Chapter 16
Automation of Lease Equipment
G.R. Burrell, Exxon
Co.U.S.A.*
Introduction
Automation in the oil and gas producing industry covers
a broad spectrum of supported functions. In a simple ap-
plication, automation may be defined as linking together
instruments and controls to perform lease-operating pro-
cedures automatically in a predetermined manner.
Automation in a more complex environment will have
digital computers in some form of a supervisory control
and data acquisition (SCADA) system. Automation in
the industry has tended to evolve as new tools become
available and ate accepted by industry and regulatory
agencies. Generally, automation has advanced by a more
complex linkage of instruments and control devices.
Some of the more important tools and/or techniques that
have enhanced lease automation are (1) solid-state elec-
tronics, (2) lease automatic custody transfer (LACT), (3)
tank battery consolidation, and (4) SCADA.
Solid-State Electronics
The development of solid-state electronics first as
discrete components and then as integrated circuits has
been a key factor in advancing lease automation. Elec-
tronics have provided the base for improvements in in-
strumentation, control elements, communication, and
digital computers that form the primary components of
enhanced automation facilities. Pneumatic and elec-
tromagnetic (relay) logic have been, and will continue to
be, used in various forms of automation, but the extent
of logic implementation is limited substantially com-
pared with that available for electronics. Pneumatic
and/or electromagnetic functions are effective as com-
plementary features to electronic forms of automation
and as stand-alone automation for less complex
applications.
Microprocessors and their extension to microcom-
puters are having an impact on automation that may well
‘Authorof theoriginal chapler on this topic in the 1962 edition was Don R. Patterson
exceed that of integrated circuits in the initial form of
“hard-wired” logic. Microcomputers combine the ad-
vantages of electronic components and program instruc-
tions into a flexible, capable, and reliable form that has
substantial advantages for automation. These functional
advantages have been complemented by a reduction in
cost compared to implementation with integrated cir-
cuits. Microcomputers are being used in almost every
component of automation related equipment from in-
dividual instruments through digital computers.
Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT)
LACT is the process of transferring (running) lease-
produced oil into a connected pipeline on an unattended
basis. LACT includes the capability to determine
automatically the quantity and quality of oil being
transferred and the control functions to prevent transfer
of unacceptable quality and/or volumes. Before LACT,
lease oil was produced into a tank, quantity and quality
(opening gauge and thieving, etc.) were determined, and
a valve was opened to the pipeline to initiate transfer.
When the transfer was complete, the pipeline valve was
closed and a final (closing) gauge was made as basis for
determining net volume transferred. All these steps were
manual activities with some related duplication of effort
between the lease operator and the pipeline gauger. In
addition to being labor intensive, the process was in-
herently inefficient in use of related treating and storage
facilities. LACT is an important tool in the evolution of
lease automation. LACT is a significant automation ele-
ment and has been widely accepted and implemented by
industry. In addition, it has become an important
building block for other forms of automation in lease
operations.
Tank Battery Consolidation
Many oil and gas fields have multiple operators or work-
ing interest owners. In addition, most fields consist of a
number of separate leases (common royalty ownership,
16-Z
etc.) that require individual oil and gas processing
(separation, treating, storage and transfer, etc.) facilities
to account for production to each owner.
LACT initially was applied to these separate lease
operations. The automatic transfer of produced oil and
recycling of unacceptable quality oil [high basic sedi-
ment and water (BS&W) content] to treating facilities in-
creased the effectiveness of treating and storage equip-
ment. In addition, tire incremental cost of larger meters,
pumps, and related equipment of LACT’s was low com-
pared to the increased oil volume transfer capability.
Thus, a technical basis was available to process and
transfer much higher produced-oil volumes than present
on the average lease.
Historically, individual lease oil-production volumes
had been treated to pipeline quality (2 % BS&W or less)
before custody transfer from the lease. In the 1960’s,
regulatory agencies began to approve operator requests
to commingle wet-oil (not pipeline quality) production
from multiple leases into a common or central oil proc-
essing and custody transfer facility. Oil production from
each lease was determined by measuring the wet-oil
volume (separator positive-volume or positive-
displacement meters, etc.) and correcting for water con-
tent with automatic samplers and later with capacitance
probes and related net-oil computers. Final sales volume
to each separate lease was determined by allocating the
custody transferred (sales) volume back to each lease on
the basis of its proportion of total wet-oil lease
measurements. In other cases, tank battery consolidation
was implemented when a field was unitized under a
single operator for initiation of secondary recovery
activities.
