadratic form 9 (21, £3) ++ +5 fn) = ZAautaty be expressible .as a function of n — 1 variables oS 55-61. Every homogeneous function of the second degree ¢ (ty ty, -»"s Bn) may be expressed as an aggregate of squares of linear functions of the variables . 62. The question of § 58 answered . III. APPLicATION oF THE THEORY oF QuapRaATIC Forms To PropieM OF Maxima anp MINIMA staTEeD IN §§ 47-51 63. Discussion of the restriction that the definite quadratic form must only vanish when all the variables vanish. The problem of this chapter completely solved . 64, Upper and lower limits CHAPTER VI PAGE 3 4 ars 7 79 81 82 83 85 o1 THE Fad THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES THAT ARE SUBJECTED TO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS. RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 65. The problem stated . 66. The natural way to solve it . : 67-70. Derivation of a fundamental condition 71. Another method of finding the same condition 96 96 96 98CONTENTS a SECTION PAGE 72. Discussion of the restrictions that have been made... . . . 100 78. A geometrical illustration of these restrictions . . . . . . . . 101 74, Establishment of certain criteria. . 2... 2. 2 1 2 e102 75. Simplifications that may bemade .... 2... 1... 102 76. More symmetric conditions required . . 2... 2... . . 108 I. Tueory or Homocenrous Quapratic Forms 77. Addition of a subsidiary condition... 2... + 108 78, 79. Derivation of the fundamental determinant Ac and the discussion of the roots of the equation Ae = 0, known as the equation of ipectlat variations eect eryaeeet0e 79, The roots of this equation are all real... 2... 2... . 107 80-82. Weierstrass’s proof of the above theorem... . 2... . 108 88,84, An important lemma . . . ae ete 109 85. A general proof of a general theorem in determinants . | | | | 111 86. The theorem proved when the variables are subjected to subsidiary cOnditions. . . eee cree 1a 87. Conditions that the quadratic form be invariably positive or invari- ably neceuver sees cces ren cae tears id II. Apprication or THE CRITERIA JUST FOUND TO THE PRoBLeM OF THIS CHAPTER’ 88. The problem as stated in § 65 solved and formulated in a symmetric manner. . : oceaeeee le 89. The results summarized and the general criteria stated.» |. | 115 90. Discussion of the geometrical problem : Determine the greatest and the smallest curvature at a regular point of a surface. Derivation of the characteristic differential equation of minimal surfaces . 116 91. Solution of the geometrical problem: From a given point to a given surface draw a straight line whose length is a minimum: or amazimum .. . ~ 1238 92. Brand's problems. Two problems taken from. the theory of ‘ight. Reflection. Refraction. . .. ... . - soe es 126 CHAPTER VII SPECIAL CASES I. Tue Pracrican ApPLicaTION OF THE CRITERIA THAT HAVE BEEN HITHERTO GIVEN AND A METHOD FOUNDED UPON THE THEORY OF FUNCTIONS, WHICH OFTEN RENDERS UNNECESSARY THESE CRITERIA 98. Difficulties that are often experienced. Fallacies by which maxima and minima are established when no such maxima or minima Slat sieca saeco setae sao eee eae aoexii SECTION 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA PAGE Definitions: Realm. A position. An n-ple multiplicity. Struc- tures. A position defined which lies within the interior of a definite realm, on the boundary, or without this realm 185 ‘Statement of two important theorems in the theory of funetions 136 Upper and lower limits for the values of a function. Asymptotic approach. Geometrical and graphical illustrations... . . 187 Digression into the theory of functions... ...... . 188 Il. Exampes or Improper Extremes Cases where there are an infinite number of positions on which a function may have a maximum value... . 140 Reduction of such cases to the theory of maxima and minima proper. The derivatives of the first order must vanish . . . 141 100* The results that occur here are-just the condition which made 101. 102-107. 102. 108. TIL Cases iN WHICH THE SuBsIDIARY 109. 110. 1. 112. 118. 14. 115. 116. 117-126. 128. the former criteria impossible... ee ‘The previous investigations illustrated by the problem : Among all polygons which have a given number of sides and a given perimeter, find the one which contains the greatest surface-area . 142 Solution of the above problem. . . . 148 Cremona’s criterion as to whether a polygon has been described in the positive or negative direction... 2... ... M8 PRopiem .. ey A problem due to Hadamard aT NDITIONS ARE NOT TO BE REGARDED AS Equations BuT As LimrraTIons Examples illustrating the nature of the problem when the vari- ables of a given function cannot exceed definite limits . . . 149 Reduction of two inequalities toone .. 2... 2.2... 19 Inequalities expressed in the form of equations... . 150 Examples taken from mechanics. . 2... 2... 2. 150 Gavss’s Privorene Statement of this princiule: (2 sees ee ip Its analytical formulation... 158 By means of this principle all problems of mechanies may be reduced to problems of maxima and minima... . . . . 152 Proof of a theorem in the theory of functions. . . sais Tue Reversron or Serres Proof and discussion of this theorem.’ Determination of upper and lower limits for the quantities that occur... . 154 Unique determination of the system of values of the 2's that satisfy the equations. . 2... 2.2... 2... 150CONTENTS xiii SECTION PAGE 124. If the y’s become infinitely small with the 2’s, the 2’s become infinitely small with the y's. The 2's are continuous functions ofthey’s .... 1... eer eiedae a aee esa see ee 60 126, The 2's, considered as functions of the y’s, have derivatives which are continuous functions of the y’s. The existence of the first derivatives ©... 0... eae lge 126. The 2's, expressed in terms of the 9's, are of the same form as the given equations expressing the y's in terms of the ’s . . 168 127. Conditions which must exist before the ordinary rules of differ- entiation are allowable in the most elementary cases... . 168 Miscettannous Propiems ©... 2... 108 CHAPTER VIII CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS I. Awanyric Depenpen Atcepraic DEPENDENCE 128. Rational functions of one or more variables. Functions defined through arithmetical operations. One-value functions. Infi- nite series and infinite products. Convergence. . . . . . 166 129, Uniform coif¥ergence . . . . ey 130, Region of convergence. Differentiation . . . ‘i 167 131. Functions of several variables, Functions which behave like an integral rational function. 2. 2... ee ee 168 89; Analytic dependences ee ee cece 160) 133. Many-valued functions . . ane : cores 160) 134 Possibility of expressing many-valued functions through one- valued functions . . . eee eee 135, An important theorem for the calculus of variations... 171 186. The same theorein proved in a more symmetric manner. . . . 172 137. Application of this theorem and the definition of a structure of the (n — m)th kind in the realm of n quantities. Analytic continuation . . . : eee ede 188. Analytic stractures defined in another manner. Structures of the first kind, second kind,ete. 2... 2... 1. 18 II. Aueesraic Srrucrures ry Two VARIABLES 139, Algebraic structure defined ; regular point ; singular point . . . 176 140, 141. Development of an algebraic function y in the neighborhood of a regular point. For such a point there is only one power series in ¢ which when written for y makes identically zero the function which defines the algebraic structure... . . 177xiv THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA IIL Metnop or rinpine Ann SERIEs FOR y WHICH BELONG TO A keply Stnautar Port SECTION PAGE 142-143, Practical methods for the derivation of such series under the different conditions that may arise... 180 144, Theorem of Stolz which serves as a check on the derivation of the above series... J ecees erence 145, An example illustrating the general theory) | |... . 187 INDO see eee aay oe eee dD)THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE I. ORDINARY MAXIMA AND MINIMA 1. A function /(#) which is uniquely defined for all values of a in the interval (a, b) is said* to have a greatest value or a macv- mum for the value a =a, situated between a and 8, if there is a positive quantity 8 such that for all values of & between — 8 and +8 the difference uy Fly h) —F(%) =0 exists, which at the same time does not vanish for all these values of #. This function has a smallest value or a minimum if under the same conditions there exists the difference [2] F(t h) — Fe) = 9, which does not vanish for all values of h between — 6 and +6. A function may have several such maxima and minima which may be different from one another ; it may have minima which are greater than maxima. (See the accompanying figure.) When the existence of com- plete derivatives in the entire interval under con- sideration is presupposed, “Oj the maxima and minima which may be derived are called ordinary; but when we have to do with functions whose derivatives exist only on definite points or with functions which have one-sided derivatives and the like, the maxima and minima may be called extraordinary. The discussion will be ¥| Fie. 1 * See Genocchi-Peano, Caleolo differenziale e principii di caleolo integrate (§ 131). 12 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA restricted at first to ordinary maxima and minima. A maximum of (2) is called proper by Stolz (Grundziige der Differential- und Inte- gralrechnung, Vol. I, p. 199) if in the formula [1] only the sign < stands; while we have a proper minimum if there stands only the sign >in [2]. The maximum and minimum are improper if in formu- las [1] and [2] the sign =also appears, however small 8 may be — int has the value +0 when «= for For example, y = ( consecutive integral values of n, however large, and that is for intervals as small as we wish. Stolz and others * use the notation extreme or extreme value of a function to denote indifferently either the maximum or minimum of the function. The makimum and minimum of a function defined as above are often denoted as absolutet maximum and minimum, since they depend upon the collectivity of the values of f(z). Opposed to them appear the relative maximum or minimum, which enter if the independent variable « is subjected to a restriction so that h in the formulas [1] and [2] can take only restricted (and not arbitrary) positive and negative values. 2. If the function f(x) has for 2=«, a positive derivative f'(wa), the function is becoming larger on this position with in- creasing x, and its values are respectively smaller or greater than those of f(a) according as x is smaller or greater than x). It is assumed that « lies sufficiently near a. In this case the function f(z) has for # = neither a maximum nora minimum. Similar (mutatis mutandis) conclusions are drawn if f(a) is negative. It follows that if the function f(x) has for x=, u finite de- rivative that is different from zero, then on this position the function has neither @ macimum nor a minimum. If then we exclude from the values of 2 those to which a defi- nite derivative (different from zero) corresponds, there remain either * Extremer Werth was used by R. Baltzer, Elem. d. Math., Ba. I, Aufl. 5, 8. 217; Extremum by P. du Bois-Reymond, Math. Ann., Vol. XV, p. 564. + The authors just cited, as also Peano, understand by the absolute mazimum and minimum of a function in a given interval the upper and lower limits of the function in this interval, if such limits are reached. Seealso A. Mayer, Leipz. Ber. (1899), p.122, and Lipschitz, Analysis, Vol. 11, p.306,and in particnlar Voss, Encyklopidie der Math. Wiss., Bd. II, Theil I, Heft I, S. 80, who remarks upon the weak terminology of the subject.FUNCTIONS OF ONE ARIABLE 3 those positions on which the function has no derivative (finite or infinite) or those places on which it has a vanishing derivative. These positions must be further examined if we wish to make ourselves sure of the existence or nonexistence of a maximum or minimum. No rule can be given for the cases where derivatives do not exist. If we assume that the derivative is zero, the following criteria may’ be used: If f(7) has the derivative /"() in the interval (%—h +++ %y+h), we have, in virtue of the Taylor formula,* L (2) —F (9) = (@ = &) f(y), where «, lies between #, and 2, If /"(2) becomes zero on the posi- tion « =a, in such a way that it is positive for » ,, then (« — 2) /"(2,) is always negative, however «(# 2,) be taken, and consequently it follows that f(z) <,f(#) for all values of x within the interval 2 —h to +h. The function will there- fore be in this case a proper maximum for 2=a,. If, however, J'(@) is negative for «<», the product (« —&) f"(a) is always positive, and the function will therefore be a proper minimum for «=, within the interval in question. If, "(v) is zero, say, for values of # within the interval ay + +» «y-+h or within the interval a — 1 -+. a, we have cases of improper ex- tremes (maxima or minima). But if /"(2) retains a constant sign in the neighborhood of =», then (~—2,)/"(a,) changes its sign according as 2 >, or #0. This rule leaves one in the lureh if f(a) = 0. If in general it is assumed that F@)= 9, FMH)=O, v2, LOVG)=O, SMe) # 0, it follows from Taylor's formula that SJ (0) = = 2" foray, where 2, is situated between x, and 2. As here (2) is assumed to be a continuous function, it retains a constant sign in the neighborhood of 2. If n is odd, the factor (w— 9)" changes sign according as «>a, or «0) * See Goursat, Cours D' Analyse, Vol. I, pp. 108 et seq. I shall refer hereatter to this work by the name of the author, and by Peano and Stolz I shall designate the works, cited above, of these two mathematicians.FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE ft have limiting values when lim 4 =+ 0, each of these expressions is called a one-sided differential quotient,* the first the right-hand, and the second the /eft-hand, differential quotient of /(#) with regard to x for the value «= a». If the two one-sided differential quotients of f(x) are equal to each other for 2 =p, their common value is called the complete differential quotient of f(x) with respect to « for « =a). If next it is assumed that the one-valued function f(2) is con- tinuous for all values of the interval (a, +) and has at least one- sided differential quotients, the differential calculus offers a method for the determination of the maxima and minima. For if f (2) is such an extreme of f(z), the quotient F+W) =F (%) h must necessarily either vanish or change sign with h. It may therefore be concluded, as in § 2, that the complete differential quotient f(a) must be zero, and that if the right- hand and left-hand differential quotients of /(2) are different at the point 2 =», they cannot have the same sign. These require- ments are under the existing conditions necessary that (a) be an extreme of f(z); however, as it will be seen in the following, they are not always sufficient. 6. Criteria as to whether a root «= of the equation f'(x)=0 offers an extreme of the function f(x) Turorem I. If f'() vanishes for «=a, and if a positive quantity 8 may be so chosen that f(z) has complete differential quotients in the interval (7)—8+-+ +0), and if f"(x) changes sign neither in the interval (2)—8-++ 2) nor in the interval (ey +++ %-+8) and also does not remain invariably zero in either of these intervals, then (2) is or is not a proper extreme of J(#) according as the sign of /(x) in the first interval is different from or the same as it is in the second interval; and further- more, in the first case f() is a maximum or a minimum of *See P. du Bois-Reymond, Math. Ann., Vol. XVI, p. 120; see also Pierpont, The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Vol. 1, p. 223. + See Cauchy, Cale. différ., Lesson 7, and see in particular Stolz, pp. 201-210.8 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Jf («) according as f(a) on its passage through zero, as 2 with increasing values passes through 2), changes from the sign + to the sign — or from the sign — to the sign +. This theorem is stated at the end of § 3 and there proved; and as also indicated in that section, the inconvenience arising due to the consideration of the sign f/(2) may be obviated if the func- tion f(z) has a complete second differential quotient for «= a. This leads to the following theorem: : Turorem II. If under the conditions assumed in Theorem I the function f(x) has for «=a, a complete second differential coefficient (2) which is not zero, then f(z) is a proper ex- treme of f(2), being a maximum or minimum according as f""(2) is negative or positive. Due to the definition of a complete second derivative it follows that a — fla) LEPD~ FO _ pea 4 RO), where R(t) is a quantity that becomes indefinitely small with h. If here the existence of a second derivative of /() is assumed only for «= a, then, since f(z) = 0, there corresponds to every positive quantity e another quantity 8 such that, if —3LOtD s pm@)—e If, say, (2) is positive, it follows at once that there must be a positive quantity 5 such that for —80. Hence /"(2,+) must be negative when h is negative and posi- tive when h is positive, so that on passing through zero (ie, when @ = %), f!(%+ h) passes with increasing « from a negative value to a positive value. Accordingly, in virtue of Theorem I, f(a) is a proper minimum. The above theorem becomes the one given in § 3 if it is assumed that there is an interval including the value x = 2, such that for all points within it a second differential quotient of f(x)FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE 9 exists, and if it is further assumed that f(z) is continuous at least at the point «= a. TueoreM III. If, furthermore, /"(«,)= 0 and f'"(2,) # 0, then F(Z) is not an extreme of f(z). For since here 2 SGM") = FIMO) +o it is seen that as f"(x) passes through the value /"(x,) = 0, it does ‘not change sign, and consequently f(#,) is not an extreme of (2). The two preceding theorems are special cases of the two following: TueoreMm IV. If for the value z= a, we have FQ) = 0, FM @)=9, ey FORDE) =0, FE (eH) # 0, then /(x,) is a proper extreme of f(z), being a minimum or maxi- mum according as f(z) is positive or negative. For, owing to the supposed existence of the first 2% differential quotients, there is an interval z)—8--. 2+ throughout which the differential quotients /’(2), /"(2), -- -, f@*-) (x) not only exist but are also continuous functions of «. Accordingly, in virtue of faylor’s formula, we have (8 feet —Sle0)= aaa which formula is trie for all values of 4 such that —80 or <0 aecording as f@ (z) is positive or negative. If, then, f@(#,) is, for example, positive, it is clear that F2(a-+h) is negative for values of h in the interval — 8... 0 and positive for values of % in the interval 0... 6. It follows from [4] that the difference (a+ %)—/ (aq) for all values of 4 within the interval —8.--+ 8 (excepting h=0) is in- variably + or — according as f@(z,) is + or —, and correspond- ingly we have respectively a proper minimum or a proner maximnm10 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA If it is further supposed that f@(z) exists for all values of a, in the interval 2,—6--- 2 )+8 and that /@(z) is a continuous function at least at w=), then, as in § 3, due to Taylor's expansion we have (5) SFR) F(% an (+h), (0<0<1) from which the theorem is obvious. In exactly the same way we may prove TurorEM V. If for z= a, the 2k first differential quotients of S(@), Viz f'ea)s SM (aes «+5 f(a), vanish, and if £20 (,) 0, then f(a) is not an extreme of f(z). Remark. In the case that x =x, causes every differential quotient of F(z) to vanish, we cannot determine by means of Theorems II, III, and IV whether /(z) is an extreme or not. We must then apply Theorem I. 1 For example, it is seen that x = 0 is a minimum of f(x) =e **. Twore V*. If the given function /(z) can be developed in the neighborhood of the point #) in a series in integral positive powers of —a,=h so that S (8) HL (tig + t= i) = Ch” + my h™ A$ o 00,” (eq 0) then /(#) is not an extreme of f(x) or és an extreme of f(z) according as m is odd or even; and f(z,) is a maximum or mini- mum according as ¢,, is negative or positive. For here /"() = 0 =f'"(w) = ++ =f" (a), while FO (a) =m! Coy This theorem may be proved directly by means of the property of series. For under the given assumptions corresponding to every quantity ¢>0, we may choose another quantity 8>0, such that

