11 - Protection of Transmission Lines PDF

11_Protection of Transmission Lines
A H Chowdhury, PhD
Professor
EEE, BUET
July 2018
Protection of Transmission Lines
• Non-unit type protection

1. Time Graded overcurrent protection
Discrimination obtained by
2. Current Graded overcurrent protection coordinating relays settings
3. Distance protection
• Unit type protection
1. Pilot wire differential protection

2. carrier current protection based on phase comparison method
• Separate protection systems necessary for earth faults

 Earth faults are more frequent on overhead transmission lines than phase
faults
 Earth fault current is different from phase fault current in magnitude
• Time and current graded protection used where instantaneous operation

is not necessary
 i.e., where time-lag in fault clearance does not cause instability or damage to
cables, lines, etc.
 Also used as a back-up protection to main unit protection

• Distance relaying employed where

 Time and graded current relaying is too slow or selectivity is not obtained
from them, i.e. distance relaying is applied for faster protection
• Three main types of measuring units

1. Impedance type distance relays (suitable for medium length lines)
2. Reactance type distance relays (suitable for short lines)
3. Mho type distance relays (suitable for long lines)

• Distance schemes comprise

1. Starting elements
2. Measuring elements
3. Timer elements
• Two broad categories

i. Switched scheme
ii. Non-switched scheme
• Carrier aided distance schemes include carrier acceleration, carrier

blocking and intertripping schemes
• Unit type protection provides fast selective clearing

• Short lines - pilot wire protection based on differential circulating current
principle (e.g. Merz-Price) is used
• Long lines & interconnected lines - carrier current protection is used

– Radio signals of frequency bands (e.g. 1000-3000 MHz) are used for protection
of feeders
Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Lines
Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Lines
• Non-directional time graded overcurrent protection

• Directional time and current graded overcurrent protection
• Definite time overcurrent protection

• Earth fault protection
Non-directional Time Graded Overcurrent
Protection
• Time setting of over-current relays at different locations is graded
• Relaying provided at
each station A, B, C
• Arrow pointing
1.3
towards both
directions 
indicates relays
operate for faults on
either sides
• Time lag indicated on
1.3 sec
arrow head
• Suitable for radial
1.3 sec
feeder in which
power flow is only in
one direction Graded time lag overcurrent protection of a radial feeder
Protection
• Fault beyond C circuit breaker at C operates first, i.e., with relay time of
0.3 second
– Relays at B and A start operating but after about 0.3 second fault is cleared
and relays at A and B get reset
– If relay at C fails to operate, relay at B provides back-up protection
• For faults between B and C only CB at B operates and likewise
Transformers
1.3
Time setting
of relays in these
feeders should be
less than setting
of relays on main
1.3 sec
feeder
1.3 sec
Protection
• Inverse definite minimum time delay relays used for obtaining
combination of current and time gradings
• Time interval of 0.5 sec. usually used

– This covers errors in CT, relay and CB operating time
• Operating times of relays in consecutive stations can be 0.3, 0.8, 1.3, 1.8,
sec.
Protection
• Earth fault relay is residually connected
• Two relays are employed for phase faults and one for earth fault
• Phase fault and earth fault relays are set for short circuits  do not detect
over-loads of small magnitude
• Overload protection may be provided in addition, with long time setting

(minutes) and low current setting
Protection
Setting of Inverse Overcurrent Relays for Co-ordination
• STEP 1 Choose pick-up of relays so that they will operate as follows:
1. Operate for short circuits in its own line section
2. Provide back-up protection to the next line section
• For a phase relay phase to phase fault is assumed
• For an earth fault relay, a single line to ground fault is assumed
• Operating time is graded by considering following aspects:
Equation used for determining time
TA=TB+CB2+OA+F
settings of relays in adjoining sections
Protection
• Considering, arbitrarily
• Hence, time of relay at A should be at least 1.3 seconds
• Overlravel - travel of a relay moving elements after actuating force is removed

