PENETRATING ADOLESCENTS' MEIVTAL

MODELS OF MP3 WITH ZMET

I-Ling Ling, Chun-Ming Yang, Yi-Fen Liu, and Yu-Hsuan Tsai

ABSTRACT

This article demonstrates the application of the Zaltman metaphor-elicitation

technique (ZMET) to help adolescent consumers delve into their unconscious
thoughts and provide them with insights into the use of mp3. An analysis of
interview transcripts and images revealed that the ZMET process provides
a description of how the knowledge structures of adolescent consumers are
.subdivided and grouped around important themes that frame and motivate
their involvement with a product. The findings reveal that there are 33 themes
of consumer knowledge structure toward mp3. Furthermore, among these
themes, there are four major concepts: size I form, convenience, relaxation, com-
fort, and appearance. The respondents' minds include not only rational compo-
nents but emotional ingredients. Notably, the results also show that music
can be an effective metaphor in the application of the ZMET method.

Knowing what adolescents' want is fundamental for a successful

business. Many techniques have been used by companies to under-
stand consumers' thoughts. However, what they think is always hard
to measure. For example, many teenagers like to buy silver cell phones.
When researchers ask why they choose this kind of phone, they do not
know the reason. It is the subconscious that influences their decision.
Silver may represent fashion or pride to the teenagers. Since the sub-
conscious often cannot be elicited from verbal communication, it has
become a challenge for researchers. There are many shortcomings in
the existing techniques. Qualitative technique is limited by the type

This study was supported by a grant from the National Science Council
(NSC 91-2416-H-415-002). The author gratefully acknowledges Yu Hsuan Tsai
in interviewing and transcribing, and coding the data. The authors also thank
the reviewers in 2009 World Marketing Congress for their insightful commenta
on earlier drafts of this paper.
Chun-Ming Yang, Department of Tourism, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan
Yi-Fen Liu, Department of Business Management, National Sun Yat-sen
University, Taiwan
Yu-Hsuan Tsai, Institute of Marketing & Logistics Management, National
Chiayi University
Requests for reprints should be sent to I-Ling Ling, Institute of Marketing &
Logistics Management, National Chiayi University, 580 Shin-Min Rd., Chiayi
City, Taiwan. E-mail: yiling@mail.ncyu.edu.tw

ADOLESCENCE, Vol. 44. No. 176, Winter 2009

Libra Publishers. Inc.. 3089C Clairemont Dr., PMB 383. San Diego, CA 92117
of communication. The most qualitative technique uses verbal commu-
nication, but Burgoon, BuUer, and Woodall (1989) stated tbat more
than 80% of all human communication is nonverbal using picture,
color, and music.
A wide variety of market research methods can be used for investi-
gating product innovation. These methods can be divided into four
categories for (1) understanding customers, (2) idea generation, (3)
concept testing, and (4) estimating market size, growth, and composi-
tion. The first two categories tend to be more qualitative and require
divergent thinking. The second two methods are more evaluative. How-
ever, many combinations and variations of methods are possible.
One of the methods for understanding customers is a newly patented
research tool, the Zaltman Metaphor Ehcitation Technique known as
ZMET.
Zaltman and Zaltman (2008) point out tbat managers need deep
insights from customers in order to have deep insights about custom-
ers. Deep insights are based on the fundamental or core beliefs custom-
ers have about a topic such as an activity (snacking), a problem
(cleaningfloors),or a product (computer software), and the role it plays
in their lives. These beliefs operate in largely unconscious ways to
structure, guide, and motivate consumers' conscious interpretations
and choices. To gain access to these core meanings, we need innovative
research methodoligies that can help customers delve into their uncon-
scious thoughts and emotions and bring them to the surface. The prin-
ciple of the ZMET is to tap individuals' underlying emotional
connections. First, participants collected pictures that symbolized their
thoughts and feelings. Then they had an intense two-hour personal
interview with a researcher. With help from a graphic artist, partici-
pants created collages of their thoughts and feelings. Finally, they
received multimedia presentations. The ZMET is used mostly in TV
advertising, but also produces ideas for product design (Zaltman &
Coulter, 1995).
The ZMET method, developed to understand consumers' subcon-
scious thoughts, decisions, and behaviors, was chosen for this study
because of its unique ability to achieve a deeper understanding of how
adolescents are interpreting mp3. The ZMET relies on visual images.
However, pictures are not the only communication representation; mu-
sic may be another. Based on this view, in order to discover individuals'
hidden thoughts about tbe products they use, this article combined
music and pictures as tbe metaphors for broadening the ZMET re-
search scope. The authors sought to address this problem by promoting
an approach that provides deep insights into adolescents' beliefs
about mp3.