, it follows that the function inereases in the interval (- a 3) and decreases in the interval ¢: + *). The funetion has neither an upper nor a lower limit. ~ Example 2. y (e> 0) Through differentiation we have y/ =2(1+logz). The first factor is never zero and is always positive. The second factor becomes zero when log =—1 or x=~. The derivative passes therefore from negative é (to: a< 4) to positive values (tor > 2). ‘The function has a minimum Fi 1 e for r= = 0.36788 ---, which is y= 0.676411 ---. This is also the lower € limit which the function takes in the interval (0, »). The function does not have either a maximum or an upper limit. a ysgrk ‘The derivative is zero for no finite value of x, but is infinite for x = 0. For this value y becomes zero, and the function will have at this point both a minimum and a lower limit with respect to the interval (— 2, + 00); for all the values of 2 cause the function to be greater than zero. The function has neither a maximum nor an upper limit. Example 3. 9. If we add to the postulates already made in the previous article regarding f(z) that it must have a complete differential quotient for all values of « between a and 2, then f”(2) vanishes for every value of « between a and b to which one of the'values or kof the function belongs. If, however, f(a) = g, say, then possibly F(a) is only a one-sided maximum of f(z), and consequently f(a) is not necessarily zero. This must be borne in mind as we proceed with the problem of determining the numbers g and &. This is4 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA explained by the simple example (see Liouville’s Journal, First Series, Vol. VII, p. 163): In the plane of a circle which is described about the point O as center with radius 7, let there be given an arbitrary point 4 which is different from 0. Determine the upper and lower limits of the distances of the point A from a point M of the circumference. Let the positive X-axis be taken passing through O, and standing perpendicular to it through 0 is erected the Y-axis. The equation of the circle is then »2+ y= 7; while AM? = (a — 0)? + y= 7? + = 2ae. (a) ‘As M passes over all points of the circumference, # takes the values in the interval — r-.. +7. ‘The linear function (a) decreases with increasing values of «, its differential quotient being a negative constant equal to — 2a. Consequently those values of x to which the a upper and lower limits of [4 AM belong, fall on the end-points of the interval —r++-+r, Tt is seen that —r corresponds to the upper limit and +r to the lower limit, giving us as upper and lower limits respectively |a +7| and Ja — |. 10. Suppose next that the function /(2) is discontinuous at least on an end-point of the arbitrary interval (a, 8); for example, sup- pose that the function is not defined at such a point. If this is the case only for the lima=a, then in the derivation of the upper and the lower limit we must consider in particular the value of f(@) for the lim #=a+0. The following examples will make clear the method of procedure (see Stolz, p. 210). Bxample 1, Consider the function y= ---- for values of 2 such that log Fra. 6 0 0. The conditions 4>0 and AC—B*>0 are not only necessary, but they are also sufficient that ¢ be a definite quadratic form. In fact, if hy# 0, we have (AC — B%)h2>0 and (Ah, + Bh,)?= 0, and consequently the sum of these two expressions, and also ¢, is positive. If, in general, $ depends upon several variables hy, hy, hy, + we may write p = Ah? + 2 Bh, +C, where 4 is a constant, Ba form of the first degree in hy, hy, ++ +5 and C a’quadratic form in hg, hg,- ++. If hg, hg, +++ are all zero, but h, + 0, we will have B and C zero and ¢'=Ah?. We must therefore have 4>0, if ¢ is to be a positive definite form. The form may be written $= [Aly + B+ (AC — BAY), where 4C— B® is a quadratic form of hg, lig, +++. The quantity hy may be determined so that 4h, + B= 0 with the result that 1 b=Gc— Hence the expression AC —B? must be positive and different from zero. Next write AC — B= $j (hg, hy, +--), where $, is a quadratic form in hg, hg,+++ which is always positive and ‘different from zero except when all the variables vanish.FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 21 It follows that the necessary conditions that @ be a definite positive form are (1) that A be greater than 0 and (2) that AC— B be a positive definite form in the variables hg, hg, ---. These conditions are also sufficient; for if we give to h, an arbitrary value and to hy, hg,-++ arbitrary values which are not all zero, then of the two summands into which ¢ is distributed, the first is positive or zero, while the second is positive. It follows that is positive, On the other hand, if we give to hg, hg, +++ simultaneously the value zero, then h, must be different from zero, and from ¢ = Ah? it is seen that A must be positive. In this way the determination of the question whether a quadratic form is definite and positive is reduced to the determination of the same question in the case of another quadratic form of fewer variables. If then the process is continued, we come to the forms in one or two variables already considered. This subject is further considered in §§ 53 et seq. To determine whether a quadratic form ¢ is definite and nega- tive, we have to determine whether — @ is definite and positive. (See Peano, § 137.) Il. RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 15. To introduce the theory, we stfall consider here a simple case involving only three variables. Let it be required to deter- mine the extremes of the function u= FO, ¥, 2), where the variables 2, y, z are restricted. Suppose, for example, that they are connected by the equation F(% y D=0. If from the latter equation z is expressed as a function of « and y, and if this value is substituted in the first equation, we shall have w expressed as a function of « and y. The values 2, y which make w a maximum or minimum cause the total derivative iw to vanish for all values dw and dy.22 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA We have du OE ae 4 ay 4 F a, Gee log eae where dz denotes the differential of z, which is defined through the equation a a : Lar ay 4 F ae =0. an ay ee If this last equation is multiplied by the indeterminate quan- tity —% and added to the equation du = 0, we have ¢ - rLyacr(Z - rLyaty +(F 2 r2)a= 0. tn Bar, ey ey aoe If in this equation we choose » so that the coefficient of dz vanishes, then corresponding to the maxima and minima values of w the coefficients of dz and dy must also be zero, and we thus have the equations oF _ ef ox ox It is evident that we have these expressions which are sym- metric with regard to the three variables if we form the three partial derivatives of #—f, where » is an indeterminate quan- tity, and then put the resulting expressions equal to zero. These three equations, together with the two equations f= 0 and w =F, determine the unknown quantities 2, @, y, 2, u, which correspond to the values of w for which there exist maxima and minima values. We may proceed in the same manner with an arbitrary number of variables and equations of condition. (See Lagrange, Théorie des Fonetions, p. 268.) PROBLEMS 1. Find the minimum value of u, where ust Peter, and where 2, y, z,--- are connected hy the equation art by teczte.- =k 2, If any + ay + +++ + my = a, show that is a minimum when 2, =CHAPTER IIT FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES I. ORDINARY EXTREMES 16. Let =/(e, y) be a continuous function of the two vari- ables x and y when the point P with codrdinates (#, y) remains within the interior of an area Q which is limited by a contour C. We say that this function f(a, y) is a minimum for a point (9, 49) of the area © when we can find a positive quantity 8 such that we have A=f (x+y Yo+h)—S (os Yo) =O @ for all systems of values of the increments h and & that are less than 8 in absolute value. The maximum is defined in a similar manner.* Tt we exclude the signc=vin the expressions AZ0 or A=0, the extremes are said to be proper (cf. § 1); but if the equality A=0 exists for certain values of h and & that are less than 8 in absolute value, however small 8 be taken, we have improper extremes. For example, in the case of the surface represented by the equation z=/(a, y), the axis Oz being vertical, a proper maximum corresponds to an isolated summit, but if these sum- mits form a line on the surface, this line will be a line of improper maxima. Consider, for example, the lines generated by revolving the extremes of a plane curve about the Oz-axis. If in the expression (i) we regard y as constant and equal to yp, then z becomes a function of one variable @ and (§ 2) the difference Fle hy ty) — LH) can only retain a constant sign for small values of h if the if eee eneeeO fies derivative 3g 8 er0 for ©= 2, Y= Yor * See also Goursat, loc. cit. 2324 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA In the same way it may be shown that these values must also cause & to be zero. It follows that the systems of values a which cause f(x, y) to become proper extremes are to be found among the solutions of the two simultaneous equations af ae” conditions which are also necessary for improper extremes. As only ordinary extremes are considered here, the partial deriva- tives of the second order of f(x, y) are supposed to be continuous ($11) in the neighborhood of the values @y, yy and are not all zero for %, yo, and, furthermore, the derivatives of the third order are supposed to exist. If, then, «=a, and y=y, are a solution of the two equations (a), the formula for Taylor’s theorem gives us Daf (ath, otk) —S (os Yo) L/h yong or oe ae wed n( Ps ae a, ay a + a (* A+k 5) “Fe, »| ey For values of A and & in the neighborhood of zero, it is clear that the trinomial af a0 ) wel pom 4 el Gx? Gx y6yy ey} gives its sign to the right-hand side of (i), and it is evident that the discussion of the ‘sign of this trinomial is going to enjoy a preponderant réle. To have an extreme for «=a, y=y, it is necessary and sufficient that the difference A retain a constant sign when the point (+h, yp+) remains within the interior of a square sufficiently small which has the point (7, y) for center. In this case the difference A will also retain a constant sign if the point (w+, yo+h) remains within a circle with radius sufficiently small and center (, yo), and inversely; for we may replace the square by the inscribed circle and reciprocally. Suppose, then, that C is a circle of radius 7+ with the pointFUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 25 (x, yo) a8 center. We have all the interior points of this circle by writing h =p cos, =p sing and causing ¢ to vary from 0 to 2a and by causing p to vary from —7r to +7. Making this substitution in A, it becomes 2 A=" (A cosvth +2 B sin $ cos + osintg) +1, where 4=2F,, pF, gp ?F, ana where L is an expres: bxa any, ay? sion which retains a finite value in the neighborhood of the point (a, Yo)- It is evident that several cases are to be distinguished according to the sign of B2—AC. : 11. First case. {B?—AC>0. The equation A cos’ + 2 B sind cos + Csin26 =0 admits two real roots in tan @, and the left-hand side may be written as the difference of two squares in the form A= 7 [a(a cos 6 +d sin $)?— B(a! cos f + B'sin )?]+ e L, where a@>0, B>0, and (ad'—ta') #0. By taking the circle sufficiently small we may neglect the terms of the third and higher degrees in p. If next to the angle $ a value is given such that « cos + sing =0, it is seen that A will be negative; while if we give the angle ¢ a value such that a'cos + D'sin 6 = 0, then A will be positive. It is therefore impossible to find a number 7 such that the dif- ference A retains a constant sign when the absolute value of p is inferior to 7, while the angle ¢ is arbitrary. It follows that the function f(«, y) has no extreme for «=a, y= Yo. 18. Second case. B2—AC<0. It is evident that A and C must have the same sign. The trinomial A cos*p + 2 Bcos p sind + C sin’h =4 [(A cos + B sin $)?-+ (AC — BY) sin*] does not vanish when ¢ varies from 0 to 27.26 THEORY OF MANIMA ASD MINIMA Let m be the lower limit of the absolute value of the trinomial and let A be the upper limit of the absolute value uf the function Lin a circle of radius # and center (x, yo). : Let + be a positive number inferior to # and to 2”. Within the circle of radius 7 the difference A will have the same sign as the coefficient of p%, that is to say, of Aor C. The function f(x, y) has therefore an extreme for v= cy y= Yo. 19. The above results may be summarized as follows: If at the point 2, yy we have ary (ea) . there is no extreme; but if ayy (eax) there is a maximum or minimum according-to the sign of the two as ea Gu}? by3 There is a maximum if these derivatives are negative, a mint- mum if they are positive, and it is also seen that we have a proper maximum or minimum. Example. In the theory of least squares it is required to determine =, y so that the expression a Cy uC = Di (eax + bay + en)? a may be as small as possible. In other words, determine the values of x and y for which u(2, y) is equal to its lower limit. Following the methods indicated above we must solve the two equations ¢ ken = Sax + ey + cx) ay = 0, () ee 1é ken by 7 Yew + Dpy + ep) op = 0. at It is seen that the determinant of these equations is equal to the sum of the (m1) squares (pb) — azhy)?(y 1=1, 2,-+-, nj k120°, and show that here the point A gives the minimum. (Cavalieri, Ezercitationes Geometricae, pp. 504-510. 1647.) 2. In a plane triangle all of the angles have been measured with the same precision and found to have values a, 8, y. On account of the unavoidable error in observation, the sum a + B + y does not equal 180°. Let the difference 180 — (a + 8 + 7) be equal to 8, where 8 is expressed in circular measure. What values u, v, w (in circular me.-ure) must be added to the three results of measurement if we wish (1) thata + B+y+u+v+w=180, and (2) that u? +o? + w? be as small as possible? Answer. IntRopucTION To THE AMBIGUOUS Case B!—AC=0 20. We shall first note the difficulties that attend this special case, and with Goursat* we shall illustrate these difficulties by means of geometric considerations ; we shall then call attention to erroneous deductions which have been made, and later a method will be given, due to Scheffer, of determining the extremes for this case, when they exist. Let S be the surface represented by the equation z=f(c, y). If the function f(z, y) has an extreme at the point a, yo, and if the function and its derivatives are continuous, we must have 0, * Goureat, p. 12.28 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA which shows that the tangential plane to the surface S at the point P, (with codrdinates «, yy, %) must be parallel to the zy-plane. In order that this point shall correspond to an ex- treme, it is necessary that in the neighborhood of the point P, the surface S be entirely on one side of the tangential plane. We are thus led to the study of a surface with regard to a tangential plane in the neighborhood of the point of contact. Suppose that the origin has been transposed to the point of contact. The tangential plane being taken as the «y-plane, the equation of the surface is of the form z= art+ 2 buy + cyt aad + 3 Baty +3 yay+ dy, where a, b, ¢ are constants and a, 8, y, 8 are functions of 2, y which remain finite when x and y tend towards zero. To deter- mine whether the surface S is situated entirely on one side of the zyplane in the neighborhood of the origin, it is sufficient to study the intersection of this surface by the 2yplane. This intersection is a curve C represented by the equation S (2, y) = a? + 2 bay + oP + abt -.+ =0, (i) and presents a double point at the origin. 21. If t—ac is positive, the equation axt4 2 bay + ey 2 [(ax + by)?— (B— ae) y7]= 0 represents two real and distinct straight lines which pass through the origin. Suppose that we take these two lines for the axes of codrdinates, and note that this is brought about by a linear change of the variables. The equation (i) then has the form ay + R(a, y)=0. (ii) If in this equation we write y= ua, we have iv) where it is evident that R(2, ua) is divisible by 2°.FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 29 Tt follows from § 140 (see also Goursat, § 34) that equation (iv) has one and only one root, say v= £(z), which tends towards zero with «. Hence through the origin there passes one branch of the curve C represented by an equation y= 2f(z), which is tangent at the origin to the axis Oz. If we interchange the role of the two variables « and y, it is seen that there also passes through the origin a second branch of the curve C which is tangent to the axis Oy. The point O is a double-point with distinct tangents. If, then, 22— ac>0, the intersection of the surface S by the tangential plane presents two distinct branches of curve @, and C, which pass through the origin, and the tangents to these two branches of curve at the origin are represented through the equation a+ 2 bay + cy?= 0. If we give to each region of the plane in the neighborhood of the origin the sign of the first term in (iit), as seen in the figure, it is clear that if a point moves along either of the curves C; or C,, the left-hand side of (ii), and consequently also of (%i), changes sign as the point passes through the origin. It fol- lows that f(x, y) does not have an extreme (cf. § 17) at the origin. | 22. Tf —ac<0, the origin is a double isolated point; for within the interior of a circle with sufficiently small radius described about the origin as center, the right-hand side of (é) only vanishes at the origin itself. To show this write # = p cos $, y=rsing, where « and y are the codrdinates of a point in the neighborhood of the origin. Equation (ii) becomes Sa, y) = p?(a cost + 2 sin $ cos $ +c sin? + pL) where Z is a function of p and ¢ which remains finite when p tends towards zero. Let H be the upper limit of |Z| when p is less than a positive number 7. Fig. 730 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA When ¢ varies from 0 to 27, the trinomial a cosh + 2dsin ¢ cosh +c sin’h retains a constant sign. Let m be the minimum of its absolute value. It is clear that the coefficient of p? does not vanish for any point on the interior of a circle C with radius less than 7 and a having the origin as center. Consequently the equation Sa, y)= 0 admits of no other solution than «= 0, y= 0(ie., p = 0) within the circle. It follows that /(c, y) retains a constant sign when the point 2, y moves within the interior of this circle. Hence, also, all the points excepting the origin of the surface 8 which may be projected upon the circle C are situated upon the same side of the zy-plane. The function f(a, y), therefore, presents an extreme at the origin (cf. § 18). 23. When 22—ac=0, the two tangents at the double point coincide, and there are, in general, two branches of curve tangent to the same straight line, which form a cusp. The complete study of this theory will be found to require a somewhat delicate discussion. For example, y= 23 presents at the origin a cusp of the first kind; that is, one which has the two branches of curve tangent to the Oz-axis lying the one above and the other below this tangent. ‘The curve ?— 2 a%y + «t— 25= 0 presents a cusp of the second kind; the two branches of curve are tangent to the x-axis and situated on the same side of it. The equation gives us, in fact, y= c!. The two values of y have the same sign in the neigh? borhood of the origin and are only real when « is positive. The curve «+ a%y2— 6 ay +y2= 0 presents two branches of curve which offer nothing peculiar, both being tangent at the origin to the z-axis. We have from this equation Barz 2V8 - 142 from which it is seen that the two branches obtained when we take successively the two signs before the radical have no singu- larity at the origin.FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 31 It may also happen that the curve is composed of two coincident branches, as is the case of the curve represented by the equation S(@%, N=Y— 2 ey + A=0; that is, y—2*)P=0. It is evident that here the left-hand side passes through zero without changing sign. It may also occur that the point 2, yp is a double isolated point, as is presented through the curve Proaty=0 at the origin. From the above it is seen that if the origin is a double isolated point, or if the intersection of the surface with the tangent plane is composed of two coincident branches, the function f(z, y) will be an extreme (in the latter case just given an improper extreme); but if the intersection is composed of two distinct branches which pass through the origin, there will, in general, be no extreme, for the surface again cuts its tangential plane, 24, Take, for example,* the surface z=(y—P)(y— 22%), which cuts its tangential plane along two parabolas of which the one is interior to the other. That the surface may not cross its tangential plane, it is necessary that if we cut this surface by any cylinder having its elements parallel to Oz and passing through 02, the curve of intersection shall lie on one side of the «y-plane. Let y=(x) be the trace of such a cylinder- upon the ay- plane, the function #(z) being zero for #=0. If f(0, 0) is to be a minimum, the function /(#, $(2))= F(a), say, ought to be a minimum for «= 0, whatever the function ¢ (2). To simplify the calculation, suppose that we have chosen the axes of coérdinates so that the equation of the surface is of the at Pa AP gay to where A is a positive quantity. * This is a generalization due to Goursat (p. 115) of the classic example of Peano (oe. cit., Nos. 13-136),32 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA With this system of axes we have for the origin aa. ay o — 0. Beat enegel aya The derivatives of F(x) are F"(2) = 243 o yh ef FM" ae s2ahve 2+ oe) + Lore, te For «= 0=y these formulas becdme "0)= (0) = 2S rely, F(0)=0, F ()= Galt (OP. Ii $/(0) #0, the function #(2) evidently has a minimum for x= 0; but if ¢(0) = 0, it is seen that pees) F'(0)=0, FM0)=0, PMO eS a. oy (iv) 0" "(0 and FO (Q) = SF 4 GFL mag, o"0 eal" Hence, in order that Fe ) be a minimum, it is necessary that of ang be zero, while OF yg 2 ana * ° Gaaey, $0) + 3 Ld"(0)P fy must be positive, whatever the value of $"(0). These conditions are not satisfied for the surface z= YP—3 ay 420A considered above, while they are satisfied for the function Pt ot It is thus seen that in the ambiguous case, where B?