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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents previous studies and information related to the study.

Tourism industry is developing rapidly, and gradually becomes one of the

pilot industries of the country making it as powerful engines for a strong and

sustained economic growth. Other than its significant contribution to the country’s

economy, tourism also has an impact on social development, which is broad and deep

because it is both labor and capital intensive. It promotes skills and vocational

development that can be exported, and it promotes a ‘culture of tourism’ through a

safer and cleaner environment that benefits not only tourists but the entire community

as well. It also promotes and creates strong peripheral benefits to other sectors and

society as a whole through: 1) economic growth, 2) tourist spots, 3) festivals, 4)

delicacies, 5) popularity. Lastly, tourism helps maintains cultural integrity, essential

ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems (DOT, 2012).

1.1 Review of studies on economic growth

Based on the 2013 Field Project A community economy may include

capitalist exchanges (wage, labor, and market-based), but capitalist – also defined as

neoliberal or traditional – economic activities are just a few of the many diverse
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economic activities that the community economy recognizes. Functioning as an arm

of the capitalist economy, businesses or government may drive economic

development that is not based in the community economy. These private and public

sector models don’t necessarily value social production or surplus and often neglect

economic interdependencies. While both public and private economic activities are

important components of a diverse economy, they don’t effectively engage a

community’s potential. Capitalism focuses on maximizing monetary profit, while

community-based economic models work to balance priorities for equitable,

sustainable, and participatory economies with monetary profit. The literature

comparing capitalist and community economies was consistent in the differences

between the two models – one focuses on predictable, market-based activities and the

other focuses on complex, interdependent, non-market interactions. The neoliberal

capitalist model, which is based in neoclassical economics rather than community

economics, provides analytical tools for developing economic predictions,

generalizations, and patterns. Economic activities rooted in self-interest, competition,

and market “freedom” (deregulation) are defining features of the capitalist

framework, but the community economy framework presents a different, more

inclusive frame. Assumptions inherent in traditional economic analyses define

“laws,” (i.e. laws of supply and demand) but human behavior is more culturally

specific and interdependent than economics can account for. The capitalist

assumption that economic development is a force separate from the community and

the environment limits environmental stewardship and social well-being.

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Base on UK essay (2016) Tourism industry has emerged as one of the fastest

growing industry and largest employers in the modern world. This sheer vastness of

the industry is understood from the fact that the numbers of tourists worldwide are

anticipated to be doubled to one billion plus by the end of 2010. This will discuss in

brief the different theories of tourism which define tourist behavior, their roles,

activities and motivations which in turn influence the industry. Tourists and their

thought process, their behavior and motivations are centrifugal to the concept of

tourism. Many scholars have tried to define the typology of the tourists, their

classifications in order to understand the concept of tourism. Travel and tourism was

traditionally considered as a luxury item. But with the turn of the century, definition

of travel and tourism has evolved. Tourism no longer stands for simple traveling or

temporary journeys and stays mainly for pleasure, leisure and or recreational purposes

or a luxury element. Twentieth century ushered in the paradigm shift in the concept of

tourism. In fact it will not be unjustified to say that there has been transition from the

19th and early 20th century concept of tourism as an exercise in leisure and pleasure

domain to the concept of tourism as an exercise in business, economics. It is more of

a consumer product; tourism industry is a vibrant market where tourism products can

be sold now as any other consumer product, consumer here is the tourist.
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According to statistics brought out by the statistics of the World Tourism

Organization (WTO) tourism contributed 12 per cent of the world’s Gross National

Product. Tourism industry is one of the fastest growing industry employing hundreds

of millions of people worldwide, which explains the reason why the study of the

tourism and tourism research has become so important in not only the academic field

but also for the economy on the whole. Modern day tourism is much more than

simple traveling; it is pure economics, which is determined by theories of demand,

and supply, which brings in the question of sustainability. Tourism is no more

synonymous to traveling. Today tourism is just like a normal consumer product,

which is driven by market dynamics, demand supply, sold through retail outlets. It no

longer remains a luxury of the upper class but has become a mass product for the

growing consumer market, in this case the growing tourist community. In fact there

has been a combination of factors which have resulted in the proliferation of tourism

industry. The prime being increased leisure, higher incomes of burgeoning middle

class. One of the main drivers to growth in the coming era would be the growing

middle class.