Tank battery consolidation eliminated oil treating and
storage facilities on the individual lease. In some fields,
the pipeline trunk lines used to gather individual lease oil
volumes were converted to wet-oil gathering lines for the
consolidated tank battery operation. Tank battery con-
solidation converts a field’s operation from a number of
stand-alone lease functions to a central process with
multiple inputs. Oil treating and storage, water treating
and disposal, vapor recovery facility, etc., became more
efficient and controllable in the consolidated
environment.
Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)
SCADA is a common name applied to computer-driven
automation systems used in oil and gas production opera-
tions. Basic functions generally include status/alarm
reporting, production volume accumulation/reporting,
well testing, and control. These systems vary from small
units that are applied to only a few leases in a single field
to large units that serve multiple fields containing several
thousand total wells.
SCADA systems are tied directly to the instrumenta-
tion and control devices on the process equipment used
in oil and gas production. This provides timely and con-
tinuous access to the operational information being
sensed by the instrumentation. Some SCADA systems
emphasize data gathering and reporting to operating per-
sonnel for “open-loop” control while others use pro-
gram logic to analyze input information and initiate con-
trol actions directly (“close-loop” control). SCADA
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
systems may be oriented primarily to operating person-
nel needs, or they may be multipurpose by providing
functions for operating, accounting, engineering, and
management groups.
SCADA is a logical extension of automation in the se-
quence from manual lease operation, to use of LACT,
and then to centralized treating, storage, and automatic
custody transfer (ACT) with tank battery consolidation.
This sequence moved from essentially independent in-
dividual lease operations to a single overall process that
has a number of closely related functions. SCADA pro-
vides the ability to obtain timely operational information
for optimization of the interrelated process functions.
For example, if a compressor outage reduces the gas
processing capacity below a field’s gas-producing rate,
well-test information from SCADA allows shutting-in of
wells with high GOR’s and thus minimizes reduction of
the related oil producing rate. In general, timely and ac-
curate operational information can be used to obtain
maximum utility of existing process equipment and
minimize need for stand-by capacity.
Some form of automation is used on every lease that
produces oil and gas. The extent of practical automation
depends primarily on economics. Some of the benefits of
automation that may be used in the economic justitica-
tion are as follows:
1. Capital investment in lease production equipment is
reduced.
2. Operating expenses are reduced through savings in
labor costs, maintenance expenses, travel expenses, and
power and fuel costs.
3. Ability to initiate and document actions required for
regulatory compliance is improved.
4. Surveillance capability of management and support-
ing staff groups is improved.
5. The quantity and quality of operational information
available for making business decisions is increased,
which results in revenue increases and operating cost
decreases.
Automation in oil and gas production activities will
continue to evolve as additional tools ate developed and
applied. Most advances (including improved com-
munications and “smart’ ’ end devices) will take the
form of (1) improvements in existing devices, (2) new
devices with improved capability/reliability to replace
older equipment, and, less frequently, (3) new devices
with new features/functions that are applicable to the
production process. Much of the basic instrumentation
and control equipment (primarily pneumatic-based) that
has been used for years with oil and gas processing
facilities will continue to be applicable. Implementation
of some form of enhanced automation (as described
earlier) will be a primary force to increase use of elec-
tronic and electronic/pneumatic equipment. On this
basis, it appears reasonable to elucidate the topic of
automation first by discussing some of the commonly
used equipment and then by depicting equipment ap-
plication in automation systems.
Automatic Production-Control Equipment
Automatically Controlled Valves and Accessories
Automatic control valves can be classified in a number
of ways, but classification by the energy medium that ac-
tuates the valve operator is most pertinent to automation.
AUTOMATION OF LEASE EQUIPMENT
By using this method of classification, automatic control
valves can be grouped into three major categories: fluid-
controlled valves, electrically controlled valves, and
fluid-electric-controlled valves. In the latter category a
fluid energy generally is used to operate the valve and
electric energy is used to control the fluid-energy source.