—AC=0, the derivation of the necessary and sufficient conditions for the extremes of functions of only two variables is going to be accompanied by difficulties. It is also evident that in the case of three or more variables these difficulties will be correspond- ingly augmented.FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 33 Il. INCORRECTNESS OF DEDUCTIONS MADE BY EARLIER AND MANY MODERN WRITERS 25. One of the greatest mathematicians of all times, Lagrange (Théorie des Fonctions, p. 290), writes: If all the terms of the first and second dimensions [see formula (ii) of $16] vanish, it is necessary for the existence of a maximum or minimum that all the terms of the third dimension in /,, ty, ++ shall disappear and that the quantity composed of terms where hy, ky+++ (ef. § 51) form four dimensions shall be always positive for the minimum and always negative for the maximum when J), g;+++ have any values whatever. Following Lagrange, all writers on this subject made the same incorrect deductions until Peano, in the remarks to Nos, 133-136 found in the Appendix to his Caleolo, wrote: “The proofs for the criteria by which the maxima and minima of functions of several variables are to be recognized, and which are given in most books, depend upon the theorem that in the Taylor develop- iment for functions of several variables the ratio of the remainder after an arbitrary term to this term has a limit zero when the increments of the variables approach zero. This theorem is in general false when the term in question is not a definite form with respect to the increments of the variables, and when it is a definite form, the theorem needs proof.” These fallacious conclusions are found, for example, in Bertrand (Caleul Différentiel, p. 504), and also in Serret (Cale, p. 219), who write: The maxima or minima exist if for the values hy, /ig,+++ which cause 2/ and d®f to vanish the derivative df has invariably the minus or plus sign. Here df, @/,-++ denote the homogeneous integral forms of the second, third, .+ degrees in Jy, hy,+++, when the function f is expanded by Taylor’s theorem (cf. § 51). Todhunter (pp. 227-229 of the 1864 and 1881 editions of his Calculus), for the semi-definite case where B?— AC = 0, writes the Taylor expansion for a function of two variables in the form (see (i) of § 16) 2/ oh 2 a="(abta)+( te where FR, is the remainder term.34 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA The condition which it appears that he considered as suffi- cient for an extreme is that A and R, must have the same sign, and if the terms of the second dimension are zero for the position or positions in question, then also the terms of the third dimension must be zero. That this is not true is seen at once by observing Peano’s classic example Se, y= (y — pa) (y — Ga), where the conditions just mentioned exist, although there is no extreme at the origin, as already seen in § 24. Professor Pierpont (Bull. of the Am. Math. Soc., Vol. IV, p. 536) says, “Our English and American authors seem to be ignorant of these facts.” Write Peano’s example in the form L(, y) = ay? + 2 day + cat, It is seen that the function f(a, y) is positive in the neighbor- hood of the origin upon every straight line through it; however, upon the parabola y= ma? the function in the neighborhood of the origin is positive, zero, . or negative according as & an? +2bm-+e is. positive, zero, or negative. We may further illustrate this as follows: Let the equations (x, y= y—$(e)=9, V@, N=y-¥@=0 denote two curves through the origin. The function Se N= PG NV 9) a will have positive values for values of x, y on the are BA of a circle with origin at the center and radius sufficiently small and negative values on the are AD, Hence the function f(#, y) has minimum values on all straight lines through the origin that cut the are BA and maximum values on the lines through the origin that cut the are 4D.FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 35 If, further, the two curves (2, y) = 0, ¥ (a, y)= 0 have a com- mon tangent at the origin with their curvatures lying in the same direction, it is seen that all possible straight lines through the origin are such that the codrdi- nates of any points on them cause L(a, y) to have positive values. This is true, for example, of the function already considered, L(Y) = YP) (y— Fe). In the spaces above and below both curves we have f(a, y)>0, while this function is negative for the spaces between the two curves; so that there is a minimum upon every straight line through the origin, although there is a maxiumm* of f(z, y) for P+e z w@, Fig. 9 all points on the curve y = Ill. DIFFERENT ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE THE THEORY 26. The existence of an extreme of the function f(x,y) at the origin, for example, a minimum, depends upon the condition that there exists an upper limit g such that the function f(x, y) for all values of «, y which satisfy the condition 0|a2"| is satisfied. Recip- rocally, if the last condition exists, the n first derivatives of J(#) cannot all vanish for «=0. For in the latter case we value of in the interval — 6 to + 8, then (see formula (a) would have (n fe= fe 19160) ass, (a+)! and from this it follows that lim £® ~ 0, eng aa” which contradicts the assumption that |f(2)| >| a2". 1 There are functions, however, for example e ™ (ck Pierpont, loc. cit., Vol. I, p. 205), for which such quantities n, a, 8, do not 1 exist. In fact, the absolute value of ¢ * is in the immediate neighborhood of «= 0 smaller than any arbitrary power az”. We may note that the characteristic property of the above requirement consists in the fact that the behavior of the function in the neighborhood of the origin must be marked with a certain degree of distinctness.38 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA The following consideration leads to the generalization of the above condition for functions of two variables: It is clear that a function (w, y) which vanishes at the origin, if it is continuous, has upon the circumference of every circle which is described about the origin as center with an arbitrary radius 7 a greatest and a least value, provided the function does not reduce to a function of one variable =V2? +. The signs of these greatest and least values, which we denote by f,(r) and f,(r) respectively, offer for sufficiently small radii r a criterion regarding the appear- ance or nonappearance of an extreme at the origin.* For if the two quantities f,(r) and f(r) are positive, there will be a mini- mum of f(e, y) at the origin, while if they are both negative, a maximum exists at the origin. The degree of distinct-vess which marks the behavior of the function at the origin is characterized through the existence of a power ar” with the property that for every value of r within a certain limit g both f,(r) and f(r) are in absolute value greater than ar". If this requirement is not satisfied we cannot count upon deriving Sure characteristics of extremes through the expansion in series. For in this case the value with which the function J (#, y) in the neighborhood of the position (0, 0) either ap- proaches the value zero from the one side, or having passed through zero differs from it on the other side, is so little that this value cannot be expressed through a power ever so high of r. The development in series cannot, therefore, serve to de- termine whether the value is a little on the one side or on the other side of zero. As examples of this kind are the function oe vite, which has a minimum value at the origin, and the function = on pre Maly te )\y—e * The behavior of the function f(z, y) at any point x, yo other than the origin may be made by the substitution x= xq +h, y= Yo+ k, to depend upon the behavior of the function f (zo +h, Yo-+ k) = F'(h, k) for the values h=0, k= 0.FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 39 which has neither a maximum nor minimum at the origin. The first function approaches the value zero from the positive direction > up to the value e "(for y= 0) while the latter approaches the value zero from the negative direction by the same amount. To this class of functions belong also those functions whose initial terms constitute a semi-definite form and which contain as a factor an even power of a series P(, y) the terms of which vanish for real pairs of values 2, y in every region arbitrarily small where 0<|2|<8, 0<|y|<8 (see $§ 36 and 41). Belonging also to this category of functions are the functions which reach the value zero but do not pass through it for every region arbi- trarily small where 0 <|x|<8, 0<|y|<8. If on the other hand there exists a power ar" whose value, so long as we remain within a certain limit g, is always smaller than the absolute values of /,(r) and f,(r), then the question whether at the origin an extreme of the function exists may always be answered by a development in series and by a finite uum- ber of observations. How this is accomplished is found in the next chapter. 28. The method of Von Dantscher. We have seen that by considering the extremes on every line through (0, 0) we are not able to form any conclusions regarding the extremes of the func- tion f(a, y) at this point. Von Dantscher’s method consists in establishing criteria not only for the extremes on such lines but also for all points in the plane in the neighborhood of the points on these lines and also in the neighborhood and on both sides of the point (0, 0). Although Von Dantscher himself finds that there is “no need of an extension or improvement of the Scheeffer method,” I shall give later the method of Von Dantscher, as it is of interest in itself and, besides, it is well to compare the two theories (see §§ 42, 44). 29. The Stolzian theorems.* We shall at first assume that the function f(#, y) is continuous with respect to buth variables in every point (x,y) of a rectangle that includes the point (0, 0), the * Stolz, p. 213,40 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA sides of the rectangle being parallel to the codrdinate axes. We shall state and then prove the following theorems: TuxorEM I. A necessary condition that f(0, 0) be « proper extreme of f(x, y) ts offered through the existence of an interval —8...48, within which 2(#0) lies, and such that the upper limit of f(a, y), when x takes a constant value, the variable y being . confined to the interval +a ++. —.r, 7 is had through the value y = $4(), 5 lo |e 3 and the lower limit through y= $y (0). This necessary condition y in question for a proper macimum. Fie. 10 és that f(x, $q(a)) be invariably less than f(0, 0), and for a proper minimum we must have invariably f(a, $,(2)) greater than f(0, 0). In the first case the upper and lower limits of f(z, y) are both less than (0, 0) and in the second case they are both greater. Note that lim $, (x)= 0, since |,(a)|=|z|. The same is true otid eae The same conditions must be true with regard to the upper and lower limits of f(@,y) with constant y such that |y|<8, the vari- able « being limited to the interval —y+-- +y, which limits are reached through the values a(y) and yp, (y) respectively. Toren IL The fulfillment of all the conditions made above is sufficient that f(0,0) be a proper extreme of f(x,y). Accordingly £O,0) is « proper maximum if there exists a positive quantity such that we have simultaneously [for O<|2| <8, f(a dale) <0, 0), and [2] for 0<|y\<8 FOba(y), y) F(0, 0), or a quantity y", with absolute value less than 8, such that [8] Shay"), ¥")>F(0, 0).CHAPTER IV THE SCHEEFFER THEORY I. GENERAL CRITERIA FOR A GREATEST AND A LEAST VALUE OF A FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES; IN PARTIC- ULAR THE EXTRAORDINARY EXTREMES 30. The theorems of Stolz which were developed in the pre- ceding article are closely related to those of Scheeffer, which are of more practical value since the computations required have to do mostly with a few of the initial terms of the expansion of F(x, y—F(0, 0) in ascending positive integral powers of « and y, We shall assume that the function /(w, y) is such that it may be expanded by the Taylor-Lagrange theorem in the form Seth, y +h) =f (x, Yt [if (w+ Oh, y + OR) + hf, (e+ Oh, y + Ok)] HS (0, NEM D+ ALY, + ETAL +O, y + Ob) ©, 21H (w+ Oh, y + OK) + Sf (w+ Oh, y + OR), ete, where 0<0<1. It we write x= 0, y=0 and then put h=a, k=y, it is seen that 1) FH Y—-FO, N= G,(@% N+ Ry Ys where G,(x, y) denotes the collectivity of terms of the n first dimensions and R,,,(w, y) is the remainder term (Lagrange, Théorie des Fonctions, Vol. I, p. 40). The Scheffer theorem. [/ an index n and positive quantities a and 8 can be determined to satisfy the two postulates (1) that for all values of « such that O<|2|<8 the upper and lower limits of |G, (x, »)|=ala|", with constant values of x and with y limited to the interval — «+++ +2, and (2) that for all values of y such 43,44 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA that O<\y|<8 the upper and lower limits of \Gy(x, y)|= aly|", where y has constant values and where x lies within the interval y+ +y, then the two functions f(a, y) and G,(w, y) have simultaneously on the position (0,0) either a proper maximum or @ proper minimum. For, let the lower and upper limits of G,,(#, y), with constant « and with |y| |e, be G, («, ®, («)) and G,, («, By (2) (see § 29); and with constant y and with |«|=|y| let the upper and lower limits of Gar(%, y) be G,(Va(y), y) and G,(¥,(y), y). Since R41 (#, y) is a homogeneous integral function of the (n+1)th dimension in x,y and consists of n+2 terms, we note that corresponding to any positive quantity e’ we may always find another positive quaiitity 8" such that if a] and 0<|e|<68', then |Z, ,1(2, y)|<(n+2)e'|a\]a)"; ly! and also such that if «|S |y| and 0<|y|<28', then [2,41 (@, y)|<(a+2)e'lylly|™ - Hence writing (nm + 2)e'|a|=e and (n + 2)e’|y|=e, and denoting the corresponding value of 3 by 8, it is scen that there is always an interval — 8... +6 such that if [2] 0<|e|<8 and |y|=|2|, then |R, .4(z,y)|(a — 6) |x)". Since we may take e Arn +1, Since f,(r) and f,(r) are by hypotheses greater in absolute value than ar”, it follows from the equation G,(@, Y=S (x, y)— Ry. (2, y) that those values of 2, y on the periphery of the circle with radius r which give f,(r) and f,(7), cause G,,(2, y) and f,(a, y) to have the same sign. If /,(r) and f,(r) have the same sign, it follows from the above expression that the greatest and least values of @,(x, y) have this same sign. If the two quantities F,(7) and f, (7) have contrary signs, the same is true of G,(z, y) for those values of 2, y which produce f,(r) and f,(r); and48 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA consequently for a greater reason the greatest and least values of G(x, y) have contrary signs. The second part of the theorem follows in the same way if we take the radius 7 not only smaller than ‘ but also so small 3 that ar"—Ar1> ale; that is, if we put g! equal to S—* and take v less than g!. It is then evident that the values of a, y which produce /,(r) and f,(r) when written in the expression En(@ N=L(@ Y)— Bnsi(@ 9) cause the right-hand side to be in absolute value greater than a'r" when f,(7) and fy(r) have the same sign; and when these two quantities have contrary signs the corresponding values of G,(«, yp will in absolute value be greater than a'r", and the same must a fortiori be true of the greatest and the least values of G,(a, y). 33. If, however, we. cannot find an integer m and a quantity a’ which satisfy the conditions above, we can make no conclusions regarding the behavior of the function f(#, y) by means of powers series and by using the method indicated. For in this case we shall show by means of.simple examples which follow this chap- ter that in some cases the function @,(2, y) is invariably positive, while f(z, y) may be also negative; and in some cases @,(x, y) may be both positive and negative while (2, y) retains a con- stant sign (see Ex. 3, p. 61, and Prob. 2, p. 62). But if the conditions of Scheeffer’s theorem exist it is seen that the in- vestigation of the function f(z, y) has been reduced to that of the function G,(z, y); in other words, the investigation has resolved itself into the question: How can we recognize whether a limit g and a quantity a! exist such that upon every circle with radius rO and o>0, then to any arbitrarily chosen ¢>0 there corresponds a quantity 8>0 such that there are values |2|<8 for which |a"R(2)||#I{|4|— 4. If p lies within the interval 0|z\!-, then from (2) it is seen that |P()|>|e\; and consequently y= P(x) would fall without the fixed interval —-.-+.2, We see, therefore, that any series whichTHE SCHEEFFER THEORY 57 begins with a term aa? + where 01, we may take ¢ so small in (2) that |a|—e>1, and consequently |P(2)|>|z|, so that such series may also be neglected. Furthermore, if one of the series (é) begins with +1-.« or —1-2, and if the second term has the same sign as the first, then evi- dently |P(2)|>|2|, and such a series may accordingly be neglected from the investigation. 39. The remaining series in (i), together with the values which correspond to the end-points, viz, y=+e and y=—a, give, when substituted in G(a, y), the following functions: Ge), G49, GRO), EERO), 5 and we have to determine which of these functions presents the upper and the lower limits of the function G (2, y) for the interval in question. By taking @(<1) sufficiently small the first term in any of the functions (i) is as a rule sufficient in determining which will give the required upper and lower limits. Of course, if two of the functions (ii) have their initial terms the same, it may be necessary to introduce their second and higher terms to determine which furnish the required limits. Of those functions whose first terms are negative the one with smallest exponent gives the lowest limit; and if two series have the same negative exponent, the one with greater coefficient offers the lower limit. If there is no function in (ii) whose first term is negative, then in determining G(x, ®,(«)) we note that of those functions whose first terms are positive that one with highest exponent offers the lowest limit; while if two functions have first terms with the same exponent, the one with smaller coefficient offers the lower limit. These observations must be made with both positive and negative values of «, where |a|< 0 and R,(z, y) denotes any series beginning with terms of the fifth order in x and y. Writing G(x, y) = ay? + 2b2%y + cz, it is seen that for x constant and (ay + bz?) is zero only for y=— bas We thus have ole bes) eae ieec and G(x, £2) = as? + 2 bat + ext, ‘The first expression offers the lower limit, while either G(x, +x) or G(x, — 2) offers the upper limit. We have three cases to consider : (@) ac —6#<0. Then of the two limits one is positive and the other negative. It follows that @(0, 0) is not an extreme of G(s, «), and as both limits begin with powers of x not exceeding the fourth, the Scheeffer theorem is applicable, which shows that,f(0, 0) is not an extreme of f(~, y)- (B) ac —U2>0. It follows since a > 0 that ¢ must also be positive. The two limits just derived are both positive. Continuing we must next deter- mine the other two limits. When y is constant and |z|=|y|, we have by solving the equation 0 = = 4a (by + cat) the two values 2=0 and r= y- oy60 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA If 6 #0 the latter value may be neglected (88), since the exponent of y lies between 0 and 1. If b= 0 this value coincides with the first. We observe that each of the functions GO, y= ay and G(4 yy) = ay + Qby+ cy' is positive. Ib follows from Stolz's theorem that ((0, 0) is a proper mini- mum of G(z,y); and since the power of x or y on the righthand side of any of the four limits is not greater than 4, the Scheffer theorem shows that f(0, 0) is a proper minimum of /(2, ). (y) ac—W2=0. From above a(x —%)=0, while the other three a limits are all posi In this case @(0, 0) is an improper minimum and the Scheeffer theorem is not applicable, so long as we regard R, (2, y) as an arbitrary power series with initial term of the fifth or higher dimension, (Stolz, p. 235.) Example 2. f(z, 7) = + (ax® + 2bry + cy®)y + Ry (x, y), (a #0). We have here = @ (a, y) = 7 + (aa? + 2 bry + cy?) y. Taking x constant and |y|=|2|, we find as a solution of Sos 2y 4 att Qhxy + cy? + 2y (be + cy) y ya Saft +++ = (a), say. Forming the functions E@$@) = Eas vs and G(a, £2) = 22+ [254 (a4 0)]2t it is seen that the first furnishes the lower limit, while one of the last functions offers the upper limit. It is evident that with x taken sufficiently small these two limits have contrary signs, so that G(0, 0) is not an extreme of G(z, y). Furthermore, since the lower limit begins with a power of z greater than 3, the added theorem of § 81 is not applicable. Proceeding further and taking y constant and |z|=]y|, we have as a solution of & =0=2y(az + by) (since y is taken constant) a a 2 which cannot be considered (§ 38) unless |b|<|a|. Forming the functions a(-2n, are 5b GER N=P + (as 2toy, it is seen that both the upper and lower limits are positive. It follows that the added theorem is not applicable. We cannot, therefore, make a negative assertion regarding the extremes of f(z, y). (Stolz.)THE SCHEEFFER THEORY 61 Example 3. f(x,y) = y? + xy + 24+ Rg (x, y)- In this example we have @(x, y) = y? + 2¥y + 24. With x constant and |y ae ey |, we have as the solution of 2 Qyta, yah. yt+2, y=-5 We thus have the functions 2) _8 G(z,-2)=3t and Ge ta)aate (« ) pet and Ga £ay= att With y constant and | a 2ay +4 =0, y|» we have from It follows at once that oie n=ty and Gly y= Pte The value G(0, 0) is consequently a proper minimum of G(x, y), and as none of the above series has an initial term with exponent greater than 4, it follows from Scheeffer's theorem that f(0, 0) is a proper minimum of f(x; 7). Although there is a proper minimum for f(2, ) = 7? + 24y + 24, it may be shown that @(2, y)= 9? + 2¥y has neither a maximum nor a minimum. (Scheffer, loc. cit., p. 573.) Example 4. Peano’s classic example: SG N=GGN +R Ms where GaP— (P+ Pay + pyre With z constant and |y|3|zx|, we have aG _o 2 2) 72 2G oy (p+ aa (e+ Px HP? Veo so that Forming the functions oF et a)=—Foa- Os G@, £e=24-, it is seen that the upper limit is positive, while the lower limit is negative. It follows that G(0, 0) is not an extreme of G(x, y); and as the initial terms on the right have exponents that are not greater than 4, it follows from the Scheeffer theorem that f(0, 0) is not an extreme of f(z, y).62 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Example 5. f(z, y)=G(a, y) + Ry,(x, »), where G(x, y) = yt — 3 rly? + (a8? — Bay? + y®)-10 ry + 50 With x constant and |y|=/2|, we have from katy? — Oat? + (2 28y — Day? + 8 y' — 102 ey as a solution (see § 145), Forming the functions G@, $(@))=— 4H. and Giz, 42)=4 which (see again § 145) offer the upper and lower limits of G(z, y), it fol- lows from Stolz’s theorem and the Scheffer theorem that neither G(r, y) nor f(z, y) has an extreme on the position x = 0, y = 0. (Scheffer, loc. cit. p. 575.) PROBLEMS 1. Show that /(0, 0) is a minimum of SC Y) = yh + 2 = 108 25y — 8+ Rg (2, y). (Stolz.) 