950 ,
 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Mental Model
The mental model first proposed by Craik (1943) is a specific, dy-
namic form of mental representation constructed by outside experi-
ences. Johnson-Laird (1983, 1989) believed that the mental model was
an abstract, analog representation. Through this representation, one
could infer and forecast an event, and then take appropriate action.
Two uses of the mental model exist in past literature. One refers to the
representation of a given object (Christensen & Olson, 2002; Zaltman,
1997), and another refers to the cluster of interconnected neurons that
are fundamental to cognitive processing (Zaltman, 1997). The former
is used in this article because Christensen and Olson (2002) suggested
that the term mental model is preferred over cognitive structure. Men-
tal model includes many meaningful representations such as attitudes,
emotions, images, memories of past experiences, and beliefs. Essen-
tially, personal relevance in consumption is the meanings consumers
obtain from their consumption activities. These meanings are stored
in the memory in the form of mental models (Christensen & Olson,
2002; Zaltman, 1997, 2003; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). Such a view of
mental models fit both the current cognitive neuroscience that
thoughts are image-based (Zaltman, 1997, 2003) and the social psycho-
logical view that thoughts and feelings are co-mixed (Kahneman, 1994;
LeDoux, 1996).
Consumers' concepts can be retrieved from the subconceptual level
which originates from the actual stimulus of sound and sight. In other
words, sound and sight could be two representations of the concepts.
A mental model could explain the concepts of illusory natural phenom-
ena. For example, heat is an invisible phenomenon, but it can be com-
prehended through other concepts, such as feeling hot or
uncomfortable. By extension, the meanings of mp3 when represented
in the forms of mental models have both cognitive and affective compo-
nents. They are interrelated and integrated. The affective and cogni-
tive components of meaning representations in mp3 will be addressed
jointly in this review. Fundamentally, a mental model includes both
structure and content (Christensen & Olson, 2002). Content refers to
the actual ideas or concepts represented by the mental model. Struc-
ture refers to how the meaning is organized in memory. Content and
structure are closely connected. Consumption meanings are found in
the linkages between the content nodes within the mental structure;
any particular node has little meaning in and of itself Also, each con-
cept defines its meaning through its linkage with other concepts,
thereby forming a structure (Christensen & Olson, 2002). Hence, both

951
meaning content and meaning structure should be examined to under-
stand meanings of mp3. Thus, the mental model provides broader
meaning than cognitive structure. ' '

The ZMET Approach to Measuring Mental Models

Earlier research has shown that ZMET can be effectively applied to
determine consumers' mental images in a great variety of consumption
settings, including experiences of wearing a certain type of clothing
(Zaltman & Coulter, 1995), mountain biking (Christensen & Olson,
2002), and perceptions of advertising (Coulter, Zaltman, & Coulter,
2001). These previous studies indicate that ZMET is suitable for exam-
ining consumption experiences. The ZMET uses respondent-chosen
pictures to offer a focused investigation of consumers' thoughts and
feelings. ZMET is considered to be a powerful tool for mapping consum-
ers' minds because it is tailored to obtain hidden cognitive and emotive
themes by applying the fundamental principles of human communica-
tion and thought formation (Zaltman, 1997, 2003; Zaltman & Coulter,
1995). To achieve these purposes, this article uses the Zaltman Meta-
phor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) to map adolescents' mental models.
By using ZMET to map mental models for both meaning content and
meaning structure in mp3, it is expected that a comprehensive and in-
depth view of affective and cognitive constructs that give rise to mean-
ings in mp3 can be obtained.
Christensen and Olson (2002) demonstrate that one cannot dissoci-
ate structurefromcontent. The structure of such networks of represen-
tations is revealed only through the content and the linkages identified
between concepts. Conversely, one cannot understand the content of
mental models without measuring the connections between concepts,
thus revealing structure. Strictly speeiking, content cannot be untan-
gled from structure, and vice versa. Each is revealed in terms of the
other. Taken together, in order to understand meanings of mp3 con-
sumption from the perspective of adolescents, we need to map these
target consumers' mental models including both the meaning content
and meeining structure.
The mental model of mountain biking in Christensen and Olson's
(2002) research illustrates that constructs obtain meanings through
connections with other constructs. While constructs in a mental model
can be at different abstract levels, together they reveal the personal
relevance of a consumption experience. The researchers mapped the
mental model of mountain bikers, and the resulting model identified
four major themes: (l)ridingfor challenge, thrill, and a sense of accom-
plishment, (2) sharing experiences and connecting with a group, (3)