 Occurs because of inertia of moving parts
 Important feature of a time-delay relay where selectivity is obtained by time lag
 For inverse time relays 0.1 sec. generally assumed
Protection
• STEP 2 Adjustment of time lag of inverse time overcurrent relays to obtain
selectivity
Procedure of selecting time setting and plug settings:
• Time multiplier setting of relay at remote end from source set to a low
value, say 0.1 sec.
• Interval of 0.4 to 0.5 sec. added to select operating times of relays at
consecutive stations
• Required operating time, To = Tm x TMS
Protection
Example
• Suppose fault current = 3000 amperes
• Relay set to operate for primary current of 300 amperes
• Plug setting multiplier, PSM = 3000/300 = 10
• From characteristic of the relay  operating time of relay for PSM = 10
– This corresponds to time setting of 1, i.e. Tm
• Suppose Tm = 2 sec.
• From relay co-ordination point of view  desired operating time To is say 1
sec.
• Time multiplier (TSM) is set to  
Protection
Disadvantages of Graded Time lag Overcurrent Relaying
1. Time lag has to be provided  time lag not desirable on short circuits
2. Not suitable for ring mains or interconnected lines  suitable for radial
lines with supply at one end only
3. Difficult to co-ordinate and needs changes with new connections
4. Not suitable for important, long distance transmission lines where rapid
fault clearing necessary to ensure stability of systems
Directional Time and Current Graded
Overcurrent Protection
• Directional time and current graded systems suitable, where power can flow
to fault from both directions
– Circuit breakers on both sides should trip, so as to disconnect faulty line
– Such case occurs in parallel feeders, ring mains, T feeders, interconnected lines
(a) Parallel Feeders

(b) T Feeders
(c) Ring Main

Directional Time and Current Graded
Overcurrent Protection
Setting of a directional overcurrent relay for ring main
• Faults between B and C  relays B2 and C1 operate first and BC disconnected
• So, also for faults on other sections
Time lag of directional relays selected such

that it is minimum for relay near source
Current Graded Overcurrent Protection
• Alternative to time grading or in addition to time grading

• Applied when impedance between two sub-stations is sufficient and
current grading can be applied
• Long time delays occurring in graded time lag system can be partly
avoided
 Employ high speed high set overcurrent relays
 Operate at pre-determined setting without a time lag

• Fault beyond C  relay at C actuated

• Fault between C and B  relay at B actuated
• Fault between B and A  relay at A actuated
• Current setting diminishes progressively from source to remote end of line
Difficulties
a) Fault very near to B in section BC  relay at A may feel that it is in
section AB
1. Difference in fault currents is low
2. Magnitude of fault currents cannot be accurately determined
3. Accuracy of relay under transient condition is likely to be different
• To obtain discrimination only about 80%lines protected by relay at one
station
 System should be supplemented by time graded inverse definite minimum
time relay system
b) Fault currents for different types of fault are different  brings a certain
difficulty in relay setting
c) For ring mains, T-feeders, parallel feeders etc.  power can flow to fault
from either directions  directional control is needed
Instantaneous and IDMT Protection
• Instantaneous + inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relays for high
speed protection of radial lines
 Coils of instantaneous element and IDMT element connected in series
Instantaneous overcurrent
protection of line
Characteristics of combined
instantaneous and IDMT
protection
Instantaneous and IDMT Protection
• Such protection can be effectively applied only if following conditions are
satisfied:
 Fault level at sending end of line at least thrice that at receiving end of line
 Changes in generating station do not change fault current significantly
• Instantaneous element should be set for more than 150% of maximum

fault current at the end of line section
– e.g. instantaneous element at A should be set for more than 150% at
maximum fault current at B
– Such a margin takes care of transient and over-reach
• Over-reach is a tendency of a relay to pickup for faults further away from

what is expected
Definite Time Overcurrent Protection
• When an element picks up it energizes a built-in time element, which
initiates a tripping signal after elapse of preset time
• Tripping times are graded  relay at remote station set at a shorter time
than relays nearer to power source
– Satisfactory for simple line configurations with single-end infeed
– Tripping times at power source do not become excessively long
• Definite time overcurrent protection also employed as back-up protection
for generators and transformers
Time graded overcurrent

protection with definite
time relays
Earth Fault Protection of Lines
• Separate overcurrent relay used for earth fault