Fhdd-Controlled Valves. The most common types of
automatic fluid-controlled valve operators arc diaphragm
operators and fluid cylinders. Both of these valve
operators can be used on any style of valve body whose
inner valve can be positioned by longitudinal displace-
ment of the valve stem. The fluid cylinder operator nor-
mally is used with valve-body styles requiring 90” rota-
tion for operation. Diaphragm operators most commonly
are applied to valves that have globe, angle, butterfly,
and Saunders-type valve bodies. Fluid-cylinder
operators are more commonly used with plug valves.
In oilfield applications, the most common fluid used to
actuate both valve operators is natural gas, generally
taken directly off a separator or heater-treater on the
lease. If natural gas is not available, or if for some reason
the available natural gas supply is not suitable, a bottled
gas (nitrogen, etc.), compressed air, or hydraulic fluid
could be used. Diaphragm operators normally require
only 15- to 30-psi fluid pressure to actuate the valve.
Pressures up to 100 psi and over often are desired for the
fluid cylinders because, the higher the fluid pressure
available to operate the cylinder, the smaller size the
cylinder may be, and consequently the lower the cost.
Valves using these types of operators, as a class, are fre-
quently called “pneumatic control valves” even though
the control fluid may be something other than air.
Some fluid-controlled valves can be controlled with
the fluid flowing in the line in which the valve is located.
These types of valves generally use the differential
pressure principle for control purposes. A reference con-
trol pressure is established by spring-loading or prcssure-
loading the valve operator. The control valve is actuated
when the line pressure upstream and/or downstream
sensed by the valve operator algebraically exceeds the
reference control pressure-i.e., the valve can be ac-
tuated by pressures either excessively high or excessive-
ly low, or both. This feature makes this type of valve
particularly suited for use as safety shut-in valves on
wellheads.
Electrically Controlled Valves. Automatic electrically
controlled valve operators arc of two general types,
electric-solenoid (or magnetic) and electric motor.
Magnetic operators are used for valves requiring
longitudinal motion to position the inner valve. The use
of magnetic operators generally is limited to valves 2 in.
and smaller in size and of relatively low working
pressures. Electric-motor operators can be used with any
type of valve but in all cases must include accessories
that provide a torque-limiting means and a limit switch to
prevent damaging the motor when either extreme valve
position is reached. On valves requiring longitudinal mo-
tion to seat the inner valve electric-motor, operators also
must include a gear rack and pinion to convert the
motor’s rotary motion to longitudinal displacement.
Because of the relative expense of electric-motor
16-3
operators, they normally are used only on large-sized
valves and/or valves having high working pressures.
Fluid-Electric Controlled Valves. Self-contained valve
operators in the third category are generally
hydroelectric-type operators. Operators of this type
essentially consist of a self-contained reservoir of
hydraulic fluid, a small electric motor, a pump, and a
fluid-cylinder device-all within a single housing. The
fluid-cylinder principle limits this type of operator to
valves requiring longitudinal motion or 90” rotation to
seat the inner valve. Valve operators of this type are
available for a wide variety of valve sizes and working-
pressure ranges.
In addition to the hydroelectric-type operators, any of
the fluid-controlled operators mentioned can be made
combination-type operators. By the addition of electric-
solenoid valves in the fluid-control lines, an electric
signal can be used to control the release of fluid energy
to the valve operator. Combination-type operators of this
kind are commonly called “electropneumatic
operators. ”
Valve Switches. It is frequently essential that an
automatic control system be able to sense the position of
certain valves whether automatically or manually
operated. This is accomplished by means of a “valve
switch” coupled directly to the stem of the valve in ques-
tion. In electrical control systems, the valve switch may
be a mercury switch, a microswitch, or a position-
sensing switch. In pneumatic control systems, the
“valve switch” is a three-way pilot valve. The switches
may be adjusted to open or close a circuit as the valve
opens and closes. One of the most common applications
of valve switches is on tank-run valves, in which case
they are generally called “pipeline valve switches.”