Based on the results of a recent UNWTO and WTTC study, that visa

facilitation efforts will impact an additional 2.6 million jobs in the APEC region plus

an estimated foreign exchange of US$ 89 billion generated from an additional 57

million foreign tourists visiting APEC countries. The addition of direct flights and

infrastructure in the regions will impact on increasing connectivity that will have a
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positive impact on the movement of the visit of foreign tourists and domestic tourists.

To develop tourism activities, tourist destinations should have at least the following

components: a. Object/attraction and tourist attraction, b. Transportation and

infrastructure, c. Strategic accommodation, d. Food and beverage business, e. Other

supporting services (things that support the smoothness of the tour, such as travel

agents that organize travel tourists, sales of souvenirs, information, guidance services,

post office, banks, money changers, internet, beauty salon. The economy and tourism

sector are two things that are mutually influential and can be synergized if they are

well managed. The concept of tourism activities can be defined by three factors,

namely, there must be something to see, something to do, and something to buy: a.

Something to see, related to attractions in tourist destinations, b. Something to do,

related to tourist activity in tourist areas, c. Something to buy, associated with typical

souvenirs purchased in tourist areas as personal memorabilia.

According to Sam Ashe-Edmunds(2019), tourism marketing is the business

discipline of attracting visitors to a specific location. Hotels, cities, states, consumer

attractions, convention centers and other sites and locations associated with consumer

and business travel all apply basic marketing strategies to specific techniques

designed to increase visits. Tourism marketing includes determining the unique

selling benefit or benefits one area has over its competition. A destination might offer

people looking to combine business and pleasure ease of travel to and from the area,

ample convention halls and hotels, interesting nightlife, and activities for adult
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partners and children. In tourism marketing, the four Ps are often applied in the

following ways: product, price, place and promotion. Tourism marketing includes

determining the unique selling benefit or benefits one area has over its competition.

When trying to attract tourists, locales often use discounts, loss leaders and bundling

to draw visitors. For example, a local chamber of commerce might solicit money

from local businesses to hold a free concert, sporting event or festival that generates

hotel stays, restaurant visits and other consumer spending. A hotel might offer

discount coupons to a local restaurant. The restaurant gets free referral marketing,

while the hotel offers a value-added service to its guests. The “place” in the four Ps

refers to where a business distributes its product or service, such as in a store, online,

using catalogs or through wholesalers. In tourism sales, location and destination

marketers sell through tour operators, travel agents, inside sales teams and by setting

up websites and phone operators to handle incoming inquiries. Tourism marketing

uses a wide variety of communications strategies and techniques to promote areas and

destinations. A convention center might purchase advertisements in trade magazines

for meeting planners and send direct mail materials to corporations that hold events.

They might place ads in tennis or golf magazines to attract those consumers.

1.2 Review of studies on tourist spot

According to UNWTO (2005) Sustainable tourism development guidelines

and management practices are applicable to all forms of tourism in all types of
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destinations, including mass tourism and the various niche tourism segments.

Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic, and socio-cultural

aspects of tourism development, and a suitable balance must be established between

these three dimensions to guarantee its long-term sustainability. Thus, sustainable

tourism should, Make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a key

element in tourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and

helping to conserve natural heritage and biodiversity. Respect the socio-cultural

authenticity of host communities, conserve their built and living cultural heritage and

traditional values, and contribute to inter-cultural understanding and tolerance. Ensure

viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-economic benefits to all

stakeholders that are fairly distributed, including stable employment and income-

earning opportunities and social services to host communities, and contributing to

poverty alleviation. Sustainable tourism development requires the informed

participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to

ensure wide participation and consensus building. Achieving sustainable tourism is a

continuous process and it requires constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the

necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever necessary. Sustainable

tourism should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a

meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability

issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amongst them.