– Provide faster and more sensitive protection for single line to ground faults
• Earth-fault currents depend on type of neutral earthing

 Unearthed neutral system
 Solid neutral earthed system
 Resistance neutral earthing system
 Low resistance earthing
 High resistance earthing
 Resonant neutral earthing system
 Earthing transformer earthing

• Earthing transformer is used where no neutral point available

• In case of resonant earthed system or ungrounded systems, earth-fault
currents are minimum
– Hence conventional earth-fault protection by residual earth-fault relays
cannot give a satisfactory protection
• Double actuating quantity earth-fault relay is provided at each station

– Double actuating quantity relay has a voltage coil energized by residual
voltage and a current coil energized by residual current
• In addition, a directional element is provided to determine in which feeder

is the earth fault
• Resistance earth or solid earthed systems  over-current element

connected in residual circuit of CTs preferred
• Earth-fault elements have inverse characteristics  time-grading

preferred for earth-fault protection of radial feeders
Drawbacks of Over-current Protection
Effect of type of fault on reach of over-current relay
• Reach of over-current
relay depends on type
of fault and on source
impedance
• Relay may underreach

or over-reach
depending on type of
fault
Drawbacks of Over-current Protection
Effect of source impedance on reach of over-current relay
• OC relay pick-up setting

equal to Ipu gives a reach
up to bus B for source
impedance Zs2
 Under-reaches to B1 if source
impedance increases to Zs3
 Over-reaches to B2 if source
impedance decreases to Zs1
 Same fault type assumed

Distance Protection of Transmission Lines
• Distance relaying used where time-lag cannot be permitted and selectivity

cannot be obtained by overcurrent relaying
• Distance relay measures Z (=V/I) at relay location  gives measure of

distance between relay and fault location
• For a given setting, distance relay picks up when

measured impedance < set value
 hence, protects a certain length of line

• Considering zero fault impedance 

voltage at fault point will be zero
• Voltage at relay location 0 will = voltage

drop along length OF
• Fault near 0  current would be more

because of reduction in line impedance
• Current gives operating torque, voltage

gives restraining torque
• Hence for values of Z above certain

setting relay does not operate
Influence of arc resistance
• Most faults involve an arc
• Arc is resistive in nature  increases circuit impedance of short-circuit
loop  falsifies measurement of impedance
– Due to extra arc resistance distance measured by impedance relays is
inaccurate
• Measured impedance (Zf + Rarc) where Zf - impedance of line

• Resulting tripping characteristics represent modified value between
impedance and conductance measurement
• Approximate arc resistance,
• For short lines, Zf relatively low, Rarc not
negligible
 Z = Zf + Rarc does not give accurate measure of
distance
• For long lines, Rarc negligible compared

with Zf
 measurement of impedance gives fairly
accurate measurement of distance
• Sudden change in loading condition
causes power swings between load point
and source
– Under certain circumstances, power swings Fault characteristic of transmission line
can cause operation of distance relays gets modified due to arc from straight line
with a slope of tan  (L/R) to an area
Distance relays [Ref.: Fundamentals of Power System Protection,

• Plain Impedance Relay Y.G. Paithankar, S.R. Bhide, pp. 123-125]
• Directional Impedance Relay
• Mho type distance Relay [Ref.: Do, pp. 134-136]
• Reactance type distance Relay [Ref.: Do, pp. 129-131]

Plain Impedance Protection
• Relay is non-directional  operate for

faults on sections BC, AB and faults on
bus bar in station B
• Discrimination between faults on