Another common use of valve switches is to indicate
remotely the operational position (open, closed, etc.) of
automatic control valves on wellheads, well manifolds,
metering-tank inlets and outlets. In these general ap-
plications, valve switches normally will be referred to as
“limit switches.” When interlocked with an automatic
control system, valve switches perform the very impor-
tant function of preventing subsequent steps in an
automatic operation from proceeding unless certain
valves are in the proper position. Other type devices can
be used to sense “control” valve positions at in-
termediate points (or continuously) between the open
and closed positions.
Automatic Production Programmers
Time-Cycle Controller. Automatic production pro-
grammers are scheduling devices that control the par-
ticular times and lengths of time that operating functions
are performed. The simplest form of automatic produc-
tion programmer is a time-cycle controller. A time-cycle
controller basically consists of a clock with a timing
wheel or wheels, containing a number of programming
points at regular intervals around its circumference. The
clock may be electrically driven, gas driven, or
mechanically driven by a spring. It may have a l-, 2-, 4-,
6-, 8-, 12-, or 24-hour rotation period, the rotation
period being the time required for the timing wheel(s) to
16-4
make one complete revolution. Programming is ac-
complished by positioning the contacts on the timing
wheel(s) such that the rotation of the wheel(s) generates
the proper control signal to open or close valves con-
trolled by the time-cycle controller at the proper times.
As commonly applied, a time-cycle controller in con-
junction with a diaphragm control valve compose a
“stopcock controller” and/or an “intermitter con-
troller.” The primary difference in a stopcock controller
and an intermitter controller is in the application. A stop-
cock controller generally is installed in a well’s flowline
at the Christmas tree. It controls the times that the well is
opened for production, normally for short intervals
several times a day. An ‘ ‘intermitter controller” is in-
stalled in high-pressure-gas supply line at the wellhead
of a well being gas lifted intermittently. It controls the
times that gas is admitted to the well to actuate the gas-
lift valves and lift the fluid to the surface. A time-cycle
controller in conjunction with any type of automatic con-
trol valve may be used to produce a naturally flowing
well where it is desired to produce the well less than 24
hours per day and/or 7 days a week.
A time-cycle or percentage-time controller plus a
motor starter basically compose an automatic production
programmer for an electrically driven rod-pumping unit.
The rod-pumping unit controls also generally contain
several safety devices: undervoltage relay, which drops
out on power failure, overload relays to prevent burning
up the motor, lightning arrester, circuit-breaking
devices, etc.
The electronic (solid state) timer frequently is used in
new installations that require timer functions.
Mechanical and electro-mechanical timers will continue
to be used in many existing installations.
Any time that these automatic production-
programming devices are actuated electrically, the con-
trol point for individual wells may be centralized at the
well manifolds, a central point on the lease, or even a
point remote from the field. The time-cycle controllers,
automatic control valves, motor starters, etc. still may
remain located at the wellheads while control is exer-
cised remotely. This is not true for similar devices that
are actuated pneumatically unless the pilot gas for these
devices is controlled electrically. Too much dampening
and distortion occurs in pneumatic control signals for ef-
fective control when transmitted distances of more than
about 150 ft.
Other Programmers
The programmers discussed previously have been used
in oil and gas production facilities for many years. Cur-
rently, the more complex sequential control will be
electronic- and combined electronic/pneumatic-based in
many applications. This trend is expected to increase as
general-purpose programmable controllers, developed
initially in the plant applications, find more use in oil and
gas production. The functions of the programmable con-
troller and the remote terminal unit (RTU) may well be
combined into a more capable unit for oil and gas pro-
duction monitoring and control applications.
Production Safety Controls
In some respects, virtually all automatic control equip-
ment is also safety-control equipment: automatic control
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
equipment nearly always is made to be “fail safe”-i.e.,
upon loss of power from the controlling energy medium,
the controls return to the position that will result in the
safest condition. Some automation controls, however,
primarily perform safety functions rather than normal
operational functions. These include high- /low-pressure
safety shut-in valves, excess-flow valves, pressure and
temperature switches, and pump-off controls.