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Based on The World of Travel and Tourism There are different types of

attractions. There are called Natural attractions, Heritage attractions, Purpose- built

attractions and Events. The tourist boards have estimated that there are around 6,400

tourist attractions in the UK. In the travel and tourism sector, attractions are a vital

part as they are what bring in all the tourist from around the world. A natural

Attraction is an attraction that has been created by nature. Many of these areas have

been given a status to protect their environment and provide facilities so that the

public are able to enjoy the sights. There are attractions such as caves, waterfalls,

seashores and any other scenic view interest that haven't been created by mankind.

The Lake District is one of the popular natural attractions in the UK. A Heritage

Attraction is attractions that are old and have been in place for many years and are

now historical. In the UK, a lot of the attractions are heritage attractions. These are

attractions such as canals, railways, battlefields. These attractions are in place so that

people can gain an appreciation of the past. The Stone Henge is a popular heritage

attraction owned by English Heritage and is Located in Wiltshire. A Purpose Built

Attraction are the attractions that have been built purposely to attract tourist into that

area. When people hear the term 'tourist attraction' it makes people think

automatically about the purpose-built attractions that are fun and enjoyable and

designed for many different reasons. In the UK there are many purpose-built tourist

attractions like Blackpool Pleasure Beach, Tower of London, Buckingham Palace and

Alton Towers. Events are also attractions that bring in lots of tourists to the area.

These are attractions such as small events like the Black pool illuminations or huge
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events like the Olympics and the Paralympics. Events play an important part in the

tourist attractions because in different parts of the country, some places can't offer a

large amount of natural or purpose-built attractions therefore the events may be the

only reason people visit that certain area. Also Events bring in a lot of income which

creates jobs and wealth in the area.

Based on Tourism Theories (2012) The most important characteristic of a

tourist attraction is that it is “consumed” at the destination, rather than at the tourist‘s

home. This means that in order to consume the product, the client must first travel to

it, thus laying the foundation for what we call tourism: somebody moving to a site

where there is a tourist attraction of some kind, such as a beach destination,

indigenous pyramids, a concert, nature reserve or a special sports event. The tourist

travels to the product to experience (consume) it. The sublime moment in tourism is

the instant when a tourist starts to live what the tourist is looking for. The tourist

wants to have an experience and that is only possible when he is using his own senses

and absorbing later to be processed into an inner experience. In fact, the tourist pays

for the possibility of consuming and the processing of starts at the beginning of his

journey, when he closes his front door behind him can be taken in during the trip to

the destination, upon arrival and finally, when he reaches the main attraction (the

Main Impact Source or Impsource), which was the reason for his going there in the

first place. Nearby there may be smaller tourist attractions developed for tourists, the

so-called Side Impsources. Apart from these, there is the normal entourage involving
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local daily life – the Shared Impsources - that may also be interesting for the tourist.

Another possible ImpCal intake can be produced by chance meetings or sudden

occurrences, the Incidental Impsources (accidents also form part of incidental

Impsources). In order to create opportunities for tourists to visit places and have

ImpCal intake of some sort, many travel organizations deal with advertising and

selling ‘possible experiences’ (also called tourist products). This may involve travel

stores, tour operators or travel guides. In short, tourism consists of a large number of

people, organizations, hotels or other types of buildings, means of transport and many

other entities that form a complicated pattern of networks and relations. The tourist

forms part of these networks, too.