2. Writing G@n=¥ S@N=P show that G(0, 0) is a minimum for the first function but that /(0, 0) is not a minimum for the second function. Write in the latter expression y= 2. (Scheeffer.) Doty tatty, Qaty tat t y— aA, IV. THE METHOD OF VICTOR VON DANTSCHER. 42. Instead of considering the extremes upon the straight lines through the point P(2,, y») we may derive the criteria for maxima and minima in the neighborhood of the points on these lines on both sides of the point (a, y,) in the 2y-plane. With Von Dantscher* let the straight lines through (2, y)) be denoted by ® so that, lot Ap, Y=Yo+t HP, #0, or (@—%), where A and pare real variables such that X8-+ u—=1 and where p is a real variable which may have both positive and negative values. *See Math. Ann., Vol. XLI, p. 89.THE SCHEEFFER THEORY 63 For extremes of f(x, y) at the point B we must have in case of a maximum ) F(®o+ Ps Yor HP) — F (Xo Yo) = 9 cc es incase of a minimum F(®+ XP: Yo+ HP) —F (> Yo) = 0 ( ui , proper or improper, Sor all values of p of « certain interval —P0 and f(xy, yo) 18 a macimum if the semi-definite form (h, bn, when it does not vanish, is negative, while it is a minimum if (h, B)y is positive. ‘When there appear real roots the investigation may be carried out as follows: In order to consider the function $(p; 2, #) in the neighborhood of the point 2, H_, we write (7) AH=AVHU, H= Met, where w and v are variable quantities. By aye het tla) e+ we66 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Since 92+ w2=1 and A?2+y?=1, we must have wW+ P+ 2rAw+2 pv =0, where it is certain that one of the quantities A, or #, is different from zero. If 1, # 0 we have at once from the equation just written bot Vnb 20+), where the positive sign is taken with the root, since from (i) wand » vanish simultaneously. Further, noting the development Vib QR 08) = pS (— 1 (2) OME Bs” it is seen that v= (8) oa ey Be and if 2, # 0, abe 1 (9) wane ae Writing these values in $(p; 2, ), we have elt, »)= (Ne ty He tu — +++) Py ” + (ret He Pataeietss ntl and $4(0,p)= (Me Bee oes tet) (rae bt) Pte Ae nth which for sufficiently small values of |x| and |p| or of |x| and |p| are certainly convergent and may be arranged in powers of « and p or of » and p. Since (A,, #2)n= 0, it is seen that $,(0, 0)=0; the case that ¢,(0, p) vanishes identically may be excluded, as has already been remarked. If p? is the lowest power of p in $,(0, p), the equation $,(0, p)=0 has exactly p roots p, which become indefinitely small with w or ¢. We must next see whether there are real roots among these p roots.THE SCHEEFFER THEORY 67 If the equation $¢,(u, p)= 0 has no real root p which becomes indefinitely small with x or v, then for any arbitrarily small posi- tive quantity ¢ a positive quantity 8 cannot be found so small that in the interval —e0 and $,(u", p") <0, then with a continuous passage from the position w/, p’ to the position wu", p", which both lie within the interior of the realm in question and which passage does not pass through the position 0, 0, there must be a position x, py at which $, (2, p) vanishes; but there are no such positions. It follows that ¢,(0, 0) is itself a maximum or minimum provided the equa- tion $,(u, p)=0 has no real root which becomes simultaneously indefinitely small with w or v. Inversely, it is also true that if ¢,(0, 0) is a maximum or minimum of ¢,(w, p), the equation ¢.(u, p)=0 has no real root which becomes indefinitely small with w or v. If, on the other hand, the equation $,(u, p)=0 has real roots which become indefinitely small with w or v, then $,(0, 0) is neither a maximum nor a minimum; and vice versa, if $,(0, 0) is not a maximum or minimum, then in every region as small as we wish —8 Bg=0; Ag= ‘To these values correspond the expressions Asu pal-}e—--., ee Hltbeten, We thus have $1(u, p) = — w+ up — 4p? + bo(% p) =— v8 + Grp —10 p> + $o(u p)=— wt Fup — Spit oo It is seen that all three of the functions begin with definite quad- ratic forms. The semi-definite initial form is negative when it is not zero; and accordingly g(0, 0) is a maximum. (Von Dantscher, Math. Ann., Vol. XLIT, p. 100.) PROBLEMS 1, Show that 9(0,0) is neither a maximum nor a minimum of the funetion (hy) = WAS — 8 WAS HOKE — 3 AKT + IS —10 WK + 5H, (See Ex. 5, p. 62.) 2. Apply this method to Ex. 8, p. 61. 3. If 2 =a?—2?— y+ (xcosa + ysina@)’, find maximum and mini- mun values of z and give the geometric interpretation. 4, If =2aVe4 P— 2+ yf, find maximum and minimum values of 2; show that there are improper extremes and give geometric signification. 5. Find minimum value of u, where u = (2? + yt.70 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA V. FUNCTIONS OF THREE VARIABLES TREATMENT IN PARTICULAR OF THE SEMI-DEFINITE Case 45. The theorems and proofs given by Stolz and Scheeffer for functions of two variables may be extended at once to functions of three or more variables, For example, f(s y, 29) i8 a proper maximum of f(a y, 2) if a positive quantity 8 can be so deter- mined that for all systems of values £ 7, § whose absolute values are smaller than 8 (excepting £ = 0 = » = $), we have S%+E Yo 2+ £) —F (Hos Yor 29) <0- If the partial derivatives of f(x, y, 2) have definite values at every position of a fixed realm Z, the codrdinates xp, yo, % of those positions (if any) in R which offer extremes of the function F(x, y, 2) must satisfy the equations lel» [el-> [El To apply the Stolzian theorem we observe, if we limit ourselves to a position x= 0=y)=%, that the collectivity of positions #, y, 2 for which |x|, |y|, |2| are less than 8 are distributed into three kinds of realms :* (1) always with |2|<8, « constant, and lvlSlel lelSlels (2) with y constant and |y|<6, where also l7lSly) lSlyls (3) with z constant and |z|<6 and a), |yl= le). To apply the Scheeffer theorem we must consider the difference L(Y )—F(0, 0, 0) = Gn (@, Ys 2) + Bn 41 (Gs Yr 2)> as in § 30. The case where G,(«, y, 2) is a definite or indefinite form is treated fully in Chapter V. * Stolz, loc. eit., p. 237.THE SCHEEFFER THEORY 71 46. The case where G,,(z, y, 2) is a nonhomogeneous function in which the terms of the lowest dimension constitute a semi- definite form may be treated in a manner analogous to that given in §§ 37-41, as follows: We first determine the upper and lower limits of G(x, y, 2) with constant # and |y| =|2|, |z|=|2|. Geometrically interpreted, this realm constitutes a square whose center is the origin and whose sides are parallel to the y-axis and the zaxis, the length being 2|a The positions at which G(x, y, 2) reaches one of its limits may lie (1) on the vertices, or (2) on the sides, or (3) within the interior of the square. We have, consequently, to form the expressions corresponding to the four vertices G(x, 2, ®), G(w, x, — 2), G(w, — 2, 2), G(a, — x, — 2). @ For points on the sides we have to solve for y the equations 0G (x, y, 2) 2G (x, y, — #) Ese raeeeecec qd —S4 (@) ay 0 an ay 0, and for z the equations ® 2G (a 2) _ 9 ang 2G(% —% 2) ez ee Let the solutions of the equations (a) be Y=), y=BO, o and let the solutions of (8) be 2=Q(2), 2= (2), Those functions P() and Q(x) which cause y and z to fall without the given square are to be neglected (cf. § 38). With the remaining functions we form the expressions G(a, Re), @),+++; E(w, 2, Q (a). i) For the points within the square we have to determine y and z in terms of x from the equations 2G (x, y, 2) a OG (a, y, 2) aes 0 and a 0. (”)72 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA If we eliminate z from these two equations, we may express y as power series in « without constant term, say y = $, (2), y = $9(2), +++ ($29). To each such power series for y, say y= (2), there corresponds one for z in terms of «, say z=2(x), which two series written in the two equations (y) cause them to vanish identically. With these values of y and z we form the expressions G(x, Gul), MCW), Be, ale), Ral). ii Among all the functions that are found in (i), (ii), and (iii) we are now able to determine those two which offer the upper and lower limits of the function G(a, y, 2) within the interval in question. These limits may be denoted by G(a, ®,(2), Ag()) and G(x, ®,(2), A,(2)). If, next, we take y constant and |«|=|y|,|2|=|y|, we may derive in a similar manner the upper and lower limits G(Y,(y), y, Ma(y)) and G(¥,(y), y, My()). Finally, with z constant and |2|=|z|, ly|=lz), we derive the upper and lower limits GN, (2), Q4(2), 2) and G(Ny(@), 24(2), 2). The Stolzian and Scheefferian theorems are at once applicable to these six functions in three variables, the method of procedure being an evident generalization of these theorems for the functions in two variables. PROBLEMS 1. Make the extension and generalization of Von Dantscher’s method to the treatment of functions in three variables. 2, In the line of intersection of two given planes find the nearest point to the origin of codrdinates.CHAPTER V MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES THAT ARE SUBJECTED TO NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS I. ORDINARY EXTREMES 47. Tt will be presupposed in the following discussion, unless it is expressly stated to the contrary, that not only the quantities that appear as arguments of the functions but also the functions themselves are real, and that the functions, as soon as the vari- ables are limited to a definite continuous region, have within this region everywhere the character of one-valued regular functions. Regular functions are defined in the following manner: A func- tion f(a) is regular within certain fixed limits of a if the func- tion is defined for all values of « within these limits and if for every value a of x within these limits the development a Un A ea eee ee ee is possible ; the series must be convergent and must in reality (see § 136), represent the values of the function within this neighborhood. In other words: A function f(x) is regular in the neighbor- hood of the position =a if the function in this neighborhood has everiywhere a definite value which changes in a continuous manner with w. (Cf Weierstrass, Werke, Vol. II, p. 77.) A onevalued analytic function f(xy Ug, «++; %) of several vari- ables behaves regularly on a definite position (y= ay, %= Ay, +++, t= Ay) Uf in the neighborhood of this position we may express the function through a series of the form Dy ogres valty— yey == + (ly My) where Vy Vy, ++ are positive integers or zero, and where the coefficients A,, 45+ ** , are quantities that are independent of the variables. (Cf. Weierstrass, Werke, Vol. II, p. 164.) 314 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA The discussion is thus limited to such functions as are analytic structures of the nature described more in detail in §§ 130, 131. Only for such functions can we derive general theorems, since for other functions even the rules of the differential calculus are not applicable; in other words we shall consider only the ordinary extremes. The problem of finding those values of the argument of a function f(x) for which the function has a maximum or mini- mum value is not susceptible of a general solution, for, besides the cases of the extraordinary extremes of §§ 5-7, there are fune- tions which, in spite of the fact that they may be defined through a simple series or through other algebraic expressions and which vary in a continuous manner, have an infinite number of maxima and minima within an interval which may be taken as small as we wish.* Such functions do not come under the present investigation. 48. We say (see § 1) that @ function f (0) of one variable has @ proper maximum or a proper minimum at a definite position aif the value of the function for x =a és respectively greater or less than it is for all other values of x which are situated in a neighborhood |z—a|<8 as near as we wish to a. The analytical condition that f(z) shall have for the position u=a a proper mawimum, is expressed by f(x) —f(a) <0 } for jaa] <8 a proper minimum, is expressed by f(x)—f(a) >0 In the same way we say a function f(a, %,+++, t,) of a variables has at a definite position &= My = Ay, +++, B= Ay @ proper maximum or a proper minimum if the value of the funetion for x, = ay, 0y= Uy, +++, %y =a, 63 respectively greater * A function may have in an interval as small as we wish (1) an infinite number of discontinuities, (2) an infinite number of maxima and minima, and still be expressed through a Fourier series. See, fot example, H. Hankel, Ueber die unendlich oft oscillirenden wnd unstetigen Punctionen (Tiibingen, 1870); Lipschitz, Crelle, Vol. LXIIL, p. 206; P. du Bois Reymond, Abh. der Bayer. Akad., Vol. XII, p. 8, and also same volume, Part Il, Math.-Phys. Classe (1878).NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 75 or less than it is for all other systems of values situated in a aera a as near as we wish to the first posit condition that the function f(x, a, « mv; and the analytical a) shall have at the position a= a4, a= dy +++, &y= ay @ proper masvimum, i8 f(y a) ++ +5 By) — f(y Oy +++, dy) <0, & proper minimum, i8 f (ity, yy «++, 2%) —f (Ay Ayy +++) dy) > 0, for |,—a|<8, (A=1, 2,-+-, n), where the quantities 8, are arbitrarily small. Improper extremes take the place of the proper extremes above when we allow the equality sign to appear with the inequality sign, as in § 1. 49. The problem which we have to consider in the theory of maxima and minima is, then, to find those positions at which a maximum or minimum really enters. We shall give a brief résumé of this problem for functions of one variable and then make its generalization for functions of several variables. Ee If «, v, are two values of 2 situated sufficiently near each other within a given region, then the difference of the corre- sponding values of the function is expressible in the form: LED LED = f(a, + (aay), Ly — ay where @ denotes a quantity situated between 0 and 1; or, if a, is written equal to 2 and q=a+h, (4 L(@+h)—f(@) = hf! (uv +02). From this theorem may be derived Taylor’s theorem in the form," 2] f@+ay— SO=h OH nore a reseiieaee @+t MFO (e+ Oh * See Jordan, Cours D' Analyse, Vol. 1, §§ 249-250.16 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA In the two formule last written, instead of «+h write @ and write @ in the place of 2; they then become 1") LS) —F(Q)=(@ — a) f(a + O(@ — a)) and [2] f@)-F(a)= (@ e— fOD (a) + p+ 2S rats ae Since f(z) is a regular, and consequently continuous, function, the same is true of all its derivatives. If f/(a) is different from zero, then with small values of 4=a«—a the value of ‘f(a +h) is different from zero and has the same sign as f’ (a), According to the choice of 4, which is arbitrary, the differ- ence f(z)— f(a) can be made to have one sign or the opposite sign, if f’(«) is either a positive quantity or a negative quantity. Hence the function f(z) can have neither a maximum nor a mini- mum value at the position «=a if f"(a) $0. We therefore have the theorem: EHutremes of the function f(w) can only enter for those values of x for which f"(a) vanishes (see § 2). It may happen that for the roots of the equation f(z) =0 some of the following derivatives also vanish. If the mth deriva- tive is the first one that does not vanish for the root «=a, then from equation [2%] we have the formula Fe) Fj = =D" 7 (2 + 6(e— a), and with small values of h =2—a, owing to the continuity of f(a), the quantity f(a +6h) will likewise be different from zero and will have the same sign as f()(a). If, therefore, 7 is an odd integer, we may always bring it about, according as h is taken positive or negative, that the difference f(«)— f(a) with every value of f(a) has either one sign or the opposite sign; consequently the function f(x) will have at the position =a neither a maximum nor a minimum value.NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS TT Tf, however, ” is an even integer, then 4” is always positive, whatever the choice of k may have been; consequently the difference f(x) —f(a) is positive or negative according as / (a) is positive or negative. In the first case the function f(z) has a minimum value at the position «=a; in the latter case, a maximum. Taking this into consideration we have the following theorem for functions of one variable (§ 3): Extremes of the function f(a) can only enter for the roots of the equation f"(a)=0. If a is a root of this equation, then at the position x = a there is neither a maximum nor a minimum if the first of the derivatives that does not vanish for this value is of an odd degree ; if, however, the degree is even, then the function has a mazimum value for the position «=a if the derivative for x=a is negative, a minimum if it is positive. 