neighbouring sections not possible
• Can be instantaneous or with time

increasing with measured impedance
Major disadvantages of plain impedance relay

• Selectivity cannot be obtained as it operates
for faults on either sides  circle covers all
four sectors
• Affected by resistance of arc, resistance of
transmission line
• Affected by power swings (fluctuation of
reactive power) as circular characteristic
covers a large area on every side of centre
• Standard practice to set reach of first zone
of distance relay to cover 85% of protected
line impedance
Directional Impedance Relay
• For achieving discrimination between
forward and rear faults
• Acts only for faults in forward direction
• Relay ZB does not operate for faults in
zone BA and for faults on B
• Voltage supplied to directional element
taken from two phases from which
current is not taken
 Function of directional element not affected
by drop of voltage
• Preferred for phase fault protection of
lines of moderate lengths
Reactance Relay
• Unaffected by fault resistance
• Reactance relay is not used by itself 
used along with Mho relay or offset Mho
relay
• Suppose reactance relay is used along with
Mho Starting Relay
– Reactance relay measures reactance up to
fault point
– Voltage drop due to arc (AB) does not affect
measurement, as all points on AB in
operating region
• Hence used for protection of short lines
having fault currents less than 20 kA,
where effect of fault resistance
predominant
Mho Relay
• Preferred for phase fault
relaying of long lines
particularly where severe
synchronizing power surges
can occur
• Comparing to impedance characteristic (for protecting line AB), mho
characteristic requires much less area
– Many points covered by impedance characteristic are in negative torque region of
Mho characteristic
• Mho relay can remain inoperative during power swings on EHV lines to a
greater extent than impedance relay
Offset Mho Characteristic
• Offset Mho characteristic encloses origin of R-X axis
• Main applications off-set Mho relay:

 Bus bar back-up protection
 Carrier starter unit in carrier aided
distance blocking schemes
 Power swing blocking Off-set Mho
characteristic to
cover bus-bar zone
• Mho characteristic at B1 is offset so as to
enclose origin B and cover bus bar zone
at B
• During power swing locus of impedance

measured by relay moves along curve
• As soon as it comes within positive

torque region of offset Mho
characteristic (point P) offset Mho relay
blocks measuring relay for line BC
 relay does not operate during power

swings
Plain Impedance Relay
Trip Law for Plain Impedance Relay
• Universal torque equation
 T - net torque on actuating structure of relay
 k1|IR|2 - torque due to current fed to relay current coil
 k2|VR|2 - torque due to voltage applied to relay pressure coil
 k3|VR||IR| cos ( -  ) - torque due to directional unit
  - angle between voltage and current fed to relay
  - maximum torque angle (MTA) for the directional unit
 k4 - torque due to spring, which can be neglected compared to operating
torque when relay is on the verge of operation
• Let k1 be positive, k2 be negative and k3 be equal to zero

 Relay will trip if
Relay will trip if,
  
Then, Trip law for plain impedance relay
• Plain impedance relay is an over-current relay with voltage restraint

Implementation of Simple Impedance Relay Using Balanced Beam Structure
• Operating torque  |IR|2
• Restraining torque  |VR|2
• Relay operates if

Performance of simple impedance relay during normal load flow
• Impedance seen by relay during normal power flow is large and falls
outside trip area of relay operating characteristics
 Plain impedance relay stable during normal operating conditions
Impedance seen
by relay during
normal load flow
Effect of Arc Resistance on Reach of Simple Impedance Relay
• Arcing fault at C; fault resistance R
• Zseen lies on boundary between trip and

restraining regions  arcing fault
beyond C will not be detected
 relay under-reaches because of arcing
• Percentage under-reach - ratio of

distance by which relay under-reaches,
to reach setting of relay
• Under-reach in figure 
Directional Property Exhibited by Plain

Impedance Relay
• Reach of plain impedance relay

independent of phase angle between
voltage and current at relay location
 relay does not possess directional
property
• First quadrant of R-X plane represents

forward faults
• Third quadrant represents reverse

faults
Reactance Relay
Reactance Relay
Trip Law for Reactance Relay
• Let k1 be positive, k2 equal to zero, and k3 negative (i.e. cause directional
torque to oppose tripping), neglecting k4
 Trip law:
 
 
Let, MTA  = 90o

 
and (k1/k3) = Xn

Reactance Relay
• Trip law of reactance relay:
 Relay sensitive only to reactive part of impedance seen, and trips if reactive `
part less than a particular set value Xn
• Operating characteristic of relay on R-X

plane is a straight line with intercept of Xn
on reactance axis
• Entire area below this straight line
represents trip region  area occupied is
too large
Reactance Relay
Implementation of Reactance Relay Using Induction Cup Structure
• Current through one of the coils
shifted in phase
 torque proportional to I2 produced by
interaction of fluxes created by two
currents
• Current through pressure coil made

to flow nearly in phase with pressure
coil voltage by connecting a very
large resistance
 makes phase angle of pressure coil nearly
equal to zero  making MTA  = 90o
Reactance Relay
Performance of Reactance Relay During Normal Load Flow