952
seeking transformational experiences, and (4) escaping to nature. The
main themes were then connected to sub-constructs to form structures
that give meanings to these themes. For instance, the participants
obtained a sense of accomplishment because they rode in difficult ter-
rains, participated in races, and tried to go fast. All these activities
entail challenges. The experiences of mountain biking in conquering
these challenges, in turn, gave the participants a sense of accompHsh-
ment. The major themes may then contribute to a person's perception
of his/herself With a sense of accomplishment, the participants re-
ported that they were able to live full lives, enhance self-esteem, gain
confidence, feel satisfied, and accomplish other things. Further, these
key themes are interrelated. For instance, one way for a participant
to obtain a transformational experience is to escape to nature.

Steps of the ZMET Interview

The ZMET, the first patented marketing research tool in the United
States, represents an unusual attempt to put some of the insights of
neuroscience to profitable use as a window into consumer attitudes
toward everything from art museums to laundry. It is a multidiscipli-
nary technique that allows marketing researchers to analyze what
consumers want. For eliciting valid information, the interview mate-
rial is collected by the interviewees themselves. Participants in the
ZMET are required to collect pictures which represent their thoughts
about the object, since the ZMET has been described elsewhere in
detail, here we will sketch only the basic process. For more detailed
information visit www.olsonzaltman.com. More importantly, in order
to make meaningful interpretations of the data and facilitate theory
building, it is necessary to examine and integrate the literature that
sheds light on meanings in mp3 consumption by adolescents. This arti-
cle not only uses pictures as metaphors, hut adds music as a significant
metaphor for enlarging the ZMETs scope,
A review of the literature reveals the elements which represent in-
terviewees thoughts of mp3 and the relations among them. Because all
of the interviewees are senior high school students, their educational
background allows them to summarize the metaphors. At the end of
the interview, the researcher is able to make a mental map from the
conversation.
The 10 steps of the ZMET interview are listed below. These steps
can be adjusted slightly for different topics. In the beginning of the
interview, the researcher first establishes the tone of the interview
and clarifies what will happen.
Step Î: Storytelling. Human memory and communication are story-
based (Schank, 1990). Using the supplied pictures, participants will be

^ 953
 asked to describe how each of the pictures they bring to the researcher
relates to their feehngs and thoughts of the objects. During this step
the researcher will probe for the deep meanings of the visual meta-
phors that participants describe. Then the researcher will number
the pictures.
Step 2: Missed issues and images. Participants are asked whether
other ideas come to mind when they are storytelling or collecting the
pictures. Sometimes, participants may have an idea about the topic
but are unable to flnd a picture they think adequately indicates their
thoughts and feelings. In this step, participants will be asked to de-
scribe any pictures they wanted to find but could not. The researcher
then probes for the deep meanings of the missed images using a process
similar to the one described in step one.
Step 3: Sorting task. Participants are asked to categorize the pictures
and describe every group. There is no limitation on the number of
categories. This step helps each participant establish the issues or con-
cepts.
Step 4: Metaphor elicitation. The Kelly Repertory Grid technique
and the Laddering technique (Kelly, 1963; Shaw & McKnight, 1980;
Gutman, 1982; Lewis & Klein, 1985; Valette-Florence & Rapacchi,
1991) are used in this step. The Kelly Repertory Grid technique elicits
the constructs of thought and action, and the Laddering technique
elicits the causal relationship among the constructs.
Step 5: Representative image. Participants are asked to choose a
picture which best represents their feelings.
Step 6: Opposite image. The researcher (or interviewer) asks the
participant to describe the opposite meaning of the pictures he or
she chose.
Step 7: Sensory ¿mages. In this step, the images are taken away. The
researcher elicits metaphors via all senses except for the visual. The
participants are asked to explore their non-visual senses to convey
what is and is not representative of the meanings of the object.
Step 8: Mental map. In this step, the researcher reviews the pre-
viously discussed constructs and inquires if an5^hing has been missed.
Afterward, the mental model is mapped.
Step 9: The summary image. In this step, the participant is asked to
create a summary image that represents a visual overview of his/her
thoughts and feelings about the object. Then the researcher scans the
pictures into the computer and constructs an overview image. This
step is intended to stimulate or at least to express what the partici-
pant thinks.
Step 10: The vignette. Finally, the participants are asked to write
down a vignette or create a short movie that helps communicate im-