50. To derive the analog for functions of several variables, we start again with the Taylor-Lagrange theorem * for such functions. This theorem may be derived by first writing in f(xy, 2, +++, 2,) =A, +U(t,—a,), (A=1,2,-++,2), where w is a quantity that varies between 0 and 1; we then apply to the function Hu) =f (a+ w (y= %)y gt W(tly = by) + +4 Gy HU (ly — Mn) Maclaurin’s theorem for functions of one variable, viz.: [3] $(u) = (0) +h 7 + “$"(0) te: (0) 4 em (Bry @—t wot (+ (3u), and, finally, in this expression write w= 1, as follows: For brevity denote by f(t 2) +++, %) the first derivative of T (©, % +++, C_) with respect to a and by fp, 4,(®1» 2°+ +) Zn) the derivative of f(a, 2, +++, %) with respect to «, and 2, that is, 82 f (ay, By) ++ +5 Zn) eee = Ben a Fey t (Py Uy + + +4 By) = Oar, Bry, a *See Lagrange, Théorie des Fonctions. v. 152.78 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA It follows, then, that ee ¢! = ASe(at W (Gp My)y ++ Apt U (p= An) e= Me) }s e"w= “EUs wat 1 (@%— %)s a+ lay Gy) )(2x, = A) (iy Uy) BDU) =F ig hay een aa Ut = yy ey EN ah (ep dy) yA) ++ (ig 1 Un Dr een > { Figs tgs eons a F Bt (4 = Ay), 0 ay Kas ES ty + OU (Ln Mn) (iy My) ++ * Hg — Ten) Hence, from [3] we have Cw) — Hey, ay ty) =F Dl Fellas ay Me) he a)} (Fey be(@as Fay * + #4 Fn) (iy — U,) (Gy — ey} pt DZ Vote: wai a2 Ms ty (i, = Hy) +++ Cem 1 Gg =} ihe a. ititn bas vees ba (4+ Bu (@ — %), Ay + BU (y= On) Y(t, — - +++ Pen Ug)} From this it follows, if we write w= 1, that S (4s Bay + + +5 Xp) —F (45 ay + + A) = Fellas ey +++) @y)(%p— M)} 1 + {Fey by (Mas gp 6+ 84 Bn) (ey = Ge.) (Bey Ge} if : us + @=pE {Fig bay 002s Ban a(t» Mas * + +5 En) (le, — Be,) 0+ (Pen Cen ad} 1 FD Spee tO = BaF O(= aan a iy +9 (iy On)) (y= Me.) + * eg = ea)» RissoNO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 79 51. We are not accustomed to Taylor’s theorem * in the form just given; to derive this theorem as it is usually given, observe that upon performing the indicated summations each of the in- dices 1, hy, +++, independently the one from the other, takes all values from 1 to 2, so that the Ath term in the development is a homogeneous function of the Ath degree in 2— a, t—a,, +++, @,—4,, The general term of this homogeneous function may be written in the form (Ly — Ay), 1 BPN = a) — where ApH Agt + +AW=A D is the definite differential quotient and Wis the number of permutations of A elements of which 4, Ags ++ Ay, Fespectively are alike; that is, a a! gh -s-Agl N= Furthermore, writing #,— 4,=h,, we have, finally, [4] Fp tay ++ +5 tn) — Flay as + +9 Mn) +e), Ahab taemmod + {r thet FAVA, dy v2, Aas Aay erry Aa mens ee a oh Ashe s+ shan at gt eee Ae ecm mY (ea hy = tg) =o} *Stolz (Grundziige der Differential und Integralrechnung, p. 247) ascribes this mode of expression to A. Mayer (see paper by him in the Leipz. Ber. (1889), p. 128). ‘The form as presented here is found in Weierstrass’s lectures delivered at least ten years before the Mayer paper.80 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA This is the usual form of Taylor’s theorem for functions of several variables. In particular, when m=1 the above development is [5] Fp Bas ++ + Bn) —S (Ay May + + + On) ken =D Felt + Oy + y+ Ohad lih- kal The function f(,+--, 2) is regular and continuous, as are consequently all its derivatives. If, therefore, the first deriva- tives of f(w, ay +++, 2,) are all, or in part, =0 for 2=a,--+, 2%=4,, then they will also be different from zero for = 4,+6hy, +++) y= Un + Oh, where the absolute values of fy, hg, +++, hiy have been taken sufficiently small; these derivatives will also be of the same sign as they were for 2, = dy, 2)= Mg, +++, %,=4,. If, now, we choose all the h’s zero with the exception of one, which may be taken either positive or negative, it is seen that when the corre- sponding derivative has either sign, we may always bring it about at pleasure that the difference S(@py May ++ +5 Mu) F (May ay + + +5 Mn) is either a positive or a negative quantity, and consequently at the position a, a,+++, a, no extreme value of the function is permissible. We therefore have the following theorem: Extremes of the function f(y %y +++, %) can only enter for those systems of values of (i, y+++, %) which at the same time satisfy the n equations (p. 17) 0, 62, (6) to, a, It may happen that for the common roots of the system of equations [6] still higher derivatives also vanish. In this case we can in general only say that if for a system of roots of the equations [6] all the derivatives of several of the next higher orders vanish, and if the first derivative which does not vanish for these values is of an odd order, the function, as may be shown by a method of reasoning similar to that above, has certainly no maximum or minimum value.NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 81 52. If, however, this derivative is of an even order, then in the present state of the theory of forms of the nth order in several variables there is no general criterion regarding the behavior of the function at the position in question. We therefore limit our- selves to the case where the derivatives of the second order of the function f(y, %_, +++, @,) do not all vanish for the system of real roots ty, dg, +++, @, of the equations [6]. In this case we have a criterion in the formula [7] Pp ay 2 + By) PF (yy ay + + 49 Gy) Of (ar a, ) yyy * +s Tn) “gfe a by which we may determine ne SF (®p %s +++; Zn) has an ex- treme value on the position @,, @2,--+,d,, ince we may determine whether the integral homogeneous function of the second degree, Ce) in the variables /,, hg, +++, hy is for arbitrary values of those variables invariably positive or invariably negative. Denote this function by fy (y+ hy, +++; y+ Oy). On account of their presupposed continuity the quantities (2 zo:=-2 0) ana (22 2:20) Gado, y+ Ry ++ n+ On ba,en, Ay ++ an with values of hy, hg,+++, h, taken sufficiently small differ from each other as little as we wish and are of the same sign;* hence with small values of the /’s the functions P(e at (2) aa, } have always the same sign, and we may therefore confine our- selves to the investigation of the latter function. 0A (yy +5 * If any of the quantities (Gna) day it by exu(ay, «++, dq), which must of course be given the same sign as fas(a+ Oh ,+6h,), ¢y denoting an infinitesimally small quantity. becomes zero, we may replace82 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA If it is found that through a suitable choice of hy, fig, ++ +5 hy the expression {(2& Xp > dx 02, we can be made at pleasure either positive or negative, the same will be the case with the difference f(a, ©, +++) 2) —f (4p Ga. + + +5 Gs and consequently f (24, 2, + +,2,) has on the position (1, 45+ + +54) no extreme value. ‘We therefore have as a second condition for the existence of a maximum or a minimum of the function f(t) 2 +++) fn) oD the position (a), @y,+++, @,) that in case the second derivatives of the function f(x, %, +++, @) do not all vanish at this position, the homogeneous quadratic form x{C he must be always negative or always positive for arbitrary values Of Igy Igy s+ oy ene Il. THEORY OF THE HOMOGENEOUS QUADRATIC FORMS 53. The three kinds of quadratic forms, viz., definite, semi- definite, and indefinite, were defined in § 13. ‘As we have already indicated in § 13, it is seen that if the homo- geneous function is an indefinite form, the function f (2, a, + - +s) has neither a maximum nor a minimum upon the position (14) 49, ++, d)3 for if the right-hand member of [7] is positive, say, for a definite system of values of the /’s, then in accordance with the definition of the indefinite quadratic forms we can find in the immediate neighborhood of the first system a second system of values of the 2’s for which the right-hand side of the equa- tion [7] is negative; consequently, also, the difference S (yy Bay + +4 Bu) —S (yy May + + +5 An) is negative, so that therefore no maximum or minimum is permis sible for the position (a, a,---, @,).NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 83 If, then, the second derivatives of the function f(a, a, +++, «,) do not all vanish at the position (a1, a, +++, «,), it follows, besides the equations [6], as a further condition for the existence of an extreme of the function f(x, 2y,+++, 29) that the terms of the second dimension in [4] must be a definite quadratic form, if we exclude what we have called the semi-definite case. The question next arises: Under what conditions is in general a homogeneous quadratic form (8] Ply Way ++ Py) = DA nuitr@ys Ae A= Aya a definite quadratic form ? 54. Before we endeavor to answer this question we must yet consider some known properties of the homogeneous functions of the second degree. Suppose that in the function (v4, v%,++ +, 7,), in the place of (x), t, «++, 2), homogeneous linear funetions of these quantities (9] w= eau, HHL, B+, m) ra are substituted, which are subjected to the condition that inversely the 2’s may be linearly expressed in terms of the y/s, and consequently the determinant Oy, ¢ setts ty! Coy, € +1 lan [10] =z elon * + Can EO. Onis Ona tty Cnn] The function (2, y,-++,2,) is thereby transformed into 04 P (yy Layo +5 n= V Yas Yar s+» Yn)» Owing to this substitution it may happen that Y(y,, Yo. * +s Yn) does not contain one of the variables y, so that $(2,, 7, +++, 2) is expressible as a function of less than 7 variables.84 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA To find the condition for this write 2 32 HLA, CHL Qa If is independent of one of the y/s, say y,, 80 that conse- ently “= 0, then from the » equations yz eq 262 (met) at 2m ap oy 1 2 we may eliminate the »—1 unknown quantities “Y, , ‘1 2 ., 24. We thus have among the $’s an equation of the form a Pe 1 4 Dhb.= 0, a where the 4’s are constants. Owing to equations [12] this means that the determinant of the given quadratic form vanishes, that is, and consequently 15 Dt Adae +++ Ann = 0. We note here the following formulas: DPA May 2) AE = Di Ange ah (th, thy +++, wh) a} =F HY lyehay Daath 16 TT] DAPa ley tay os ay) =D Ba efy ahs oy ah).ny) There exists, further, the well-known Euler's theorem for homo- geneous functions: tior 18 Tren gg + 15 Wn) Da} = Ply, Byy ++ +5 Ly) It is also easy to show reciprocally that if, as above, the equa- n [16] is true, the function # consists of less than m variables.NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 85 For if we assume that equation [15], or, what amounts to the same thing, an identical relation of the form [14] exists, and if we substitute in $(a, +++, @) the quantities 2, +h, in the place of 2,(A=1, 2,-+-, m) and develop with respect to powers of ¢, we then have (w+ thy, Wy + thy, ++, Ly + thy) Heys yy +5 My) ALLL Rha (yp ys +25 My} HOG (yy igs ++ +4 hy) It follows, when we take into consideration the equations [14] and [18], since the equation [14] is true for every system of values (4, Zp, -+-, ,), that Plat thy, +++, & + thy) = h(a, +++, &y)- Hence, if the equation [15] exists, or if the 2’s satisfy the equa- tion [14] for every system of values (a, 2, +++, @,), then (2, , +++, %) remains invariantive if «+ th, is written for a, where ¢ is an arbitrary quantity. Consequently, it being presupposed that %,<0, if t is so determined that the argument «, + ¢k,=0, we have 19} Ble ams = O(O4— Bay ty Ba, where @ is expressed as a function of less than » variables. We therefore have the theorem The vanishing of the determinant S) + Ay Agg +++ Ann %8 the necessary and sufficient condition that a homogeneous quadratic Sanction $ (vy ty +++) %y)=DAy, 0%, be expressible as a func- tion of m—1 variables, St 55. We return to the question proposed at the end of § 53, and to have a definite case before us assume that the problem is: Determine the condition under which the function (iy, yy +++, fp) is invariably positive. The second case where (jy typ +++) %y) is to be invariably negative is had at once if ~¢ is written in the place of ¢.8b THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA We shall first show, following a method due to Weierstrass,’ that every homogeneous function of the second degree (i, x» s+, 2) may be expressed as an aggregate of squares of linear functions of the variables. 56. In the proof of the above theorem it is assumed that (2, %, +++, ©) cannot be expressed as a function of —1 yariables; it follows, therefore, that the inequality [20] Dt Adee: Ann = 0 is true and that therefore it is not possible to determine con- stants &, so that the equation >'4:;= 0 exists identically. a If, then, y is a linear function of the «’s having the form [21] YH Cyt laity to ++ + Cyitny and if g is.a certain constant, then the expression $—gy"( say), after the theorem proved above, can be expressed as i function of only n—1 variables if the constants ky, hy, +++, y may be so determined that Sas Sih — gye)} or An [22] Shh aS he.= 0. From the assumption made regarding [20] it follows, on the one hand, that the inequality [23] Dhak 0 a must exist. This is the only restriction placed upon the c’s. On the other hand, in virtue of the m linear equations [24] DAur= (=I, 2,-+ +, 0) * See also Lagrange, Mise. Taur., Vol. I (1709), p. 18, and Mécanique, Vol. I, p.3 Ganss, Disq. Arithm., p. 271; Theoria Comb. Observ., p. 31, ete.NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 87 the quantities ,, +++, 2, may be expressed as linear functions of dy dor*+% Gy and, consequently, by the substitution of these values of 2, 2y,+++, 2, in [21] y takes the form [25] ya rbo where the e, are constants, which are composed of the constants Aya and cy. But from equation [22] it follows that _1dhibs IDs Such a representation of the ¢,, however, since we have to do with linear equations, can be effected only in one way. ¥y We therefore have y= gS = Pas it from which it follows that men y= en D hye, (K=1, +++, m). wt Through the substitution of these values in [22] it is seen that i | Derbr— GV Deven = 05 A=l A=l consequently, owing to the relation [25], we have ae [26] LoS or g=—t I = exe, a= This value of g may be expressed in a different form; for from [25] and [17] it follows that [26] y =D esp ley tyes) Dts ease88 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Comparing this result with [21], we have [27] C= Pr(Cqs Career On) (PSL, 2+ ++) M)y and consequently 28) -——— Deabalers Cae + +9 En) mo or, from [18], oe (Cys Cgy os Ow Since the quantities ,, cy,++ +, ¢, are perfectly arbitrary except the one restriction expressed by the inequality [23], the quantities €1, €9,***, m are, in consequence of the equation [27], completely arbitrary with the one limitation resulting from [28], viz., the function $ cannot vanish for the system of values (¢,, 5 +++, ¢); otherwise g would become infinite. 57. Reciprocally, if the quantities ¢,, e,+++, ¢, are arbitrarily chosen, but with the restriction just mentioned, and if g is determined through [28], it may be proved that the expression $(= 6 —gy’, where y lias the form [25], may be expressed as a function of only 7—1 variables. For, form the derivatives of this expression with respect to the different variables, and multiply each of the resulting quantities by the constants ¢,, ¢,-++, ¢. Adding these products and noting [26%] and [28], we have Deada= IVD eaPrlers &ay +++» Cn) =D) eaba— Y- The expression on the right-hand side is zero from [25]. Hence nm constants may be chosen in such a way that the sum of the products of these constants and the derivatives of the expression $—gy? is identically zero, and also $(e,,-++, ¢,) =0 (cf. [18]. 58. Substitute #,+ te, for (X=1, 2,---, 2) in $; if one of these arguments is made equal to zero, we have, as in § 54, $ (ps Hap ++ @n) — gy? (= Lago tp BEL ty yp gy EA yy ee ey & on iy ity) Os or, if the new arguments are represented by 2’';, a’g,-+-, 2 n-P (ity gy + +5 Gy) — GPP = H('y, ly +45 OyoNO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 89 Employing the same method of procedure with $(i',, 2, +++,2",_1) as was done with ¢ («,, @,,-++, %,), we come finally to the func- tion of only one variable, which, being a homogeneous function of the second degree, is itself a square. Hence we have the given homogeneous function o/(,, 2g, +++, @,) expressed as the sum of squares of linear homogeneous functions of the variables. If the coefficients of are real, as also the quantities ¢, the coefficients y are also real, and since the quantities ¢ may with a single limi- tation be arbitrarily chosen, it follows that a transformation of such a kind that the result shall be a real one may be performed in an infinite number of ways.* 59. If, now, the expression [29] bly ay +5 My) = HVE YET ++ + gna is to be invariably positive for real values of the variables and equal to zero only when the variables themselves all vanish, then all the qualities g,, g,,+-+, gn must be positive; for if this were not the case, but g,, say, were negative, then, since the 9s are, independently of one another, linear homogeneous functions of the ws, we could so choose the a's that all the y's except y, would vanish, and consequently, contrary to our assumption, (2, «+ +,,) would be negative. Furthermore, none of the g’s can vanish: for if g, say, were zero, we might so choose a system of values 24,2), +++,2,,in which at least not all the quantities a, a,+++, 2, were zero, that all the y’s would vanish except y,, and consequently ¢ could then be zero without the vanishing of all the variables yy Ugg 6+ Bye Reciprocally, the condition of g,, +++, gn being all positive is also sufficient for } to be invariably positive for real values of the variables, and for @ to be equal to zero only when all the variables vanish. 60. In order to have, in as definite form as possible, the ex- pression of @ as a sum of squares, we shall give to the expression [26] for g still a third form. *See Burnside and Panton, Theory of Equations (1892), p. 430. In this connec. tion it is of interest to note the Theorem of Inertia of Sylvester, Coll. Math. Papers, Vol. I, pp. 380, 511, See also Hermite, Huvres, Vol. I, p. 429.90 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA In connection with [12] it follows from [27] that mee = > Aye, (v= 1, 2,--+, 2). wal Denote by 4 the determinant of these equations, which from [20 is not identically zero, that is, [30] A=) £ Ay gy «+ + Anns We have as the solution of the preceding equation (H=1, +++, m). [31] an expression in which the c¢’s are subject only to the one con+ dition that : z ee 4 * fe A a4, : is not identically zero. 61. It is shown next that we may separate from (7, ty +++, a,) the square of a single variable in such a way that the resulting function contains only n — 1 variables. For example, in order that the expression $ — gx? be expressed as a function of n—1 variables, we may choose for g the value [31], after we have written in this expression c= 0(4=1, 2, ++, n—1), while to ¢, is given the value unity. From this it is seen that ~4u4 : aa 4 OA, whore A, is the determinant of the quadratic form $(e,, m9, %_1 0). Of course this determinant must bé different from zero,NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 91 Hence we may write D(X yy 2+ +5 Ly) FH, ty 5 Oh a)s where Beeb sh) 8 (%— Beg y= Bag ey th, 0), rn We may then proceed with } just as has been done with ¢ by separating the square of x) _,, ete. After the separation of « squares from the original function $, we notice that the determinant of the resulting function in » — p variables is the same as the determinant of the function which results from the original function ¢ when we cause the p last variables in it to vanish. If this determinant is denoted by 4,, we have the following expression for $: P (Xp Lyy ++ +5 Ly) = fats tel tet 3 An Bo we DRE AL 4 (aey"-D), Ay 62. If now ¢ is to be invariably positive and equal to zero only when all the variables vanish, the coefficients on the right-hand side of the above expression must all be greater than zero. We therefore have the theorem In order that the quadratic form $y ey ELAM A =Ayay be a definite form and remain invariably positive, it is necessary and sufficient that the quantities Ay, Ag,+++, Ay, which are defined through the equation A, =>) + AyAgg +++ An—p,n—us be all positive and different from zero. If, on the other hand, the quad- ratic form is to remain invariably negative, then of the quantities Ay Ana ++ +s Ayy A, the first must be negative, and the following must be alternately positive and negative (see Stolz, Wiener Bericht, Vol. LVIII (1868), p. 1069).92 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA I. APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF QUADRATIC FORMS TO THE PROBLEM OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA STATED IN §§ 47-51 63. By establishing the criterion of the previous section the original investigation regarding the maxima and minima of the function 7 (;,%q, + + +,%,) is finished. The result established in § 57 may in accordance with the definitions given in § 52 be expressed as follows: In order that an extreme of the function f(y ty, +++, 2») may in reality enter on the position (a4, %,++*, ,) whieh is deter- mined through the equations [6], it is sufficient, if the second derivatives of the function do not all vanish at this position, that the aggregate of the terms of the second degree of the equation [4] be a definite* quadratic form ; if, however, the form vanishes for other values of the variables without changing sign (that is, is semi- definite), then a determination as to whether an extreme in reality exists is not effected in the manner indicated and requires further investigation, as is seen below. In virtue of the theorem stated in § 53, an extreme will enter for a system of real values of the equation [6] if the homogeneous function of the second degree 2) oh an ay +5 that is, if Da Ga tay soy Andes Ae is a definite quadratic form; in other words (§ 62), there will be a minimum on the position (ay dg, +++, %) if the quotients Fy Fy Fy-1 where P= SitFifors + Sn-nn-w are Ul positive, a mast. mum if they are all negative. In both cases the quotients must be different from zero. * Lagrange, Théorie des Fonctions, pp. 283, 286; seealso Cauchy, Cale. differ, p. 234.NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 93 This last condition is only another form of what was said above, viz., that > Judah, Must not be a semi-definite form. For if, say, Ae Fo=Z thule Sin= then the summation S'/,,d,h, being denoted by (Iq, hg, «+ +5 hn), this equation would directly imply the existence of a relation of the form Dh bsp legs +5 hy) = 0, where the 4, are constants which do not all simultaneously vanish. If, therefore, &,, say, is different from zero, we may write yest b=-= > hb, kn A and with the help of this relation we have from the equation P(liyy lags 5 h)= Zi oabv gy +s In) n= Gulu YD daly = 1 the following relation Ha i lly ay +25 Ba) = BY ally sb) (BaF a) Now in this expression the arbitrary quantities 4 may be so chosen that and consequently the function $(hy, hy,-++, hy) would vanish without all the 4’s becoming simultaneously zero. This case we cannot treat in its generality. Neglecting this case, it is seen that the problem of this chapter is completely treated; however, the conditions that a quadratic form shall be a definite one appear in a less symmetric form than we wish. It is due to the fact that we have given special preponderance to certain variables over the others. We shall consequently take up the same subject again in the next chapter.94 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA 64. The question is often regarding the greatest and the least values (the upper and lower limits) which a function may take when its variables vary in a given finite or infinite region. If this value corresponds to a system of values within the given region, then for this system the function will also be a maximum or a minimum in the sense derived above. For example, let it be required to distribute a positive number a into n+1 summands, so that the product of the a,th power of the first, the @,th power of the second, etc., and finally the @,,, power of the last summand will be a maximum.