Based on the study of tourist satisfaction originated in product quality and

service quality research in manufacturing (Lian, 2004), since the late 1970s, foreign

scholars have started the research about tourists satisfaction connotation, influence

factors, measurement and so on. For instance, tourists satisfaction showed the

“positive” feeling or perception on the basis of the “positive” effects through

comparing the expectation of tourists with actual perception to tourist destination

(Bread, 1980), and it was not only in the experience of the tourist destination, but the

reflection of perceiving whether to be satisfied with how people being treated in

tourism destinations (Um, 2006), also, there was other studies on using the

SERVQUAL model to do the measurement of tourist satisfaction and service quality

analysis (AKama, 2003), the effect analysis of satisfaction (Alegre, 2009) and
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intention of revisiting and the impact that satisfaction and dissatisfaction to revisit

intentions (Alegrea, 2010), using the structural equation modeling to analyze the

impact of the relations between destination image and the perceived value to the

tourist satisfaction and tourist loyalty (Ramseook-Munhurrun, 2015), analyzing and

comparing the tourist satisfaction among the tourism industry based on the tourist

satisfaction index model and expectation-assuming framework(Agyeiwaah, 2016). In

China, the tourist satisfaction research started relatively late, and the researchers have

mainly focused on the extension of tourist satisfaction connotation, the measurement,

the influence factors, tourist service quality and shopping satisfaction in recent years.

For example, it indicated that tourism scenic tourist satisfaction was a kind of

comprehensive psychological evaluation to meet the demand degree of the tourism

activities in the aspects of tourism landscape, infrastructure, entertainment and

hospitality services and so on(Dong, 2005), discussing the influence factors and

evaluation system based on the gray system theory(Nan, 2008), establishing tourist

satisfaction index evaluation model from the six impact modules of environmental

perception, travel expectations, sightseeing expectations, tourist satisfaction, loyalty

for tourists and visitors complaints (Wang, 2006), using structural equation to

construct tourist satisfaction measurement model from the emotion and cognition

(Luo, 2011), building the appraisal model of tourist satisfaction from the six aspects

of eating, accommodation, transportation, traveling, shopping and entertainment with

PC-FUZZY-IPA method (Liao, 2012), drawing on the core ideas and the structure of

the US Customer Satisfaction Index model and the European Customer Satisfaction
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Index model and using the SPSS to analyze the influence factors of tourist

satisfaction (Chen, 2014), and taking ordered-probit model to examine and analyze

the hypothesis relationship between visitor’s individual variables, scenic spot

variables and tourist satisfaction (Lin, 2016).

According to a study in Poland, tourist attractions have been predominantly

the area of geographical sciences. They have addressed the issue of tourist

valorization of Poland and the assessment of sightseeing resources as components of

the region’s attractiveness for tourists (Rogalewski, 1974; Kruczek, 1977; Lijewski et

al., 1992; Milewski, 2005) or investors (Gołembski, 2002). International studies

concerning attractiveness assessment include those employing tourist preferences

rather than the analysis and distribution of availability alone (Piperoglou, 1966,

Ferrario, 1976). Another way to collectivize assessment methods was proposed by J.

Deng et al. (2002), who employed the Analytic Hierarchy Process developed by Saaty

(1987). Shoval and Raveh (2003) based categorizing variables on visitor features: the

number of visits, the duration of stay in a city, and one attraction feature: the

proportion of tourism traffic. The categorization of tourist’s attractions was done

based on the co-plot method of multivariate analysis.

According to Prentice (1995) and Nowacki, 2000), another tool for assessing

the tourist attraction is the ASEB/SWOT grid analysis which builds on a combination
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of the conventional SWOT analysis model and a recreation opportunity spectrum

(ROS) analysis (Manning, 1986). Feedback from attraction visitors is then put into

the resulting 16-cell matrix and qualitatively analysed.

According to MacCannell (1976) tourism attractions are social constructs

emerging in the process of ‘sight sacralization’. A tourist attraction is comprised of

three elements: the sight (or location), the marker and the tourists. Markers may

include guides, signs and panels.