954
portant issues related to the topic. This step is based on theories and
evidence that different areas of tbe brain become active when engaging
in moving images (Zaltman, 2003). Many new ideas may emerge as a
new area of the brain is activated during the vignette creation and ar-
ticulation.

METHOD

Participants
Fifteen senior high school students were recruited as the interview-
ees. All participants completed the Personal Involvement Inventory
(PII). This was done because high involvement often correlates with
high product knowledge and expertise (Celsi & Olson, 1988; Chris-
tensen & Olson, 2001; Mitchell & Dacin, 1996). Thus the highly in-
volved respondents are likely to have elaborate and complex mental
models. Fifteen interviewees were enrolled but three failed to obtain
high involvement; therefore, only 12 participants qualified.
However, the definition of mp3 is unclear. There are three possible
ways people may think about mp3: mp3 music, mp3 download website,
and mp3 digital equipment. To centralize consumers' mental map, the
authors used the first two as the mp3 definition. Participants were
told the definition of mp3 is mp3 music and mp3 download website.

The ZMET Process

Preparation stage. About seven days prior to the interview, the quali-
fying participants are contacted and given a set of instructions. Each
participant is requested to collect 8 to 11 pictures and pieces of music
as metaphors. The ratio of pictures and music is unlimited. Pictures
must be mounted on paper and the music must be provided by the
interviewees themselves.
Interview stage. The interview generally takes 1.5 to 2.5 hours. It
begins with the interviewee explaining the reason he or she chose the
pictures and music. After the interview, participants were thanked and
paid an honorarium (around US $20) for their time and involvement in
the study.

RESULTS

Elicitation of Themes
By using the Kelly Repertory Grid technique (Kelly, 1963) and the
Laddering technique (Gutman, 1982), the elements which represent

955
consumers' thoughts and the relationships among them are elicited.
For the thought to be considered a theme (element), it must be men-
tioned by more than one-third of the interviewees. Given the complex-
ity of the mp3 structure and the richness of mp3 meanings, an
unusually large number of 52 elements were extracted from the ZMET
interviews. Furthermore, in order to avoid overstratification, it is im-
portant to unite these 52 elements into a smaller scope. Elements in
the scope are named themes. This study summarized these 52 elements
(called sub-themes) into 33 themes.
In view of the holistic nature of the mp3 experience, it is necessary
to consider the themes and categories in the context of one another.
To facilitate this approach, all elements and themes are brought to-
gether in Table 1 to provide a bird's-eye view of the mp3 landscape.

Verification of Music as the Metaphors

In this study, the authors tried to demonstrate the effect of the newly
added music-metaphors. Results show that there were nine interview-
ees whose use of picture-metaphors outnumber their use of music-
metaphors. Eleven interviewees elicited more themesfromthe picture-
based metaphors. There is a slight imbalance in the weight of picture-
based and music-based metaphors; however, there is still the same
coverage between the two metaphors in most participants. In addition,
more than 90% of the elements are included in the confirmative
themes. The findings reveal that music can be treated as an affective
metaphor (see Table 2).