* The quantities a, a,-++,@,4, are to be positive numbers. Let a, ty +++, By, &— Wy—+++—2, be the summands in question and write Ts wySitrgh + + g(a — hy — iy — vv» — ay) OH, We must then determine when U or, what is the same thing, its natural logarithm, has its greatest value. If we put the partial derivatives of log 7 equal to zero, we will have @logU_ a Ot a @logU _ ay Oi, hy @logU_ a, aay These equations may be written ie ae een Gea eres %, G1 YAH re tay the last term being had through addition of the preceding proportions. Té we call 2, 2{,..+, w the values of the variables which satisfy these equations, we have =a eae ; Maa * Peano, § 137.NO SUBSIDIARY CONDITIONS 95 The corresponding value of U is UM ante +, 44)" To recognize whether U, is the greatest of the values of U, we may show that U is in fact a maximum for the system of values 2{, +++, oi and that this position lies on the interior of the realm of variability under consideration. For, let a, ,-++, , be an- other system of positive values of the variables, for which also ', is positive, and substitute for the variables in aa log U the values 20+ u(y —2),-++, 20 +-u(e4— a), where O Fly fs DFakyly bees. “1 we 75. The above difficulty may be avoided if we multiply by the quantities ¢,(u=1, 2,--- 2) respectively each of the expres sions [2] which vanish identically, add them thus multiplied to the above difference, and then develop the whole expression with respect to the powers of h. Owing to equation [9] terms of the first dimension can no longer appear in this development, and we have, if we write [12] FAS ah= G, ot [1B] Fey yy + +5 @n)— F(a, gy « ++ Ory) =E (ay, yy + «+ Zp) = Gay dys, a4) = 3 Get We have, accordingly, the homogeneous function of the second degree 'C,,k,k, of the formula [6] if we substitute in LDGuhyh, a “4 the values [5] and consider only the terms of the first ‘dimensionRELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 103 in the process. If then the criteria of the preceding chapter are applied we can determine whether the function F possesses or not a maximum or minimum on the position (a,, d,---, a). 76. The definite conditions that have been thus derived are unsymmetric for a twofold reason: on the one hand because in the determination of the quantities h some of them have been given preference over the others, and on the other hand because those expressions by means of which it is to be decided whether the function of the second degree is continuously positive or con- tinuously negative have been formed in an unsymmettic manner from the coefficients of the function. It is therefore interesting to derive a criterion which is free from these faults and which also indicates in many cases how the results will turn out. With this in view let us return to the problem already treated in the preceding chapter and propose the following more general theorem in quadratic forms. I. THEORY OF HOMOGENEOUS QUADRATIC FORMS 77. TuEorEM. We have given a homogeneous function of the second degree 14] Pp tape =D Amey (Ase = Ar) Ma in n variables, which are subjected to the linear homogeneous equa- tions of condition aan (15) =Daym%=0 (A=1, 2-2, m5 m is to be invariably negative. The above method was first discovered by Lagrange, who dil not, however, sufficiently emphasize the reality of the roots oi equation [20]. Il. APPLICATION OF THE CRITERIA JUST FOUND TO THE PROBLEM OF THIS CHAPTER 88. We have determined the exact conditions necessary for homogeneous quadratic form to be definite for the case where the variables are to satisfy equations of condition and in a manner entirely symmetric in the coefficients of the given function together with those of the given equations of condition. At the same time with the solution of this problem, the problem of maxima and minima which we have proposed in this chapter is solved.RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 115 89. Having regard to the remarks made in § 71 and § 74 we have as a final result of our investigations the following theorem : TuEorEM. Jf those positions are to be found on which a given regular function F(w, +++, 2,) has a macimum or minimum value under the condition that the n variables a, %,+++, 2, satisfy the m equations [8] Al@y ap 0 (X=1,2,-+4,m), where f, are likewise regular functions, we write i} PES Ch =G ll ty 5 ty) =I and seek the system of real values Dy Maye sry May Oy Cay sty Om which satisfy the n +m equations aa =0 (A=1,2,---,2), | ae Lr=0 HT, +e, mp. Tf (a, ty +++, dy) 48 such a system of values of ay, y+; Ly, then we develop the difference {e] Gay thy gt Igy +25 yt ly) = F(t, Ay +25 Ay) with respect to powers of h, and have (since no terms of the first dimension can appear, owing to equations [c}) the following development : [2] Gay lay, gt Magy + + 25 Gy Aly) = Ey May 25 Mn) ie Hy Gan (ay May oy Maeght We must next see whether the function (el bigs hays hy) =D Gaal, is invariably positive or invariably negative for all systems of values of the h’s which satisfy the m equations (A) DFou lt toys es Mn) =O (P= 1, 2 ++, m)-116 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA To do this we form the determinant Gime Av Save Sm +1 Gam Si» Sows ts Sno Gy Gy Gay Gag— 6+ 1 Gin 6 Siw San? Fun 9] |G Gay , A 0 00 Fu Sy mv Smet 90) and this determinant put equal to 0 is an equation of the m—n degree in e, which has only real roots. Developing the determinant with respect to powers of ¢, we have to see whether the develop- ment consists of n—m-+1 terms with alternately positive and negative sign or with only continuation of sign. If the first is the case, the function $ is invariably positive, and the function F has on the position (4, @g,+++, a,) @ minimum value; if, on the contrary, the latter is true, then is invariably negative, and F has on the position (a,, dg, +++, Gn) & maximum value. This criterion fails, however, when ¢ vanishes identically, because the quantities G,, vanish for the position (a1, ay, +++, a4); and it also fails when the smallest or greatest root of Ae = 0 is zero, since in this case we may always so choose the h’s that vanishes without the A’s being all identically zero (see § 83). In the latter case the function $(z) is an indefinite or a semi- definite form (§ 78). In both of these cases the development [d] begins with terms of the third or higher dimensions, and for the same reason as that stated at the end of § 63 we cannot assert that in general a maximum or minimum will enter on the position (iy yy «+5 Oy) 90. We give next two geometrical examples illustrating the above principles. Proziem I. Determine the greatest and the smallest curvature at a regular point of a surface F(z, y, 2)=0.RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 117 If at a regular point P of a plane curve we draw a tangent and from a neighboring point P’ on the curve we drop a perpen- dicular P'Q upon this tangent, then the value that 222. A¢ Pp” As approaches, if we let P’ come indefinitely near P, is called the cur- vature of the curve at the point P. If the curve is a circle with radius 7, the above ratio approaches - as a limiting value and is,. r therefore, the same for all points of the circle. Now construct the osculating circle which passes through the two neighboring points P and P! of the given curve. The are of the circle PP' may be put equal to the are PP’ of the curve, when P and P’ are taken very near each other, and consequently, if r is the radius of this circle, the curvature of the curve is determined through the formula 2Pq_1 Ppp? or 1) The quantity r is called the radius of curvature, and the cen- ter M of the circle which lies on the normal drawn to the curve at the point P is known as the center of curvature at the point P. The curvature is counted positive or negative according as the line P’Q, or, what amounts to the same thing, MP has the same or opposite direction as that direction of the normal which has been chosen positive. If we have a given surface and if the normal at any regular point of this surface is drawn, then every plane drawn through this normal will cut the surface in a curve which has at the point P a definite tangent and a definite curvature in the sense given above. The curvature of this curve at the point P is called the curva- ture of the surface at the point P=(z, y, 2) in the direction of the tangent which is determined through the normal section in question.118 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Following the definitions given above it is easy to fix the analytic conception of the curvature of a surface and then to formulate the problem in an analytic manner. If P’=(, y', 2) is a neighboring point of P on the surface, the equation of the surface may be written in the form: [2] 0O=A@'—2)+Ky'—y)+F@'—2) Hea’ — @)+ Foal! — y+ Fogle! — 2) +2 Fle! — 2) (y'— y) + 2 Pagly!— y) (2! —2) +2 Fy, (2 — 2)(a!— 2)}+---, Ol ar where gee ao oy ee ar , _@F 22 oy 33 oe i ar ar ap 2 beay’ 28 Byes” 31 Fae The equation of the tangential plane at the point P is [3] FyE-2)+ Kay) + Fy(S—2)=0, where & », € are the running coérdinates. Therefore, if we write for brevity [4] VF}+ F}+ F3=H, and take as the positive direction of the normal of the surface at the point P that direction for which H is positive, then the direction-cosines of this normal are F Fy F cana eas ae H H ns AH Consequently the distance from P’ to the tangential plane is F, Fy F, 5 9 = (a! — 2) 4 2 iy'_ 43», (8) PQ=Fel— a) +BY y+ 30-9 The negative or positive sign is to be given to the expression on the right-hand side according as the length P’@ has the sameRELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 119 or opposite direction as that direction of the normal which has been chosen positive. In the first case, paying attention to [2], which has to be satisfied, since P’ lies upon the surface, we have 2P'9 6 a {6] op = Bue 2) + Fog ly' =)? + Byg (= + 2 F(a! 2) (yy) + Hs? where Sta (a! — oP + (y'— y+ (2 — 2) In the case where the direction P’Q is contrary to the positive direction of the normal, we must give the negative sign to the right-hand side of [6]. Now let P’ approach nearer and nearer P; then the quantities w—aw yl-y dz Siem aigan which represent the direction-cosines of the line PP’, become the direction-cosines of the tangent at the point P of the normal sec- tion that is determined through P’. Representing these by a, 8, y a and the limiting value of 27. by x, then Pp? 1 (1) a Patt Fg Beg + 20 QB +2 FysBy +2 Frye}, where the terms of higher degree in 2/— 2, etc. are neglected. In this formula « represents the curvature of the surface in the direc- tion determined by a, B, y. This is to be taken positive or negative according as the direction of the length MP, where M is the center of curvature, corresponds to the positive direction or not. Tf the codrdinates of the center of curvature are represented by 2%, Yo, 2) and the radius of curvature by p, then Fi. ea a= pai 1 or, since k=>> P120 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA nA +2 Pye FDP yy Fy @+ Pog? + +++ + 2 Fyye Since H does not appear in these expressions, we see that the position of the center of curvature is independent of the choice of the direction of the normal. Suppose that the normal plane which is determined through the direction a, 8, y is turned about the normal until it returns to its original position. Then, while a, 8, y vary in a definite manner, the function « of a, 8, y assumes different values at every instance, and since it is a regular function, it must have a maximum value for a definite system of values (a, 8, 7) and likewise also a minimum value for another definite system of values (a, B, ¥)- The quantity = has the same value for all normal sections that are laid through the same normal.* We have, therefore, to seek the systems of values (a, 8, y) for which the expression Fy@ + Fah? + Pag Pt 2 Fya B+ 2 MygBy + 2 Fey assumes its greatest and its smallest value. We have also to observe that the variables «, 8, y must satisfy the equations of condition Fat FyB+Fyy=0, B+ Pte =1,° the first of which says that the direction which is determined through a, 8, y is to lie in the tangential plane of the surface at the point P, while the second equation is the well-known relation among the direction-cosines of a straight line in space. (9] *See Salmon, A Treatise on the Analytic Geometry of Three Dimensions (Fourth EAition), p. 259.RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 121 Following the methods indicated in § 89, we write [10] G@=Fya?+ Py 2+ +++ +2 Fy ya —e(a?+ B24 y—1)4+ 2e(Fat+F,8+ Fy), and we then have (§ 89, [c]) to form the equations og ie” Fat FP, B+ Fyy=0, from which we must eliminate a, 8, y, and ¢’. These equations are (Fu-9)e+ FB + Kyy + Fe’'=0, Fut +(Fn—- B+ Foy +Hy'=0, 11 1) | me + Fy Hy 7+ Rye = 0, Fa +48 + Fyy =0, where Fy=Fa QH=1, 2,3). Through elimination we have Fu-% Fy Fy [12] Foy Fn—% Fay Fy Fy Fag Fg Fy Fy Fy 0 This is an equation of the second degree in ¢, and consequently gives us two values ¢, and ¢,, which are maximum and minimum values, since both maximum and minimum values enter, as shown above. Multiplying the first three equations [11] by a, 8, y respectively and adding the results, we have [13] Fya®-+ Fy? Pog? + 2 Fy Bt 2 Fag By + 2 Pye =e. Hence, from [7] we have l_e (14) noe122 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Consequently the two principal curvatures at the point P have the values ey a Aid aS Pp, and the codrdinates of the corresponding centers of curvature are found from the formule i \ | : I ama, yoy COL ease ere ol [16] : In order to determine e, let us write Dy= Fae &)(Pyg— ¢) — Fes’, Dya= Fog Fig— Fya(F sa — ©)» and form from these the corresponding quantities through the cyclic interchange of the indices. Equation [12] may be written in the form* Dy F2 + Dog FP} + Dyg FB + 2 Dig Fy Fy + 2 Dog Fy Ft 2 Dy Fy Fy = 0. Developing this expression with respect to powers of e, we have [17] H8— Le +M=0, where L= H?(Fyy+ Fag + ¥o5)— (Fuki + Fag FG + Fay F}) +2 FP Fyt 2 Fog Fy Ft 2 Fy PP, and M= (Fy Faq — Fi) P+ Fax Pu — Fy) FE + (Fy Poo KFS + Fialis— Fos P) Eek + (Bag ¥oy — Fg Pog) FP + (Fo, Fan Pia Pps) iP o- From [17] we have at once the values of the sum and the product of the two principal curvatures, viz. (see equation [15]): eee L py HS ee pip, Ht [18] * See Salmon, loc. cit., p. 257.RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 123 We have thus expressed the sum of the reciprocal radii of curva- ture and also the measure of curvature of the surface at the point P directly through the codrdinates of this point. Although the formule are somewhat complicated, they are used extensively and with great advantage. In the case of minimal surfaces,* which are characterized through the equation Pit p2=0, we have L=0. This is therefore the general differential equation for minimal surfaces. 91. ProsLem II. From a given point (a,b, ¢) to a given surface F(x, y, 2)=0 draw a straight line whose length is a maximum or a minimum. Write G=(e—a)2+(y~ bP +(z2— P+ 2AF (a, y, 2). 6) Then the quantities 2, y, z, 0 are to be determined (see § 89, [c]) from the following equations: a—a+rAF,=0, y-d +AR=0, : z2—c+AF=0, Fle, y2)=0. It follows, since F,, , ¥, are proportional to the direction- cosines of the normal to the surface at the point (2, y, 2), that the points determined through these equations are such that lines joining them to the point (a, }, ¢) stand normal to the surface. If P=(2, y, 2) iS-such a point, then to determine whether for this point the quantity (= a)+y— BPH eo) is in reality a maximum or a minimum, we substitute z+ u, y+, 2+ instead of x, y, z in the function G. The quantities u, v, w are, of course, taken very small. *8ee papers by the author on this subject in the first numbers of the Mathematical Review.124 THEORY .OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA We must develop the difference Ge+u, y+, 2+w)—G(a, y, 2) iv) in powers of w, v, and w. The terms of the first dimension drop out, and the aggregate of the terms of the second dimension is pa WH P+ WEA (Fy + Fog + Fogo $2 Figur + 2 Fyvw + 2 Fywu). (io) Since the point (7+, y+v, 2+) must also lie upon the surface, the quantities u, v, w must satisfy the condition Fyu + Fyv + Fyw = 0, () where the terms of the higher dimensions are omitted (see [8] of the present chapter). If we wish to determine whether the function y is invariably positive or invariably negative for all systems of values (w, v, w) which satisfy equation (v), we may seek the minimum or maximum of this function y under the condition that the variables are limited, besides the equation (v), to the further restriction (cf. [16] of § 77) that w+ 2+ wt 1= 0. (vi) For this purpose we form the function ye (ut+ 8+ wt 1) 4 2¢ (Fu + Fy + Fw), (vit) and writing its partial derivatives with respect to u, », and w equal to zero, we derive the equations : , (f-SA) etre +H wt 5 y= 0,| 7 ; Fyut (F2- =) ot Fyn +o Fm 0, (iti -1l | + ef | Foyt + Fogo + (#.0- x ) +5 R= 0.)RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 125 Eliminating «, », w, < from equations (2) and (vidi), we have here exactly the same system of equations as in [12] of the preceding problem, except that here and ¢’ stand in the place of ¢ and e’. Denote the two roots of the quadratic equation in e, which is the result of the above elimination, by ¢, and eg, and the corre- sponding radii of curvature of the normal sections by p, and py; then, since = has the same meaning as ¢ in the previous problem, where the positive direction of the normal to the surface is so chosen that H>0. If for the position (7, y, z) a minimum of the distance is to enter, then both values of the e must be positive; if a maximum, then e, and e, must be negative. It is easy to give a geometric interpretation of this result: Let PN be the positive direction of the normal and A = (a, b, c). Then from (éi) it follows that the length from A to P has the same or opposite direction as PN, according as A is negative or positive. Hence, from (ii), AP=—)H. If the centers of curvature corresponding to p, and p, be denoted by Mf, and Mh, then Hence126 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA If, then; M, and ¥M, lie on the same side of P and if A lies he tween M, and Jh, as in Figs. 12 and 13, then the e’s have different signs and there is neither a maxi- a MAM P mum nor a minimum. . : Fie. 12 If M, and MF lie on the same side i of P while A is without the inter oP oM AM val M,--- M,, then a minimum or Fie. 13 maximum will enter according as A 2 MM, PA starting from one of the centers of ———?—S:—*#_4—__- . . Fic, 14 curvature lies upon the same side as * P or not (see Figs. 14 and 15). A_M Mh P If the points M, and M, lie on Fie. 15 different sides of P and if A is situ- oo ated within the interval M,---M,,. ——+———+—- i» as in Fig. 16, then there is always Fra. 16 a minimum. If, however, 4 lies without the interval M,--- I, then there is neither a maximum nor a minimum. In whatever manner Mf, and M, may lie, if A coincides with one of these points, then one of the two values of ¢ is equal to zero, and the general remark stated at the end of § 89 is applicable. The above results are derived in a different manner by Goursat, Cours D’ Analyse, Vol. 1, p. 118. ‘The case may also happen here (see § 72) that in the solution of the equations (ii) and (iii) a singular point of the surface is found at the point P, at which F,=0=F,=F, We cannot pro- ceed as above, since, there being no definite normal of the surface at such a point, the determination whether for this point a maxi- mum or minimum really exist cannot be decided in the manner we have just given. The general remark of § 73 indicates how we are to proceed. 92. Brand’s problems. The two following problems taken from the theory of light were prepared by my colleague, Professor Louis Brand. Propiem I. Reflection at the surface F(x, y,z)=0. A ray passes from « point RB to a point P on a given surface and is reflected to @ point B. When is BP + PR a minimum ?RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 127 Write PR=d, and PR=d, so that d=V (mq — oP +(Yi-—yP+@%—% (¢=1, 2). We seek to find the condition that makes d,+d, an extreme when P is subjected to the condition of lying on the surface (1 F(x, y, 2)=0. 7 7 Using the Lagrangian method (§ 89) w« must find the extremes of the function (2, Y, 2)= T+ dg t AF (x, Y, 2). 