1.3 Review of studies on popularity

According to Minazzi (2015), social media has played and continues to play

an important part in the emergence and development of tourism. with a lot of social

media content being travel-related and some platforms and applications being

exclusively focused on tourism, e.g. TripAdvisor (Gretzel, 2018a). Due to their

relevance for tourism, social media have been adopted extensively by travellers and

such media influence tourists’ expectations about destinations and their decision-

making (Narangajavana et al., 2017; Zeng and Gerritsen, 2014; Yoo and Gretzel,

2008). As such, it is not surprising that social media have been linked to the

phenomenon of over tourism in recent media reports. The following sections explore

the specific roles social media play across various aspects of travel and tourism. It is
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against this theoretical backdrop that their contribution to over tourism and their

potential for mitigation is then discussed.

According to A. Lew (1987), the literature provides a number of perspectives

on visitor attraction typology. In an attempt to sort out the various ways of

classification, he identified three broad perspectives for classifying visitor attractions:

the ideographic/descriptive perspective, organizational/developmental perspective

and the cognitive/perceptive perspective. The ideographic/descriptive perspective is

focused on unique features typical for the site, while ignoring universal or abstract

features. It provides a typology comprising of nine attraction categories: panoramas,

landmarks, ecological (climate, national parks, nature reserves), observational

(rural/agriculture, gardens), leisure nature (trails, parks, resorts), participatory

(mountain, water and other activities), settlement infrastructure (utility types,

settlement morphology and functions, institutions, people), tourist infrastructure

(forms of access, information, accommodations, meals) and leisure superstructure

(recreation entertainment, culture, history and art). An example of applying the

ideographic perspective is the classification proposed by Swarbrooke (1995), who

distinguished for groups of attractions based on their origin: natural, man-made but

not originally designed primary to attract visitors, man-made and purpose-built to

attract tourists and special events. The organizational/developmental perspective

emphasizes the geographical and temporal aspects of attractions, as well as their

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capacity, while the cognitive perspective takes into account the visitors’ perceptions

and experiences derived from visiting attractions.

Based on the study of C. Gunn (1988), the popularity of an attraction contains

a number of attempts to conceptualize. Interestingly enough, this study developed

within many disparate disciplines, from sociology and psychology, through economy

to geography. Gunn depicted her attraction model as three concentrically circles, with

the inner circle standing for nucleus, the most important component of an attraction

and the main source of attracting tourists. The nucleus, or sight, is what tourists head

for or what they store in memory after returning home. It may include resources of

natural or cultural heritage found at the attraction site. The second essential

component is the inviolate belt or the buffer zone, which secures the nucleus and acts

as moderator of the tourism traffic. The third and final component of the attraction

structure is the zone of closure, the area surrounding the attraction. It contains tourist

services, such as food, retail purchases, lodging, transporting services, entertainment

and information.

According to the Encyclopedia of Tourism (2000, p. 215), “experience is an

inner state of individual brought about by something which is personally encountered,

undergone or lived through”. Tourist experiences are unique in that they occur as in

the course of a journey, and especially during sightseeing tours. Tourists tend to seek
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for experiences that are both pleasant and stimulating. Such experiences occur during

what M. Csikszentmihalyi calls optimal experience or flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996).

The flow state is an optimal state of intrinsic motivation, characterized by: focused

attention on present activity, full engagement of one’s consciousness and using one’s

skills to the utmost, sense of time distortion and a loss of self-consciousness, but

above all a prevalence of autotelic experiences. A number of authors point out the

usefulness of this concept in studies on attraction visitors (Thomson et al., 1993;

Prentice et al., 1998; Beck & Cable, 1998; Ryan, 1997).

According to Bansal & Voyer (2000), tourists value word of mouth and

perceive it to be a reliable, accurate source of information provided by people who

have no personal interest in promoting a given product. Studies suggest that word-of-

mouth recommendation is much more effective and exerts a stronger influence on

establishing positive attitudes towards the brand than formal advertisements (Herr et

al., 1991; Haahti & Yavas, 2005). A number of authors point out that satisfied

tourists, having had positive experiences, are inclined to recommend a tourism

service to other persons, while the lack of satisfaction results in negative opinions

about the service (Aho, 2001; Bigne et al., 2001; Haahti & Yavas, 2005; Um et al.,

2006). At various stages of trip planning, as well as during the trip, tourists seek

various sources of information. But the most popular source, both before and during

the trip, is word-of-mouth recommendation by family and other persons (Beiger &

Laesser, 2004). Also S. Baloglou and K. McCleary (1999) and J. Chen (2003) proved
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empirically that word of mouth is the most influential source of information in the

process of tourism image formation.