Most Representative Images

In this step, participants were asked to choose one picture or piece
of music which represented their thoughts toward mp3 most appropri-
ately. Two participants chose a song, while the others chose a picture.
Appearance, which was mentioned by three interviewees, is the most
representative theme. Other highly representative themes are relax-
ation, comfort, selfhood, and happiness. Furthermore, the meaning of
companionship, convenience, ease, usefulness, spiritual assistance,
economy, and performance are also mentioned by one interviewee. The
meaning of usefulriess is the only one not concluded to be a theme (see
Table 3).

Sensory Images
In this step, the images are taken out. The researcher elicits meta-
phors from participants via senses other than the visual. Participants
are asked to explore their non-visual senses to convey what is and is
not representative of the meanings of mp3.

956
Table 1
Summary ofelements and themes ofmp3
Code.« Initial elenients(9ub-themes) CoDcIuded themes
1 easy lo Ret. easy lo use case
money-saving, space-saving;
2 cneriív-savmK economy
illusory and invisible
3 small size siza'form
4 good classificalion: widespread variety; save mare perfonnince
S techmcol equipment technical equipment
6 poor quolitv; difiicult to use tunctitmal problem
7 fashion fashion
S Fut fast
9 unlimited by time: unlimited itorage unlimited
10 inlemational bnundanes intemation&l boundaries
11 convenience convenience
12 time killer, transfer attention transfer states
13 share, the subject of a talk inierpenonal communication
14 expectation expectation
prevent external influence,personal style
IS anti-confirmatory selfhood
16 self-choice self-choice
17 nice; enjoy; lovo appearance
18 iupiration; calm, vent spintual Ulislance
19 lelp (0 ihink, help to sleep life assistance
20 coloriU; touch more s o n p broad vision ^
21 users' neftative feeling negative feeling
22 labit and needs, custom labit and needs
23 pndc pride
24 lappiness lappineis
25 relaxation, comfort relaxation/comfort
26 memory memory
27 eisure. entertainment ei iurc/entertainment
2i egal [»"oblom egal problem
29 viRor viRor
30 compamonahip companionship
32 earning songs earning songs
33 resonance resoiance

The participants expressed their thoughts through senses other than

sight and hearing. There are 11 meanings mentioned at this step.
Among these, the theme of relaxation comfort was chosen by 8 inter-
viewees and ranked number one. The second was appearance, men-

957
 Table 2
Verification of music metaphors
Picture-based Music-based Repeating Fitness of
metaphors metaphors percentage music
Interviewee of two metai^ors
metaphors (%)
No. of No. of No. of No. of
metaf^ors themes metafrfiors themes

A 7 14 1 5 27.78% 100%

B 6 25 3 5 25% 100%

C 1 20 8 25 36.36% 92%

D 6 19 4 8 35% 100%

E 5 20 3 8 40% 100%

F 5 15 3 9 41.18% 100%

G 5 21 3 3 9.1% 100%

H 5 14 6 11 19.05% 90.91%

I 6 21 2 4 19.05% 100%

J 5 12 3 6 38.46% 100%

K 5 15 6 13 40% 100%

L 10 24 0 0 0% none

tioned by six participants. Only the meaning called surprise was not
identified as a theme. Results are shown in Table 4.

Summary of the Mental Model

By examining these themes and categories, a heuristic mental model
of mp3 meaning and structure is developed. The summary mental
model is drawn from the conversation of every participant. Based on
the ZMET method, a theme must be mentioned by at least four inter-
viewees. A relation between two themes must be mentioned by at least
three interviewees. The collective mental map is shown in Figure 1.
In the collective mental map, legal problems and negative feelings are
interrelated, but they do not have a relation to any other themes. The
themes oí convenience and size/form occur with the highest frequency

958
Table 3
Most representative images/music ofmp3
No. Moit Meaning \0. Most Meaning
Representative Representative
Metaphor Metaphor
companionship spiritual
assi^ance

B convenience H economy

lyrics for "'a ease selfhood

single song'