2 Writing $, for 26 49) etc, the Fre. 17 ze necessary conditions for an extreme, viz, $2=¢y=¢,=0, give =, =F (2) yt, mae A iiss aa U4 dy - Let the direction-cosines of the lines PR and PF, be l,, m,, my and 1g, mg, ny respectively ; and let J, m, n denote the direction-cosines of the normal to the surface [1] at the point P. Furthermore, since F,, F,, F, are proportional to 1, m,n, write AF, =H, AFy=km, AF,= kn. Equations [2] then become (at h= me, [3] m+ m,= km, [nt min Designate the angle between PR and PR by (1,2); between PB and the normal by (1, n); between PB and the normal by (2, n). It is seen then that cos(1, 2)=Ila-+ mymy + MNy, (+ mym+ nn, al + mgm + gh. cos(1, n) cos(2, 2)128 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Multiplying equations [3] by J,, m,, , respectively, and adding, it follows, since 1? +m?+n?=1, that [4] 1+ cos(1, 2)=kcos(1, n). Similarly, by multiplying equations [3] by Jy, mg, mg, respec- tively, and adding, we get [5] cos(1, 2) +1= keos(2, n). From [4] and [5] we have cos(1, n) = cos(2, n), or [6] (1, n)=(2, 2). Moreover, upon multiplying equations [3] by J, m, n, respectively, and adding, we get cos(1, n) + cos(2, ) = &, or, from [6], k= 2 cos(1, 2). Substituting this value of & in [4], we have 1+ cos(1, 2) = 2 cos*(1, 2), so that cos(1, 2)= 2 cos®(1, n) —1= cos 2(1, n) = cos 2(2, n). Tt follows that (1, 2)=2(1, n)= 2(2, n), and that the lines PR, PR, and the normal must lie in the same plane, and it is further seen that the normal bisects the angle between PR and PB, We have thus arrived at the condition which is an optical law: The incident and reflected rays must lie in a normal plane, and the angle of incidence must be equal to the angle of reflection. The above result is merely a necessary condition for an extreme; to find whether an extreme really exists, and if it does, whether it is a maximum or a minimum, let us choose the plane APR as the ay-plane. If the curve cut from the surface by the plane EPH, has the equation [7] y=S@),RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 129 the problem now nat to determine the nature of the point we) P which makes = 0, where (2) = dy + dg =V (= @P+(Y, = YPHV (Ca 2) + Ya 9) the y being replaced by /(2). wy OY _@—a)+y—m)y' , =e) +y— Hy", da ad, dy while the equation of the normal to the curve [7] at P(2, y) is (@—8+y-1) y= 0, and the distance of the point (2; y;) from this normal is _ (= )ty— WY, ity Further, take the origin at the point P and the tangent to the surface at P lying in the plane BPR as the x-axis. ‘then @% = 0 shows that daz and as h, and h, have opposite signs, since A and & lie upon opposite sides of the normal, sin(1, n)=sin (2, 2), or (1, 2) =(2, 2), as stated before in [6]. Note that, 1 ey a [1+ y?+y-n)y"I- gq (e-atu— any? dat a alt y+ ny" 7 e— a) +O—wyF + @180 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Tt follows that for the origin and the direction y'= 0, 2 G0 ny")— FE dg yyy") 1 oy ae = a _ a Writing 6 =(1, n)=(2, 2), y we note that 7 = = cos 6, Pay ri = 7 = 2a sind, @ 2 * vo that 2%. (i + zoo 2y'c0s8. Fra, 18 From this it is seen that Pp al/l 1 d= 0 according as y" S= ala; + aes 6. Since y'=0, we note that y” is the curvature of curve y=/(2) at the origin, that is, y! = i where p is the radius of curvature. Hence, when lee elas ee (ee (8) poalata)me ©Y So, and the path i when Ta and the path is a minimum; Dee eee => [9] ; aa, +g )ome, He 0, and the path is a maximum. fe interpret this result geometrically it is seen that flaca ala, te a) cos 8 is the curvature of the ellipse whose foci are at P and B and which passes through P (see Pascal, Repertorium der Hoheren Mathematik, Vol. IL, 1, p.'245). The quantities d, and d, are its focal radii at P, and 6 is the angle between either focal radius and the normal to the ellipse at P. Note that this ellipse is tangent to the curve [7], since the normal to the curve bisects the angle between the focal radii of the ellipse and hence is also the normal to the ellipse.RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 131 ala, +z)e8 6, the ellipse and the curve [7] have the same curvature at. 2, and the test for extremes is inconclusive. But here the conditions for a maximum or a minimum are obvious from geometrical considerations. For, remembering that d,+ d, is constant for points on the ellipse, say d, +d,=k, then d)+d,k for points without the ellipse. Hence the path of the ray will be a macimum or a mini- mum according as the curve [7] lies within or without the ellipse in the neighborhood of the point P ; and it is seen that [9] and [8] are but special cases of this general condition. ProsieM IT. Refraction at the surface F (x, y, 2)=0. Using the previous notation, it is required to find the conditions that make the time of passage from F, to R, that is, 4 +2, an extreme, where 1% vy and vy represent the velocity of light in the two media. The Lagrangian function is (§ 89) 4 (0, y= 24 24M y, 2. y% % Proceeding as in the case of reflection, we find in place of equations [3] above youn, ties My 4 Me hy (4) a Ty Ta hn, U1 % From these equations we deduce that Fie. 19 (2) 1, 208(, 2) _ i cos(1, 0), Y vy [3] cos (1 2) 5 1 _ 2 608(2, 2), Y iy 14] cost. m) 4 2082) _ a1 %132 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA Multiplying [2] by 2 and [3] by 2, and subtracting, we have zz 2 1 3 a x[oeede a cea), panna , of we %% Vy substituting from [4] the value of & in this equation, it is seen that 11 _ cost(1, 2) _ cos*(2, m) aecesoe Bf in? (1, 2 in? a sint(L») _sin4(2, n) vp v2 Tt follows that sin(1, 2) _ sin(2, 7) 7 (2) _ sin, 9), 1 a From [2] and [4] it is seen that 2, 0 AL, cos(L, 2) _cost(L, n) , 208(1, n).c03(2, n), % Vy vi % sin®(1, n) _ cos(1, )cos(2, n)—cos(1, 2). a i or Dividing this equation by [5] and then multiplying the result by sin(2, n), we find sin (1, 2)sin (2, m) = cos(1, 2)cos(2, n)— cos(1, 2), or cos (1, 2)= cos[(1, n)-+(2, n)], and therefore [6] @ 2)=(L, »)+(2, n), so that the incident and the refracted ray lie in a normal plane, Equation [5] may be put in the form sin(1, 2) _ where cis the index of refraction of the second medium with respect to the first medium. The above is a generalization of a problem due to Fermat.RELATIVE MAXIMA AND MINIMA 133 The geometrical criteria for a maximum or a minimum involves a certain Cartesian Oval whose foci are at A and & and which passes through P. Tts equation in bipolar codrdinates is V9 + Vydq= const, d, and d, being the variable radii vectores. For points on this oval dq, : . He : ay 4 is a constant, say /; for points within this oval 4 + 4% , yy, Hence the time occupied by the ray in passing from F to P isa maximum or a minimum according as the curve cut from the sur- face by the normal plane through R and B lies within or without this Cartesian Oval in the neighborhood of the point P.CHAPTER VII SPECIAL CASES I. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE CRITERIA TIA! HAVE BEEN HITHERTO GIVEN AND A METHOD FOUNDEI UPON THE THEORY OF FUNCTIONS, WHICH OFTE) RENDERS UNNECESSARY THESE CRITERIA 93. The practical application of the, established criteria is i many cases’ connected with very great, if not insurmountabl difficulties, which, however, cannot be disregarded in the theory For often the solutions of the equations § 89, [c], cannot effected without great labor, if at all, and therefore also the forma tion of the function ¢ is impossible. It also happens, even if the function ¢ can be formed, that the discussion regarding the coeff cients of Ae=0 is attended with much difficulty. Moreover, the formation of the function } and the investigation relative to th coefficients of Ae are very often unnecessary, since through direct observation we may in many cases determine whether a maximum or a minimum really exists. If it then happens that the equation [ec] admit of only one real solution (i.e. of a real system of value: %, Wg, +++, ay), we may be sure that this is in reality the maximun or the minimum of the function. In the same way, if we can con vince ourselves a priori that both a maximum and a minimum exist, and if it happens that the equations [c] offer only two real systems of values, it is evident that the one system must corr spond to the maximum value of the function, the other systen to the minimum value. The determination as to which of the two systems of value gives the one or the other is in most cases easily determined. One cannot be too careful in the investigation whether on 4 position which has been determined from the equations [a] and 1384SPECIAL CASES 135 [c] of § 89 there really is a maximum or a minimum, since there are cases in which one may convince himself of the existence of a maximum or a minimum, when in reality there is no maximum or minimum. For example, to establish Euclid’s theorem respecting parallel lines, one tries to prove the theorem regarding the sum of the angles of a triangle without the help of the theorem of the parallel lines. Legendre was able, indeed, to show that this sum could not be greater than two right angles; however, he did not show that they could not be less than two right angles. The method of reasoning employed at that time was as follows: If in a triangle the sum of the three angles cannot be greater than 180°, then there must be a triangle for which the maximum of the sum of these angles is really reached. Assuming this to be correct, it may be shown that in this triangle the sum of the angles is equal to 180°, and from this it may be proved that the same is true of all triangles. We see at once that a fallacy has been made. For if we apply the same conclusions to the spherical triangles, in the case of which the sum of the angles cannot be smaller then 180°, we would find that in every spherical triangle the sum of the angles is equal to 180°, which is not true. The fallacy consists in the assumption of the eaistence of a maximum or a minimum; it is not always necessary that an upper or a lower limit be reached, even if one can come just as near to it as is wished (see § 8). On this account the assumption of the existence of a real maxi- mum is not allowed without further proof. We therefore endeavor to give the existence-proof. For this purpose we must recall several theorems in the theory of functions.* 94. We call the collectivity of all systems of values which x variable quantities 21, m,+--,%, can assume the realm (Gebiet) of these quantities, and each single system of values a position in this realm. If these quantities are variables without restric- tion, so that each of them can go from — oo to +, we call the * Note especially § 137.136 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA realm considered as a whole (Gesamtgebiet) an n-ple multiplicity (w-fache Mannigfaltigheit). If a1, a, +++, % ave independent of one another, then we say a definite position (a, ay, +++, dy) lies on the interior of the realm if these positions and also all their neighboring positions belong to this region; it lies wpon the boundary of the realm if in each neighborhood as small as we wish of this position there are present positions which belong to the realm, and also those that do not belong to it; it lies finally without the defined realm if in no neighborhood as small as we wish of this position there are positions which belong to the defined region. If the quantities 2, %,---, x, are subjected to m equations of condition, then we may express these in terms of n — m inde- pendent variables 14, t,+++, t—m, and the same definition may be applied to these variables. 95. The following theorems are proved in the theory of func- tions: (1)* If a continuous variable quantity is defined in any manner, this quantity has an upper and a lower limit; that is, there is a definitely determined quantity g of such a kind that no value of the variable can be greater than g, although there is a value of the variable which can come as near to g as we wish. In the same way there is a quite determined quantity & of such a nature that no value of the variable is less than /, although there is a value of the variable that comes as near to k as we wish (see also § 8). (2)t In the region of n variables a, 2, +++, a, suppose we have an infinite number of positions defined in any manner; let these be denoted by (a4, 2,---, 2). Furthermore, suppose that among the positions we have such positions that 2/, can come as near to a fixed limit a, as we wish. Then we have in the region of the quantities 1, ,---, z, always at least one definite position (a,, ag,++-, 0) of such a nature that among the definite positions (xj, 2},---, #,) there are always present positions that *Dini, Theorie der Functionen, p. 68. See also a paper by Stolz, “B, Bolzano's Bedeutung in der Geschichte der Infinitesimal Rechnung,” Math. Ann., Vol. XVII. } Biermann, Theorie der An. Funk., p.81; Serret, Cale. diff.et int., p. 26.SPECIAL CASES 137 lie as near this position as we wish ; so that, therefore, if 8 denotes @ quantity arbitrarily small, Jh—al<8 Q=12-+5 2). This position lies either within or upon the boundary of the defined region (a4, 24,++-, a),). 96. This presupposed, let us consider a continuous function F(t, %q, +++, ©»), and let the realm of the quantities 2, 2», + ++, a, be a limited one, so that, therefore, we have systems of values which do not belong to it. If for every possible system of values (%1, %,+++, %) we associate the corresponding value of the function, which may be denoted by 2,41, then we have defined certain positions in the region of »+1 quantities. For the quantity 2,,1 there is according to the first theorem an upper limit a,,,; consequently, owing to the second theorem there must be within the interior or upon the limits of the defined region a position (@1, dg, +++; @ 541) of such a nature that in the neighborhood of “O a a this position there certainly exist positions — /“?0, then, through the introduction of a new variable «,,,, we may transform this limitation into an equation of condition. For, as we have to do with only real values of the variables, the equation (y"] Sex Pier denotes exactly the same thing as [7]. If, therefore, a function F(2, %,+++, %,) is to be a maximum or minimum under the limitations Fy =; Fy =% ++ Fm = 9, Sms > Sint > 05+ + Smee > 9, where the /’s are functions of 2, %,+-+, %,, then we may solve this problem if instead of the r last restrictions we introduce the following limitations : Snsi= then imag = trea os Smee = Shee The problem is thus reduced to the one of finding among the systems of variables 2, 2,,+++, 4, those systems for which F is a maximum or a minimum. 112. Examples of this character occur very frequently, in mechanics. As an example consider a pendulum which consistsSPECIAL CASES 151 of a flexible thread that cannot be stretched. The condition under which the motion takes place is not that the material point remains at a constant distance from the origin, but that the distance can- not be greater than the length of the thread. Such problems are more closely considered in the sequel. It will be seen that by means of Gauss’s principle all problems of mechanics may be reduced to problems of maxima and minima. IV. GAUSS’S PRINCIPLE 113. For the sake of what follows we shall give a short ac- count of this principle: Consider the motion of a system of points whose masses are m,, mg,-++, m,. Let the motions of the points be limited or restricted in any manner, and suppose that the system moves under the influence of forces that act continuously. For a definite time let the positions of the points and the components of velocity both in direction and magnitude be determined. The manner in which the motion takes place from this period on is determined through Gauss’s principle: Let Aj, 4y,-+-+, A, be the positions of the points at the moment first considered; By, By,---, B, the positions which the points can take after the lapse of an indefinitely small time 7, if the motions of these points are free; C,, C,,---, C, the positions in -which these points really are after the lapse of the same time 7; and, finally, let C{, Cj,-++, Cj be the positions which the points may also possibly have assumed after the time 7, when the conditions are fulfilled. If we form pea ? and =" Bo, it follows from Gauss’s principle that from 7 = 0 up to a definite value of 7 the condition (] yeBee <¥n, B, Bo vet is always satisfied ; that is, Sn? must always be a minimum. v=l152 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA 114. To make rigorous deductions from Gauss’s principle, which was briefly sketched in the preceding section, we shall give a more analytic formulation of it: For this purpose we denote the codrdi- nates of 4, by 2, y. 2 the components of the velocity of 4, by aj, y,, 2), and the components of the force acting upon 4, by X,, Y,, Z, The coérdinates of B, are therefore 2 a, + Ta +55, ytrys + Py, 2 +12) +243 and from Taylor’s theorem the codrdinates of C, are etre) + Call Ls eb PEt etree alt my consequently we have [2] Ym,B,C, = Ym, {(a—X)P-+(y, AEH! 2) eee Instead of 2,', however (see preceding section), other valve may possibly enter, say /'+ &,,+++, so that we have 3] Sn za" =". {(a'+ & — Xx, cf Hy +m — VP + +E — aye - It follows from Gauss’s principle that the difference of ce sums [2] and [3] must always be positive. Hence [4] o>3 Im, §2[E, (ay! — ee) Feta ONE +. that is, the quantities 2,’, y/’, 2,/ must be such that the sum [2] is a minimum. Hence, among all the 2,, y)’, 2!’ which are associated with the conditions of motion, we must seek those which make [2] a minimum. 115. We have reached our proposed object if we can show that the ordinary equations of mechanics may be derived from Gauss’s principle.SPECIAL CASES 158 If there are no equations of condition present, then clearly [2] is only a minimum when al =X, yl =¥,, al = 2, If, however, we have equations of condition, for example, if any of the variables are connected by a relation such as f (2, y, z)= 0, then these must hold true throughout the whole motion. They may therefore be differentiated. We have in this way equations dx, dy, dz, at areas att in ay’, ys!, and 2;'. Hence, in conformity with the rules that have been hitherto found for the theory of maxima and minima, the quantities 2, y,', z,' are to be so determined that the derived equations of condition are satisfied, while at the same time [2] becomes a minimum. But in this case also, as is easily shown, we are led to the usual differential equations of mechanics. 116. The theory of maxima and minima may be applied to realms which are seemingly distant from it. An example in question is the proof of a very important theorem in the theory of functions. and . Differentiate again and we have equations Tue REVERSION oF SERIES If the following n equations exist among the variables m, Tqye ses Ens Yir Yass 's Yur P= Gyr + Oye ++ + tnt Xy 1 Yon = Mat + Agaity +--+ + Oantmt Ky Y= My yt My aily Fo + Anny > K where the coeficients on the right-hand side are given finite quan- tities and the X's are power-series in the a's of such a nature that each single term is higher than the first dimension, and if the series on the right-hand side are convergent and the154 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA determinant of the nth order of the linear functions of the ws which appear in [1], namely, Ay, Ag, +> *, Mp) 2] A=] A» +++) Fan), Bits Ings? ts Onn is different from zero, then, reciprocally, the a's may also be expressed through convergent series of the n quantities y which identically satisfy the equations (1). 