Safety Shut-In Valves
High- /low-pressure safety shut-in valves and excess-
flow valves are both fluid-controlled valves of the type
that is actuated by line fluid. This valve type was
discussed briefly in the section on automatic control
valves. The use of an excess-flow valve or low-pressure
control with a safety shut-in valve primarily safeguards
against a flowline break and the resultant loss of oil and
surface property damage. High-pressure control with a
safety shut-in valve guards against pressures in excess of
the allowable limit building up in the flowline. Either of
these two kinds of valves normally would be installed at
the wellhead.
Pressure Switches
Another means of protecting against excessive flowline
pressures and/or flowline breaks is the use of a pressure
switch and an automatic control valve. Pressure switches
are available that produce either an electric or pneumatic
signal, as required, to actuate the automatic control
valve. On rod-pumped wells, the control signal from the
pressure switch also must shut down the pumping
unit-i.e., turn off the switch on an electric motor or
ground the magneto on an internal-combustion engine.
On rod-pumped wells that have no tendency to “head”
or flow when the pumping unit is shut down, the
automatic control valve may be omitted.
A “pressure switch” in the sense it is used here con-
sists primarily of a pressure-sensing element, limit
pressure contact(s), and an electrical, mechanical, or
pneumatic means to transmit the control signal to the ob-
ject(s) controlled by the pressure switch. The pressure-
sensing element is commonly a bourdon tube, though
some requirements could necessitate the use of a
helical-, spiral-, diaphragm-, piston-, or bellows-type
pressure-sensing element. In electrical control systems,
the displacement of the pressure-sensing element is made
to “make” or “break” an electrical switch, normally a
mercury or microswitch, when the line pressure reaches
the preset pressure limit(s). In pneumatic control
systems, reaching the preset pressure limit(s) may ac-
tuate a pneumatic transmitter, relay, or slide valve.
Liquid-Level Controls
Another automatic safety-control device, which also fre-
quently performs an operational-control function, is a
liquid-level controller. These devices commonly are
used to control liquid levels in separators, heater-
treaters, storage tanks, surge tanks, accumulator vessels,
metering vessels, etc. They may be used (1) to control
high liquid levels to prevent running over a vessel, (2) to
control low liquid levels to maintain pump submergence,
(3) to control intermediate operational levels to open and
close dump valves, to start and stop pumps, etc., or (4)
to maintain the interface of two liquids at a given level.
AUTOMATION OF LEASE EQUIPMENT
There arc many types of liquid level controls. Some of
the more common types of level control devices used in
production equipment are float operated, pressure
operated, ground-level tank gauges, electric and/or elec-
tronic, sonic, and vibration. A float-operated level
switch generally consists of a spherical or cylindrical
float attached to one end of a mechanical lever with
either an electrical switch or a pneumatic relay on the
other end. The switch or relay is located in a separate
portion of the device housing and is isolated from the
float area with a pressure seal. The float is displaced by
the rise and/or fall of the liquid level being controlled
and the motion is transmitted through the pressure seal to
activate the switch/relay. A pressure level control switch
may control liquid level on the basis of either differential
or static pressure. The differential type devices common-
ly are used as a form of “pilot operated” dump valves on
pressure vessels. The static pressure devices frequently
are used for well shut-down service and level control in
tankS.
Ground level tank gauges consist of tape, tape drum,
and a tank gauge float that are linked to cause the tape to
be spooled on and off the tape drum as the liquid level
rises and falls within the tank. By extending the tape
drum shaft and using appropriate cams, gears, etc., elec-
trical or pneumatic control systems may be activated to
control liquid levels in the tank. One type of sonic level
control consists of a sound transmitter and receiver that
are suitably arranged for separation by the liquid being
controlled. The transmitter and receiver are driven with
an electronic circuit that can measure the intensity of the
sound reaching the receiver. The change in the received
sound intensity between airigas and the liquid as the
separation material can be used to sense and control a
liquid level. Ultrasonic level devices sense the reflection
of a sound wave from the gas/liquid interface and use the
delay time between transmitting and receiving to deter-
mine distance from sensor to liquid level.
Some liquid level devices induce vibration into a
detecting element. The degree of vibration dampening
caused by the medium surrounding the element can be
sensed to differentiate between gas and liquid materials.
Electric and/or electronic level controls depend on the
different electrical properties (capacitance, conductance,
etc.) of the liquid to be controlled and that of the related
medium (air, gas, and/or other liquid). An electronic cir-
cuit is used to sense the change in electrical property as
the liquid level changes and thus controls the level as
required.