• Impedance seen by relay during normal load flow conditions falls in trip
region of reactance relay operating characteristic
 reactance relay will operate during normal
load flow  cannot be used by itself 
needs another relay to prevent its
operation on load
Reactance Relay
Effect of Arc Resistance on Reach of Reactance Relay
• Line section A-B being protected using a

reactance relay
• Fault occurs at the end of line, at point B; arc
resistance equal to B-C
• Impedance seen is phasor AC; remains within
trip region
 reach of relay unaffected by arc resistance
• This is expected  relay measures only

reactive part of ratio of phasors V and I
Reactance Relay
Directional Property of Reactance Relay
• First quadrant represents forward faults;

third quadrant represents reverse faults
• Trip characteristic of reactance relay
occupies areas in both these quadrants 
no directional property of reactance relay
• Reactance relay set to protect line AB also
responds in reverse direction for unlimited
distance
• Should use reactance relay in conjunction
with a directional relay or with a Mho relay
Mho Relay
Mho Relay
Trip Law for Mho Relay
• Let k1 = 0, k2 negative (i.e. voltage provide restraining torque), and k3
positive, neglecting k4
 - angle between voltage
• Relay trips if and current fed to relay
  
Let, (k1/k2) = Zn
 Mho relay trip condition

Mho Relay
Mho relay characteristic

Mho Relay
Implementation of Mho Relay Using induction Cup Structure
• Flux due to operating voltage coil interacts with induced current due to current
coil to produce operating torque proportional to cos ( – τ)
• Restraining torque produced because
of fluxes created by operating and
polarizing voltage coils
• Resistor R and capacitor C in voltage

coil circuit enable adjustment of MTA
to any desired value
Mho Relay
Performance of Mho Relay During Normal Load Flow
• Impedance seen by relay during normal load flow conditions is outside trip
region  relay is stable during load conditions
Mho Relay
Effect of Arc Resistance on Mho Relay Reach
• Arcing fault at point B towards the end of line OA; fault resistance BC
• Impedance seen by relay considering fault resistance just lies on the verge
of trip region
• Any fault beyond point B will cause relay
to restrain
 Reach of relay reduced from OA to OB
Mho Relay
Directional Property Exhibited by Mho Relay
• Characteristic of a directional relay on R-X plane  a straight line at right
angle to MTA line  straight line can be considered as a circle with infinite radius
• Mho relay is a directional relay with voltage restraint  addition of voltage
restraint to directional relay causes radius to take a finite value and collapse in to mho
circle with diameter equal to Zn  Mho relay has directional property
Characteristic of directional relay Directional property of mho relay

Distance Protection of a Three-phase Line
• A three-phase line is subject to phase faults as well as ground faults
• Relevant questions are
1. How to provide protection against all 10 shunt faults [a-b, a-b-g, b-c , b-c-g, c-a,
c-a-g, a-b-c; a-g, b-g, c-g]?
2. In what way CT currents and PT voltage will have to be processed?
3. Can a single distance measurement unit look after all phase faults as well as
ground faults?
If no, how many distance measurement units will be required for catering to all
10 shunt faults?
1. What will be the setting of distance measuring units?
2. Whether to measure positive sequence impedance or negative sequence
impedance or zero sequence impedance?
Problem of providing
distance protection to a
three-phase line
• 3 phase fault-
measuring units can
cater for all 7 phase
faults [a-b, a-b-g, b-c,
b-c-g, c-a, c-a-g, a-b-c]
• 3 ground fault-
measuring units can
cater for all 3 ground
faults [a-g, b-g, c-g]
• 3 phase fault-measuring units can cater for all 7 phase faults [a-b, a-b-g, b-c,
b-c-g, c-a, c-a-g, a-b-c]
• 3 ground fault-measuring units can cater for all 3ground faults [a-g, b-g, c-g]
Presence of sequence components in various faults