117. As an algorithm for the representation of the series for the a's, we make use of the following methods (cf. §§ 135, 136): If we solve the equations [1] linearly by bringing the terms of the higher powers of the ’s on the left-hand side, we have 4-41 y,- X,)+ 42(%-X,)+ RX ae Ant so u-X)+ BX) +44 -X), where 4,, denotes the corresponding first-minor “e a,, in [2]. It is seen that in general (8) = 3 0. -X,)=5 Sey, Eee where [2t), 2, +++, 2] denotes terms of the second and higher dimensions in 2, 2, +++, ay. We shall therefore have a first approximation to the result if we consider only the terms on the right-hand side of [3] which are of the first dimension. A second approximation is reached if we substitute in the right-hand side of [3] the first approxime- tions already found and reduce everything to terms of the second dimension inclusive. Continuing with the second. approximations that have been found, substitute them in [3] and, neglecting all terms above the third dimensions, we have the third approxi- mation, ete.; we may thus derive the a's to any degree of exactness required. aleSPECIAL CASES 155 Since 4 is found in all the denominators, the development converges the more rapidly the greater A is. 118. In what follows we shall assume that the quantities on the right-hand side of [1] are all real and that we may write X= Mat Myst Hats AHL m) where #,; is a homogeneous function of the ith degree in 2, Wy,+++, %, and consequently by Euler’s theorem for homogeneous functions X,=} ae ite ” e - it 1, 1, Os 4 Ga, "4 a" Ga, i (A=1, 2,-++n); ® XaaXytaXyto ta Ky where the quantities XJ (X= 1, 2,+++, m3; w= 1, 2,+++, m) are continuous functions of the «’s, which become indefinitely small with the 2’s. The system of equations [1] may then be brought to the form [le] nD (Oe +Xy)% O=1,2-+5 0). ot The theorem of § 116 in this modified form may be expressed as follows: (1) It és always possible so to fix for the variables 4, 2, +++, ty and Ys, Yor ** +s Yns HMItS Jy, Joy +++ Jy UNA Tig, Tig, ++ +4 hy that for every system of the y's for which |y,| 8- WEShAD YR onl a=1l 0 a= and, consequently, for a greater reason. [8] Su YP > S—2VSS hg wal w=158 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA The limits , must be so chosen that the right-hand side of [8] is positive. This choice can be made so that the expression on the right-hand side for a system of 2's which belongs to the boundary does not become arbitrarily small but always remains gteater than a certain lower limit (see the preceding section). The expression, however, on the interior of the realm of the #’s may be arbitrarily small, viz., when 2, =a, = --. =, =0. For this system of values the left-hand side of [8] is equal to wen Y 1 2 i ” We have therefore found the following result: We can give limits g to the variables x, and to the y's the limits h, in such a way that the expression [7] for systems of values of the x's which belong to the boundary of the realm is always greater than it is for the zero position (0, =a = -+» =a, =0). Hence the position for which the expression [7] is a minimum must necessarily lie within the realm of the w’s; and we may be certain that within the realm of the 2's there is a position where [7] has its smallest value, 122. In order to find the minimal position of [7] which was shown to exist in the previous section we must differentiate the function [7] and put the first partial derivatives equal to 0. This gives = OF, eee —= = Qreve, . (9] FHM ee, 0 (HHI, 2,+++,2) These 2 equations can, in case the determinant OF, ¥ =1,2,--+,n: p= an [10] Fa] CaM eres wa L Bees m) is different from zero, exist only if the quantities within the brackets vanish. [10] is identical with the determinant [4]; and (see § 119) it may be always brought about through suitable choice of the limits g of the «’s that [4] is different from zero if only the de- terminant [2], as by hypothesis is the case, is different trom zero.SPECIAL CASES 159 Hence the equation [9] can only be satisfied if [1a] or [5] WP (y My +5 We have therefore found that, since there is ai a system ay of values of the «’s for which the function Zo. -F 2 is a mini- mum, there must also be a system within the realm , the «’s for which the equations [1a] are satisfied if to the y's definite values in their realm are arbitrarily given. 123. We must further see whether within the fixed realm there is one or several systems of values of the 2’s that satisfy the equations [1a] with prescribed values of the y's which lie within definite limits. To establish this, assume that (2/, #4,---, a) is a second system of values that satisfy the equations [1a]; we must then have the equations [11] Fy (eft 625k) Fey tgs) =O V=L2, +++), Developing by Taylor's theorem, we have, when we consider only terms of the first dimension, [11a] x | pay { The ee are functions ae Aull upon the #’s and «’s and vanish with these quantities. We may determine the x unknown quantities xj —2,, xj —«, =0 WH1,2-+42). .,x!,— 2, from the n linear equations [112]. For small values of « and a! the determinant ae, t Xo will be little different from the determinant [10]. We may therefore make the limits g of the ’s so small that [12] is different from zero for all the 2’s and 2’s which belong to the realm; and when this has been done, the equations [11.4] are only satisfied for Per ee [12] (% p=1,2, ++) that is, there exists within the realm in question no second system of the «'s which satisfies the equations [1a].160 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA We have therefore come to the following result : It is possible so to determine the limits g and h that with every arbitrary system of the y's in which each single variable does not exceed its definite limiting value, the given equations [1a] are shtisfied by one and only one system of the a’s in which these quantities likewise do not exceed their limits.* The first. part of the theorem given in § 118 is thus proved. Remark. We have assumed that we have to do only with real quantities. The discussion, however, is ‘not restricted to such quantities, as it is easy to prove that the same developments may also be made for complex variables. 124. The values of the «'s which were had from the equations p=n [la] %, Dot X,,)% (v=1,2,-++, 2) ot may be derived in the manner given in § 118. If we write Gy +X, |= 4" CHL 2000; PHL +m), the linear solution of the equations [1a] is [39] where A), denotes the corresponding first minors. Now 4! is a definite quantity which lies within certain finite limits; the same : 1 ; ae is also true of =;- Aj, is found in a similar manner. Hence i the quantities “ are finite quantities which lie between definite limits; and, therefore, if the y’s become indefinitely small, the a’s will also become indefinitely small; that is, those systems of values of the z’s which satisfy the equations [1] under the named conditions are, as has also been shown in § 119, so formed that they become indefinitely small with the y’s. *See also Hadamard, “Sur les transformations ponctuelles,”” Bull. de la Société Math., Vol. XXXIV, 1906.SPECIAL CASES 161 ‘We may now show that the «’s are continuous functions of the y’s. Let (b,, b,,+++, B,) be a definite system of values of the y’s, and let the system (a1, a,,-++,@,) of the 2’s correspond to this system of the y's. If we then write [y=h+m 4 la=mt& the system of equations [1] or [1] goes into M+ b= (G+ Ey Oat bor Gt Gy) A=, 2,-++, 0), [12] m= FAG H bys tat bas ss 5 Oat En) — Fy (tay gs + + +5 Gn) [13] } Q=1, 2,--+,2), A=1, 2,-++, 2). Developing this expression according to powers of the £'s, we have wen [Le] MaDe, AHL 2%, m), wd where the C\, are functions of the a’s and £s. If the &s are indefinitely small, we may limit the On to the first derivatives of #,. In this case we denote the coefficients of [1c] by C,,, so that 6F, Ow = ie, for (a, = 4, %q = Gg, +++, Dy = My) Q=1, 2,+++,n; w=1, 2,+--, 2), and the determinant of the equations [1c] goes into oa, AL 2,+++,0; w= 1, 2,+++, 2). for (a = ayy ay = Oy, + ++, %y = Ay) If the a's lie within definite limits, this determinant remains always above a definite limit. We may therefore say that the determinant has a value different from zero. Consequently the condition that the equations [1c] may be solved is satisfied, and it is seen that indefinitely small values of the £’s must correspond to indefinitely small values of the 7’s. This means nothing more than that the functions x are con- tinuous functions of the y’s.162 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA 125. The above investigations are true under the assumption that the functions F, are continuous, that their first derivatives exist and likewise are continuous within certain limits. We need know absolutely nothing about the second derivatives. Of the 2’s, of which it is already known that they exist as functions of the y’s and vary in a continuous manner with them, it may now likewise be proved that they, considered as functions of the y's, have derivatives which are continuous functions of the ys. The proof in question may be derived from the following con- siderations: If from [1c] we express the £’s in terms of the 7's, we have [3e] Boz gem =1, 26+, 0). The Sus are continuous functions of the és, and the #'s are continuous functions of the 7’s. Hence Se may be represented as continuous functions of the ’s. If the y's become indefinitely small, then the &s become indefinitely small, and we have definite limits for Sus, In general, if we have a function f (7, +--+, %,) of the » variables 2y %y+++, 24, and if we consider the difference SF (Gy + Eis Oy + Bay 2 225 In + En) — As ay 9 Gn)s it is seen that it may be written in the form Ye. + HE where the H, depend upon the £s and become indefinitely small with these quantities, and the 2, are, in virtue of the definition of the differential quotient, the partial differential quotients of f with respect to #, for the system of values (ay, @y, +++, @,) From the above it results not only that the a’s are continuous func tions of the y’s but also that the derivatives of the first order of these functions exist.SPECIAL CASES 163 We have, indeed, the derivatives of the first order if in the expressions Su we write the £'s equal to zero. The quantities “, however, become then, in accordance with [1c], the quantities which we should have in [1c] if we had at first written C,, instead of Cj,. But the quantities C,,, are continuous functions of a4, 4), +++, @, We may therefore say that the differential quotients au are con- tinuous functions of the variables «, and it is then proved that: the a’s are such functions of the 7's as the y’s are of the 2’s. 126. For the complete solution of the second part of the theorem in § 116 we have yet to show that the expressions [35] may be reduced to the form [3a]. For this purpose we must bring the quantities ae in [30] (§ 124) to the form : afta ba FY? : where 2,, is the value of “% when all the 2’s are equal to zero. Y,,, is 2 function of the 2’s, but the «'s are functions of the y’s, so that 'Y, , is a function of the y’s which vanishes when they vanish. ‘We may therefore in reality write [34] in the form [3a] [34] %, =F FY) UHL Bom). 127. There may arise cases in which we know nothing further of the functions F,, as was assumed in § 116, than that they are real continuous functions. We cannot then conclude, for example, that the #’s may be developed in powers of the y’s; but we may reduce the equations to the form [3a] and show that the equations [1a] are solvable. The theorem which has been proved is of great importance when applied to special cases, even for elementary investigations. Ii, for example, the equation f(z, y)=0 is given, then it is taught in the differential calculus how we can find the derivative of y considered as a function of «.164 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA If we assume that the variables x and y are limited to a special realm where the two derivatives with respect to « and y do not vanish and therefore the curve f(z, y)=0 has no singular points, and if the equation is satisfied by the system (2, y), we may write = 2+ y=y+7. We have then f(a) + & yy+7)=0, and we may prove with the aid of the theorem in § 118 that 7 is a continuous function of & and has a first derivative. Not before this has been done have we a right to differentiate and proceed according to the ordinary rules of the differential calculus. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS 1. Show that the problem of determining the extremes of the function f(z, y) may be reduced to the determination of the upper and lower limits of this function under the condition that z* + y?= 13, (Stolz, Wiener Ber. Vol. C, p. 1167.) 2. Find the shortest distance from the point P(z,, 1, %) to the plane Az + By+ Cz+D=0. Answer, 42+ By + C+D. Var + B+ CO 8. Find the points on a given sphere which are the farthest from and nearest to a given plane which does not intersect the sphere. (Pappus.) 4, Find the triangle of maximum area whose vertices V,, Vz, and V, describe respectively three given plane curves C,, C,, and Cy. When the three curves reduce to the same ellipse, show that there are an infinity of triangles of maximum area (a case of improper maximum). 5. Find the ellipse of least area that may be drawn through the three vertices of a triangle. 6. Find the ellipsoid of least volume which may be drawn through the four vertices of a tetrahedron. 7. In a triangle of greatest or least area circumscribed about a curve, the points of contact are the mid-points of the sides. 8. Among the triangles whose vertices are situated respectively upon three given straight lines in space, which is the one whose perimeter gives @ maximum or minimum? Also determine the triangle of maximum or minimum area. Answer. In the first case the bisectrices of the triangle are respectively normal to the straight lines described by the vertices; in the second case the altitudes of the triangle are perpendicular to these lines.SPECIAL CASES 165 9. Upon a fixed surface find a point P such that the sum of the squares of its distances from n fixed points A,, Ay,---, 4, is a maximum or a minimum. Answer. If the tangent plane at P is taken as the zy-plane and the normal to this plane at P as the z-axis, the center of mean distances M, say, of the points A lie upon the zaxis. It follows that the points P are the feet of the normals which may be drawn to the surface from M. 10. Show that the semi-axes of a central section of a quadric Ajax? + Agy? + Age? + 2Byyz + 2B ze + 2Byxy +1=0 are the roots r? of the equation 144, By Be l By 1+Agr, By m By By 1+4y%, 70 4 Mm; ny 0 where the section is made by the plane ln + my + nz=0. 11. Show that the axes of, the quadric of the preceding example are the roots of the following cubic in r?: 1l+Ayr%, Byr’, Bar? By?, 14+ Ay, By? Bar’, By’, 1+ Ayr? 12. 2= }v—yis to be a maximum, where y®—nyz + 2° = Oand v—z=y. (Hudde, 1658. See Descartes, Geom. Vol. I, pp. 507-516.) 1. The fundamental theorem of algebra. Let f(t) be an integral function of ¢ with constant coefficients. Write t= + iy, so that qd) FO=P@GY + QZ, Y=P + id, with the identical relations @) ee eg ees oe fy oye Form the expression #(z,y) = 2 = P?+ Q%. Within the circle of radius r=V2+¥% the function p is everywhere continuous, so that (§ 8) the function p must reach its lower limit for values of x and y within or on the boundary of the circle. By taking r sufficiently large it is seen that the lower limit of » must be reached within the circle, so that there must be @ minimum value of p. Show that this minimum value is zero, and consequently that there must be some value of t which makes /(f) = 0, provided that /(# is not a constant. In particular the semi-definite case must be considered.CHAPTER VIII CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS I. ANALYTIC DEPENDENCE; ALGEBRAIC DEPENDENCE 128. If in the development of the conception of the analytic functions we start with the simplest functions which may be expresse¢ through arithmetical operations, we come first to the rational* functions of one or more variables. The conception of these rational functions may be easily extended by substituting in their places one-valued functions, and first of all those which may be expressed through arithmetical operations, viz, sums of an infinite number of terms of which each is a rational function, or products of an infinite number of such functions. Such a transcendental function is, for example, VO@)= COT Uy tte) + ten As where uj(2)[i=1, 2,+-+] are rational functions of « The necessity at once arises of developing the conditions of con- vergence of infinite series and products, since such an arithmetical expression represents a definite function only for values of the variable for which it converges. Mere convergence, however, is not sufficient if we wish to retain for the functions just mentioned the properties which belong to the rational and the ordinary transcendental functions. All such functions have derivatives, and we shall restrict ourselves once for all to functions which have derivatives. Furthermore, the derived series of the above expressions of one variable must converge uniformly (gleichmdssig) in the neighbor- hood of each definite value, and every term of the derived series * See Hancock, Elliptic Functions, Vol. I, pp. 6-9. 166CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS 167 must be continuous in the same neighborhood. (Osgood, Lehrbuch der Punctionentheorie, p. 83.) 129. When we say that a series whose terms are functions of one variable converges uniformly, we mean the following :* It is assumed that the series in question has a definite value for «= 2. We consider all values of « for which 2— 2, does not exceed a definite quantity d. This determines a fixed region for «, within which we shall suppose that the series is convergent. This region is known as the region of convergence (Convergenzbezirk). We may, for brevity, put Ry(@) for yey t+ Myegt o in the series above. In order that this series converge uniformly, it must be possible after we have assumed an arbitrarily small positive quantity 8, and when a remainder R,(#) has been sepa- rated from the series, to find a positive integer m so that, |R,(x)| 88, where k>m for all values of x within the region of convergence.t 130. Proceeding in this way we may form more complicated expressions; for example, we may let w(w) be a sum of an infinite number of terms where each term is a transcendental function like v(2) above, so that wa) =r ()+ M(H We may continue by forming similar expressions out of the transcendental functions w(a), ete. It is clear that if we proceed in this manner, there is no end of such expressions, so that even if we limit ourselves to one-valued functions, we do not obtain a clear insight into the possible kinds and forms of such functions. It is essential that all such transcendental functions have a common property, and we note that if we take a value » within the region of convergence in which the series representing these * Weierstrass, Collected Works, Vol. I, p. 202, and Zur Functionenlehre, §1. +See Dini, Theorie der Funktionen (page 137 of the German translation by Liiroth and Schepp).168 THEORY OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA functions converge uniformly, they may be represented for all the values of 2 in the neighborhood of 2, as series which proceed according to positive integral powers of 2—2,; for example, in the form F(O)= Fle = ty 4) = Wy (0 = 2) +0 (0 — P+ -- where a, @,, @,+++, are definite functions of 2). From this it follows that they may be differentiated, and a number of other properties are immediate consequences. 131, We may next extend the conception of uniform conver- gence to functions of several variables. With Weierstrass (loc. cit.) consider the infinite series Fey, 40+ %) =S" Gy y+ +5 4) whose terms w, are functions of an arbitrary number of variable quantities 24, 2, +++, 2, Such a function converges uniformly in any part (R) of its region of convergence when with a prescribed quantity 8 chosen arbitrarily small there exists a positive integer m such that the absolute value of Dlr (By By 0045 ay) SS vak for every value of & which is = m and for every system of values of 2, %,---,2, which belongs to (R). Let a, ag,+++, @, be a definite system of values of the vari- ables %,, %, +++, «, within the region of uniform convergence, and consider only the values of 2,, 2) +++, 2, for which «,— 0, 1—d, +++ a%y—a, do not exceed certain limits dy, dy, -+-, dy, as in § 129, The function may then be represented through an ordinary series which proceeds according to integral powers of «,—a, tq Ag, gg, ++ +, %y— Ay, and consequently may be differentiated; in short, it behaves, as Weierstrass * was accustomed to express it, like an integral rational function in the neighborhood of a definite position within the interior of the region of uniform convergence, ‘In this connection see Weierstrass, Werke, Vol. II, pp. 135 et seq., and also Bier- mann, Theorie der Analy. Funktionen, pp. 429 et seq.CERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS 169 132. We may next introduce the conception of analytic dependence. If we represent a function which has been formed as indicated above by F(a, %,+++, %,), then F(a, a%,+++, 2_)=0 expresses a certain dependence among the variables 2, 2, ++ +, ay; that is, among the infinite number of systems of values for which the function has a meaning, those only which satisfy this equation are to be considered. There exists, therefore, among 2p yy +++, % a dependence of a similar character, as in the case of algebraic equations. If we choose the quantities a, a, +++, &, such that the equations F,=0, F,=0,-+-, F_=0 exist where m 0) a may, corresponding to the different values of j, appear in the »—1 other forms oe . S onan (VEY" ah The theorem stated at the beginning of this article may be generalized: If on the position 2= ity, y= y the expression y does not vanish, there is one and only one convergent power-series in positive integral or fractional powers of £ which vanishes with £ and which written for in the equation [1] identically satisfies it, viz, the series [4]. For if besides the series [4] a series [5] with >1 satisfied [1], then the equation Zz [6] Fay +t, yon) = 0, where t= £, would be satisfied by two series which have no constant term and in which 7 is expressed in integral powers of t. This, by the previ- ous theorem, is impossible, because in [6] the term in » really appears, and in fact multiplied by the coefcient i 141. Suppose next that inn =0, but that 2 x 0,00 that p=1 Oxy and g>1. Then from what we have just seen it follows that theCERTAIN FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS 179 equation [3] may be solved through only convergent series in which & is expressed in powers of 7 in the form (7] gaa a baegtts + ---= O(n, say, where ¢>1 and d,¥ 0; in other words, there exists a positive quantity $ such that if |y| orvAy, one of the quantities B,, 8,,---, 8, must be zero; and if A) we write » =m, we find that the equation 1 GE m= Be m§)=0 is satisfied by the series ae maak = tens If a series for 7 where X. By reverting each of these series we may express 7 as series in terms of £ which satisfy [13], where 4

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