1.4 Review of studies on festivals

The concept of “event tourism”, which includes “festival tourism”, came up

for the first time during the 1980s. Researchers understood the necessity of studying

this sector and tried to define and describe specific characteristics of this form of

tourism which is related to special events and festivals. Relative literature states that

the most important tour-ism impact of a festival is the increase in media interest about

the area before, during and after the festival. Media coverage of the festival leads to

positive promotion of the area at regional, national and even at global levels. This

potential has been taken into account by tourism marketing authorities in many tourist

areas worldwide. As a result, festivals are used as tools to construct (or recon-struct)

destinations’ image and to establish destination branding (or re-branding) to national

and global tourism map.

According to Goelder and Ritchie (2003), festivals and events are among the

fastest-growing segments of tourism in the world. These include fairs, festivals,

markets, parades, celebrations, and anniversaries. Festivals and events appeal to a

very broad audience; they also spread tourism geographically and seasonally and

have, therefore, a large potential inclusive impact. Feasts and special events give
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communities a sense of pride and ownership, enhancing social capital and therefore

inclusiveness, even as they also enhance the economic well-being of locals from the

revenues that such tourism generates. Similarly, monuments and churches, temples,

mosques and other physical marks of culture have always been a major attraction for

tourists. While the older generation of tourists were attracted to European cradles of

civilization, the younger generations are seeking out cultural destinations in the

Orient and in South America. Thus, there is a large potential for Asian and Latin

APEC countries to tap into this emerging segment of the global tourism market.

Based on a study in UK, estimated 670 events and 200 top festivals contribute

about £450 million to the economy just from the tickets, transport costs, fare and

accommodation costs. Inbound tourists spend more money than domestic tourists

either for festivals or music concerts. In detail, each inbound tourist who attended

festivals spent £910 per trip and £602 those who attended music concerts and live

performances. Respectively, domestic tourists spent £396 for festivals (per trip) and

£87 for music concerts and live performances. As it has been stated, the differ-ence in

the amount of money came up not only from transport costs, but also from the

willingness to attend festivals during a vacation. As a result, tourists extend the

geographical area in which they spend their money. Totally, during 2012, domestic

tourists who attended festivals spent £1.02 billion and inbound tourists ap-

proximately £248 million.

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According to data from the area of Adelaide (Australia)19, in 2012 festival

attendees reached 2.82 million and 590,000 tickets were sold, of which 63,950 were

tourists and contributed more than 300,000 overnight stays to the area. Festival

attendees’ expenses have been estimated at over 58 million AUD (apart from festival

tickets) and new income for the region was about 62.9 million AUD. Moreover,

implementation of the top ten festivals of the area accounted for 790 full-time jobs.

Nowadays, many countries understand the significance of festivals as tools for

attracting inbound tourism and sponsor them through local National Tourism

Organiza-tions.20 In a research study to European citizens,21 44% declared that they

prefer to attend festivals during their vacations. Furthermore, the majority of the

audience is 16-30 years old. In detail, percentages for each age group are: 28% for

ages 16-20, 27% for ages 21-24 and 23% for ages 25-30. The age groups 31-40 and

41-65 represent 14% and 7%, respectively.

According to a survey regarding the contribution of Greek film festivals,30 it

has been stated that the most positive economic impact is income inflation to the

sector of fare, accommodation (restaurants, bars, hotels, etc.) and local commerce.