Measure positive sequence
impedance between relay
location and fault so as to
cater for every fault
KVL around the loop in figure
Ratio of difference of +ve and –ve sequence voltages and

currents gives desired value of +ve sequence impedance
between relay location and fault point
Problem: Sequence components of voltage and current not readily available at relay
location; only line voltages and currents readily available
Solution

 
• A distance measuring unit with voltage of (Vb - Vc = Vbc) and current of (Ib - Ic) will measure
positive sequence impedance up to fault point Z1, in case of phase b-to-c faults
• Similarly, two more units with inputs of Vab, (Ia - Ib) and Vca, (Ic - Ia) cater for phase a-to-b and
phase c-to-a faults
• Distance measuring units which cater for phase a-b, b-c and c-a faults are called phase fault
units
Ground Faults
KVL around the loop in figure
 
Ground Faults
Ires – residual current
 
For three-phase transmission lines Z0 is 2.5 to 3 times Z1

 Exact relationship depends upon geometry of phase conductors and placement of
earth conductors
Phase current has to be
Assuming, Z0 = 3 Z1
compensated with a fraction of
residual current
Residual current compensation factor

 or
zero-sequence current compensation factor
Ground Faults
Therefore, three numbers of distance measuring units with inputs of
will be needed for catering to all three single line to ground faults
These units are called ground fault units

Complete protection of a
three-phase line
Inaccuracy of Distance Relay Reach
• Ideally reach of distance relay should be set to 100% of line section

• However, an exact reach of 100% not possible because of
 Inaccuracy in CT and PT ratios
 Ambiguity about line parameters (line parameters generally not measured,

they are calculated from line data)
 Variation of line parameters with atmospheric conditions
 DC offset in fault current
 Transient response of capacitive voltage transformers (CVT)

Inaccuracy of Distance Relay Reach
• DC offset and CVT transient response cause over-reach; other factors may
cause error on either side
 Always a possibility of over-reach
• If reach of distance relay adjusted to 100%  over-reach will cause loss of

selectivity with the distance protection of next section
• Usual practice to set reach of distance protection about 80 to 90% of line

section
 This leaves 20% to 10% of line without primary protection
• Comprehensive scheme of distance protection provide primary protection

to line section under consideration as well as back-up to next line section
Three-stepped Distance Protection
First Step
• Set distance protection to reach up to 80 to 90% of length of line section
• This is an instantaneous protection, i.e. there is no intentional time delay
Second Step
• Provide primary protection to remaining to 10% of line
 In addition, it cover up to 50% of next line section
• Motivation behind extended reach

(i) it should provide some back-up to next line section including the bus
(ii) in the event of maximum under-reach it should still be able to cover bus faults at
the bus between two lines
Three-stepped distance
protection
Three-stepped distance
protection simplified
representation
• Operating time of step 2 delayed so as to be selective with step 1

Operating time of step 2 = Operating time of step 1 + Selective time interval
Selective time interval = CB operating time + Relay over-travel time
• When there are more than one adjoining lines
 Second step should extend up to 50% into the shortest adjoining line
 If it is set to reach up to 50% of longest adjoining line, then there is a loss of

selectivity with second step of shortest adjoining line
Loss of selectivity of second zone of RA with second zone of RB

Third Step
• Give full back-up to adjoining line section
• Covers the line section under consideration, 100% of next line section and
further
Motivation behind the extended reach
• To give full back-up to next line section in spite of the maximum under-
reach of third step
Three-stepped distance protection using mho relay
• There is an additional distance measuring unit whose reach is beyond third zone
reach
• Operating time of this unit is instantaneous
• This unit is known as a fault detector or starter unit
Trip Contact Configuration for Three-stepped
Distance Protection
Trip contact circuit which implements the three-stepped
distance protection scheme
Trip Contact Configuration for Three-stepped
Distance Protection
• Fault detector initiates timer in case it detects
a fault within its reach setting
• Timer issues two outputs after it gets

energized (1) first after time T1; (2) second
after time T2
• Both outputs in the form of closure of a

normally open (NO) contact
• If fault is within first step of distance

protection  trip coil gets energized through
Z1 and FD contacts
• Depending upon whether fault is within

second or third step, trip coil gets energized
through series combination of either Z2, T1 or
Z3, T2
Carrier Assisted Distance Protection
• Desirable features of transmission line protection