D lyrics for "a usefulness happiness

representative

work"

relaxation K perfonnance

/comfort

relaxation happiness

/comfort

of relations with other themes. The theme of happiness is reiated to

five other themes and ranks second. It means that size/form, conve-
nience and happiness are the major concepts when people think
about mp3.
The results show that relaxation /comfort and appearance are
mainly associated with the steps of the representative images and
sensory images in Tables 3 and 4. In the mental model, convenience
and size/form are highly related to the other themes. Happiness is

959
Table 4
Sensory images ofmp3
N . Sensory Sense of Smell Sense of Taste Sense of Touch

Representative Representative Representative

IiitervieweeNv Metaphor Metaphor Metai^or
A ike a poppy ilower cat a hot and spicy touch a fluöy doll
steamboat
elaxation/comfoit legal problem/ relaxation/comfort
appearance happiness
B ¡mell of coffee . eat rice touch a dog
labit and needs habit and needs relaxation/comfort
C imell of a machine eat smelly bean touch a computer
curd or rice
relevant technical legal problem/ relevant technical
equipment appearance equipment
D smell of rust drink water touch a computer
echnical equipment habit and needs technical
equipment
E smell of flowers a bit of sweet touch a fluffy doll
relaxation/comfort broad vision relaxation/comfort
F smell of fresh air drink oolong tea touch cool water in
summer
spiritual assistance appearance relaxation/comfort
G B smell in one's own dish which his or touch one's bed
home her mother cooks quilt
appearance/habit anc appearance/habit relaxation/comfort
needs and needs
H smell of ammonia taste mustard touch a car
3urpnse surpnse convemence
I smell of a favorite eat smelly bean touch a soft pillow
dish curd
appearance appearance relaxation/comfort
J smell of a forest drink tea touch a fluffy doll
relaxation/comfort surpnse relaxation/comfort
K smell of cotTee drink hot milk mouse connected
to a computer
spiritual assistance spiritual assistance technical
equipment
L smell in a night sweet of a candy touch an ice cube
market in summer
«rformance appearance relaxation/comfort

960
 /
legal . / negative
problem . ^í ftetlng
(28) . ~ (21)

Figure 1 ; A mental model for mp3

Notes: Rectangular shape= concept; Oval shape= theme

the theme least associated with these three steps (images, sense, and
music). The findings demonstrate that the mental model includes not
only a rational component, but emotional meanings.

DISCUSSION

This study used the ZMET to explore adolescent consumers' mental

models of mp3. After reviewing the transcripts, 33 themes were elic-
ited. Of the representative images, only one of the eleven elicited items
was not determined to be a theme; of the sensory images, the result
was the same with just one elicited item not being a theme. Most

961
themes appeared repeatedly. In other words, themes elicited by the
ZMET were reliable. In addition, the connection between any two
themes had to be mentioned by more than three interviewees. There
are 22 relations among the themes. This means that the ZMET could
map the consumers' mental model. Thus, the ZMET is an effective
methodology for exploring what consumers think and provides a good
way for businesses to understand consumer behavior.
On the other hand, comparing the themes elicited from the music
metaphors and the confirmative sensory images, it was noted that
more than 90% had been covered. Even though this shows that music
is indeed an effective metaphor, the interviewees preferred to use pic-
tures as metaphors. In other words, vision may be a major factor while
hearing seems to be minor.
According to the ZMET, size I form, convenience, relaxation ¡comfort,
and appearance are the four major concepts elicited from the interview-
ees' mental models. In other words, what consumers think about mp3
focuses on these four concepts. When a company plans to modify the
mp3's function, it should take these four concepts into consideration.
For example, an advertiser could design the advertisement of mp3
using "a lovely" atmosphere, while the mp3 manufacturer could de-
velop a new product which is more convenient to use. Furthermore,
legal problems and negative feelings were collated by the consumers.
They do not influence other positive themes, but if the legal problem
is resolved, consumers' evaluation of mp3 will improve. One of the
legal problems is copyri^t. Hence the legal use of mp3s should be
defined more clearly.

Limitations and Future Directions i

There are some limitations to this study. First, a long interview may
result in participants' losing concentration and patience; the interview
took more than an hour. Second this study took mp3 as the object, but
to some people mp3 represents music. Thus, future studies could use
the music metaphor in another industry and measure its effectiveness.
Finally, the sample sizes were not big enough to analyze more con-
cepts. '

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