Less contribution was estimated at the sector of investments. It has been noted that

the contribution of festivals to the development of local cul-ture and education is very

important. In the said survey, the majority of Greek festivals face problems and

unique characteristics which hamper their full utilization by local communities in

order to benefit local culture and especially tourism. Nevertheless, there are some
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cases of the Greek market that highlight the essential contribution which a festival

may have to a local economy and society. Typical examples are sev-eral regional

festivals such as: the International Dance Festival of Kalamata,31 the International

Puppet-Mime Festival of Kilkis,32 the River Party Festival of Nestorio.33 These

festivals contribute to the destination branding of the local area, attract visitors from

all around Greece and also support the local economy and tourism.

According to incomplete statistics, by 2012 the number of all kinds of festival

tourism in China each year up to more than 5000,the festival industry disorderly and

miscellaneous, There are very little truly successful and inherited brand festival .Until

2013, the Central issues "Eight provisions” to restrict exhibition activities, There was

a decrease in the number of festival activities. As the Shanghai economic, financial,

trade and shipping center construction, the development of Shanghai festival

activities is in a strong rise, in September 2013 the establishment of the Shanghai free

trade zone in Shanghai for festival activities bring new opportunities and challenges.

For the development characteristics about the comprehensive study of Shanghai

festival tourism, grasping the overall development situation of Shanghai festival

activities, and help to promote the sustainable development of the national festival

activities. At present the study of Shanghai festival activities are mainly concentrated

in festival activities now, problems and solving methods. In this paper, based on the

previous, further analysis and rational grasp the characteristics of Shanghai festival

activities development situation, from strengthening the activity to festival activities

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of organizational innovation and management, further promote the festival activities

in Shanghai, nice and fast healthy and sustainable development, in order to provide

some reference for the development of Chinese festival tourism in other area.

Festivals can not only contribute to the promotion of tour-ism of each

destination but also can promote features of the local tourism product and culture to

which authori-ties prefer to give prominence. Festivals can be the link between

special activities, tourism and culture. Typical examples of such cases are music

festivals, agricultural festivals, etc., which offer an attractive environment for local

citizens and potential tourists

1.5 Review of studies on delicacies

Visiting a local market, restaurant or winery of a certain destination is a part

of a wider range of lifestyle activities of culinary tourism. It is not limited to gourmet

food, this is perhaps best illustrated by the notion that culinary tourism is about what

is unique and memorable (Hall et al, 2003). Food is one of the essential elements of

the tourist experience. Food tourism may be defined as visitation to primary and

secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants and specific locations for which

food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production region are

the primary motivating factors for travel (Hall and Mitchell, 2001).
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According to Okumus (2007), local cuisine can be used as an effectivetool to

build and enhance the destination image and brand, while several scholarssuggest that

local cuisine is an influencing factor of tourists’ pre-, during-, and post-tripbehaviours

(Cohen and Avieli, 2004; Quan and Wang, 2004; Ab Karim et al., 2009).However,

Henderson (2009) argues that in multicultural and multiethnic societieswhereas

different domestic (ethnic) and international cuisines can co-exist, it ispossible to

create only an “induced” image of national cuisine, since its real existenceis

surrounded by ambiguity.

Since the mid-20th century, the concept of image has been the subject of

extensive research across diverse disciplines such as social and environment

psychology, marketing or consumer behavior. In tourism and hospitality literature,

there is a growing body of research on destination image measurement, its

components, and itsrole in travel decision making, post-trip evaluation and future

intentions (Gallarza et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2014).