 Simultaneous opening of circuit-breakers at both ends of line for internal
faults
 Simultaneous reclosure
 Discrimination between internal and external faults
 Single pole switching
 Independent phase relaying
• Distance relays used in conjunction with carrier channel can achieve these
Carrier Transfer (Intertripping) Note the directional characteristic
• Carrier signal sent to other end to
bring about simultaneous tripping of
line-section
– After tripping, auto-reclosure relays
takes over
• First distance step (RA) cover ~80%

Distance relays with stepped time-distance
line section
characteristics
• Relay at remote end (RB) arranged in a
similar way, but in opposite direction
Fault in middle of line section – both RA, RB trip
with time t1 of first step
• Fault at F2 near RA
relay at far end (RB) operate with time t2
Non-simultaneous operation of CBs
relay at local end (RA) operate with time t1
• Relay nearer to fault (RA) send carrier signal to far end (RB)  simultaneous
tripping of CBs at both ends
Scheme for carrier transfer
Trip Control Circuit

Carrier Blocking Scheme (Directional Comparison Method)
• Primary protection given by distance relays
• Directional comparison relaying operates in conjunction with distance relays

• Distance step is arranged to over-reach
– relay A2 set with an over-reach of about 20% over length AB
• Provision is made to prevent tripping of CBs for faults on next section
• Blocking signal is transferred over healthy line

• Directional relays compare direction of fault power at two ends of line

Internal fault - direction of fault power outwards at one end, inwards at other end
Through fault - fault fed into line at only one end
• Carrier signal sent only during fault conditions

Fault in adjacent line BC
• Directional relay at B1 actuates  send blocking signal to station A 

tripping of CB's at A1 and B1 blocked
Fault in section AB
• No signal is sent to block tripping A2 and B1
• Fault on BC very near to B2 - relay A2 start as it is set with 20% over-reach
• time delay provided  A2 does not operate earlier than receiving blocking
signal
• If no blocking signal is received, fault is internal for zone AB; A2 operates

• Carrier blocking schemes have a slight time delay for their first step
Carrier Acceleration
• Signal received from relay at opposite
end is used to extend first step from
80% to 150% of reach by shunting
timer element of zone 2
• All faults within protected section can be cleared apprx. at time of first zone
• Faults near B, in section AB
– Carrier signal sent from B to A
– Relay at A accelerated and second step timer is shunted  second zone time is
reduced from tA2 to tA1
– Similar characteristic is provided at B in direction BA
Carrier Current Protection
• Carrier current frequency: 50-500 kHz

• Carrier current equipment: transmitter, receiver, line-tuning unit, master
oscillator, power amplifier, etc.
• Each end of line provided with identical equipment
Coupling capacitor
• Offers low reactance to carrier frequency

but high reactance to power frequency
• Allows carrier frequency signals to enter carrier equipment but does not
allow 50 Hz currents to enter carrier equipment
• To reduce impedance further a low inductance is connected in series with
coupling capacitors to form a resonance at carrier frequency
Line Trap Unit
• Parallel tuned circuit comprising L and C, inserted between bus bar and
connection of coupling capacitor to line
• Low impedance (less than 0.1 ohm) to 50 Hz and high impedance to

carrier frequencies
• Prevents high frequency signals from entering neighbouring line, and

carrier currents flow only in protected line
Protection and Earthing of Coupling Equipment
• Overvoltages on power lines caused by
lightning, switching, faults, etc. produce stress
on coupling equipment and line trap unit
• Non-linear resistors in series with a protective
gap connected across line trap unit and inductor
of coupling unit
• Gap is adjusted to spark at a set value of
overvoltage
• Base of coupling unit earthed by earth rod in
the vicinity
• Carrier panel installed in relay room is
connected to station earthing system
Electronic Equipment
(i) Transmitter
(ii) Receiver
(iii) Relay
Schematic Diagram of Carrier

Current Units
Transmitter unit
Block diagram of
transmitting unit
• Frequencies : 50 - 500 kHz in different frequency bands
• Each band has certain band width (e.g. 150-300 kHz, 90-115kHz)
Receiving unit
• High frequency signals received by

receiver
• Receiving unit comprise
– Attenuator: reduces signals to a safer
value Block diagram of receiving unit
– Band pass filter: restricts acceptance

of unwanted signals (signals from
adjacent sections, spurious signals)
– Matching transformer: match
impedances of line and receiving unit
Spurious signals
• Caused by short-circuits, radio interference
• Mal-operation due to noise: set receiver above noise level (2 mW)
• Mal-operation due to spurious signals:

 carrier signals at higher power level (20 W)
 receiver set at higher level (5 mW)
• Signals attenuated before feeding to amplifier detector to avoid

overloading
Frequency spacing
• Different frequencies used in adjacent line sections
• Wavetraps ensure that carrier signals do not enter next line section
• Receiver filters filter-out other frequencies
• Choice of frequency bands for various sections are co-ordinated

Block diagram of modulator
Modulation of high frequency signal
• Modulator modulates 50 Hz signals
 modulated signal fed to amplifier and then
transmitted via coupling unit
• Process involves taking half cycle of

current and producing requisite blocks
of carrier by turning oscillator on
• Minimum line current level current
required at which osciliator is turned on
to produce carrier Modulation of line current into high
frequency blocks
Protection of Lines Based on Unit Principle
Pilot wire protection of line
Use of two relays, one at each end

Protection of Lines Based on Unit Principle
Pilot wire relaying with split pilot connection

using 3-core cable for pilot connections.

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11_Protection of Transmission Lines

• Non-unit type protection

• Unit type protection

1. Pilot wire differential protection

• Separate protection systems necessary for earth faults

 Earth fault current is different from phase fault current in magnitude

• Time and current graded protection used where instantaneous operation

 Also used as a back-up protection to main unit protection

• Distance relaying employed where

• Three main types of measuring units

2. Reactance type distance relays (suitable for short lines)

3. Mho type distance relays (suitable for long lines)

• Distance schemes comprise

• Two broad categories

ii. Non-switched scheme

• Carrier aided distance schemes include carrier acceleration, carrier

• Unit type protection provides fast selective clearing

• Long lines & interconnected lines - carrier current protection is used

• Non-directional time graded overcurrent protection

• Definite time overcurrent protection

• Time interval of 0.5 sec. usually used

• Overload protection may be provided in addition, with long time setting

• Hence, time of relay at A should be at least 1.3 seconds

• Overlravel - travel of a relay moving elements after actuating force is removed

3. Difficult to co-ordinate and needs changes with new connections

(a) Parallel Feeders

(c) Ring Main

Time lag of directional relays selected such

• Alternative to time grading or in addition to time grading

 Operate at pre-determined setting without a time lag

• Fault beyond C  relay at C actuated

 Changes in generating station do not change fault current significantly

• Instantaneous element should be set for more than 150% of maximum

• Over-reach is a tendency of a relay to pickup for faults further away from

Time graded overcurrent

• Separate overcurrent relay used for earth fault

• Earth-fault currents depend on type of neutral earthing

 Resistance neutral earthing system

 Low resistance earthing

 High resistance earthing

 Resonant neutral earthing system

 Earthing transformer earthing

• Earthing transformer is used where no neutral point available

• Double actuating quantity earth-fault relay is provided at each station

• In addition, a directional element is provided to determine in which feeder

• Resistance earth or solid earthed systems  over-current element

• Earth-fault elements have inverse characteristics  time-grading

• Relay may underreach

• OC relay pick-up setting

 Same fault type assumed

• Distance relaying used where time-lag cannot be permitted and selectivity

• Distance relay measures Z (=V/I) at relay location  gives measure of

• For a given setting, distance relay picks up when

 hence, protects a certain length of line

• Considering zero fault impedance 

• Voltage at relay location 0 will = voltage

• Fault near 0  current would be more

• Current gives operating torque, voltage

• Hence for values of Z above certain

• Measured impedance (Zf + Rarc) where Zf - impedance of line

• For long lines, Rarc negligible compared

Distance relays [Ref.: Fundamentals of Power System Protection,

• Directional Impedance Relay