According to Ab Karim and Chi (2011), despite the recognition that food

(cuisine) is important determinant in the overall perception of destination by tourists,

the literature discussing the attributes of local cuisine from a tourist perspective is

rather limited. It has been suggested that the image of local food (cuisine) should be

treated asan idiosyncratic concept since it reflects the uniqueness of a specific

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destination (Lin, 2006, p. 4). In line with this reasoning, several recent studies

employed the multi-attribute approach in order to measure tourists’ perceived image

of food (cuisine)(e.g. Jang et al., 2009; Verbeke and Lopez, 2005). For instance, by

examining the perception of six types of Asian foods (Chinese, Indian, Japanese,

Korean, Thai and Vietnams) among American customers, Jang et al. (2009) classified

food (cuisine) attributes into four categories:(1) appearance (e.g. fresh, looks

pleasing, clean, attractive, neat); (2) health-related characteristics (e.g. digestible,

healthy, nutritiously balanced, light); (3) uniqueness (e.g. aromatic, unique, spicy, and

exotic); and (4) other (e.g. quality and inexpensive).

Based on the study of Verbeke and Lopez (2005), It examined the perception

of Latin-American ethnic food among Belgians based on the nine food attributes:

search (price, color, appeal),experience (taste, spiciness, convenience) and credence

(cleanness, safety, healthiness).Qing-Chi et al. (2013) recently conceptualized food

(cuisine) image as a multidimensional construct comprising three components:(1)

food distinctiveness and accessibility;(2) food diversity and enjoyment; and(3) food

quality and presentation. Based on the above arguments, the image of local cuisine

should be considered as a multidimensional phenomenon that includes not only

beliefs about the attributes of the food, but also tourists’ feelings relating to the food

experience. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: Local cuisine image is

jointly formed by tourists’ cognitive and affective evaluations of food characteristics

and food experiences within a specific destination.

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In the field of tourism and hospitality research, empirical studies on tourist

satisfactionin a culinary context have mostly been focused on understanding the

tourist patronageof different food service establishments (e.g. ethnic restaurants, fast

food, themedrestaurants) and tourist dining satisfaction (e.g. Namkung and Jang,

2007). A widerange of elements such as the food itself (e.g. taste, cleanliness,

presentation, menuvariety), service (e.g. friendless, effectiveness), atmosphere

(aroma, decor, ambience),price-quality relationship and authenticity have been related

to tourist diningsatisfaction (e.g. Ab Karim et al., 2011; Correia et al., 2008; Verbeke

and Lopez, 2005).

In terms of foods recognition, the Philippines are incomparably different from

its neighboring countries, especially when it comes to delicacies. It is customary to

the Filipinos to buy famous products every time they go to a certain place.

Apparently, in every place in the Philippines there are different varieties of sweet

delicacies that served as their pride and one of them is the Province Laguna.

Based on a study conducted by LPU-Batangas HRM students (Famous

Delicacies of Selected Municipalities in the Province of Laguna: A Tourist Attraction

for Culinary Tourism; 2014), conclude that the famous delicacies on selected

municipality of Laguna are Buko pie, Kesongputi, Mer-nels cake, Espasol, Cassava

cake, Cassava chips, Uraro, Bibingka, and Ube. The impact of these delicacies in the

Province of Laguna became a tourist attraction in culinary tourism for it has

intentional and exploratory participation in food ways including the consumption,

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preparation and presentation of food items. The famous delicacies became the

trademark of the entire Laguna province and distinguish its uniqueness of products in

other community through exportation. Enhancing the food quality, packaging and

appealing taste of these delicacies will improve the culinary tourism of the province.

Presentation of products can be made easy through provincial delicacies’ festivals and

conventions which can be done nationally and internationally. There must be

aggressive strategic promotions on the products through television, prints, radio and

website. These delicacies may continue in striving its popularity and expenditures

through the cooperation of non-government and government sector.

Manufacturers of delicacies should develop their procedures in cooking to

extend the lifespan of the food. They must also include the ingredients and nutrition

facts in the wrapper or box. The products must also be under DTI supervision. The

business owners can improve the products and its quality since it attracts tourism to

the province. They must be innovative with its taste and willing to explore on how

they can improve the products. The Government of Laguna should help the business

owners in promoting and popularizing the products. They can also provide seminars

to the locals of Laguna on how to make the popular delicacies to provide additional

income and possible employment. Delicacies create an economic growth to Laguna

and a way to boost employment to the local residents of Laguna.