Other types of level controls are available for specific
installation needs. Level controllers should be selected to
provide the required function in the least complex and
most reliable form. It is advantageous to select equip-
ment that has demonstrated satisfactory application ex-
perience within the operating environment that is to be
controlled.
Automatic Quantitative Measurement
Gross volumes frequently must be adjusted by quan-
titative measurements such as water content,
temperature, pressure, and density before net volumes at
standard conditions can be determined. Several of these
quantitative pammeters are necessary for automation of
lease operations.
16-5
Liquid Measurement
There are three types of quantitative (volume) devices
commonly used for automatic liquid measurement on the
lease: positive-volume meters, positive-displacement
meters, and inferential meters. Positive-volume meters
are essentially extensions of tank measurement with
automatic “filling” and “running” functions. Positive-
displacement meters “trap” a fixed volume of liquid
within moving elements of the meter. Inferential meters
measure liquid by detecting some property of the movin
stream that is a basis for determining volume indirectly. Q
Positive-Volume Meters. Positive-volume meters
operate on a “fill” and “dump” cycle rather than being
a continuous operation. This type meter is essentially the
automatic gauging of a tank by using level controls to
move a fixed volume through the tank on each complete
cycle. The volume that is “dumped” or measured is
related to the displacement volume in the meter between
the high “fill” point and the low “dump” point in the
meter. Various types of level controls are used to control
the fluid levels in the meter. Each complete “fill” and
“dump” cycle is registered on a counter as a basis for
total volume determination. Since the positive-volume
meter is cyclic with a separate “fill” and “dump”
period, allowance for handling produced volumes while
the meter is in the “dump” cycle must be made. Con-
tinuous operation is possible by having a pair of meters
that are sequenced to have alternating cycles. This essen-
tially requires duplication of facilities and some in-
creased complexity in the controls. A more common ar-
rangement is to provide surge volume capacity upstream
of a single meter.
Volume-type dump tanks or meters have been built in
a variety of shapes and volumes. Capacities per dump
have ranged from less than V bbl to several hundred bar-
rels. The metering chamber may be in a stand-alone
vessel or it may be an integral portion of a vessel such as
a separator or heater treater. The positive-volume meter
is not as compatible with qualitative measurement as the
positive-displacement and inferential meters since the
volume measurement cannot be separated easily into
smaller increments to drive sampling and other
qualitative measurement devices.
Positive-Displacement Meters. A positive-
displacement meter, regardless of specific type, consists
of two primary elements: a stationary case and a mobile
element, which acts to isolate within the case fixed
volume of fluid each cycle of operation. The mobile ele-
ment may be a rotor with sliding vanes, rotatable vanes,
or rotatable buckets. It may be two rotors that mesh
somewhat similarly to two helical or cycloidal gears as
they rotate. The mobile element may be a disk that
nutates about a camlike follower in three-dimensional
motion or a cylinder that oscillates about a cam follower
in two-dimensional motion. Or, finally, the mobile ele-
ment could be a conventional piston such as that found in
a power pump. Most positive-displacement meters are,
in fact, closely akin to positive-displacement pumps.
Positive-displacement meters rapidly became the stan-
dard for ACT use. The positive-displacement meter pro-
vided a less costly and less complex facility than the
16-6
positive-volume meter. In addition, the positive-
displacement meter provides a means to drive samplers
and/or net oil computers with signals on a small incre-
ment of volume that is more compatible with automatic
qualitative measurement requirements.
Care must be exercised in the installation design for a
positive-displacement meter. All free gas must be
removed upstream to avoid spinning the meter, which
would cause erroneous readings and, possibly, damage
to the meter. For greatest accuracy, a constant flow rate
should be maintained through the meter and at a rate at
least 15% or greater of the rated capacity of the meter.
Standards for calibration frequency, methods, etc., are
set forth in API Std. 1101. ’
Inferential Meters. The turbine meter and the orifice
meter are commonly used inferential meters for liquid
measurement. These meters indirectly determine volume
by sensing some property of the moving stream that can
be related to volume. For example, the rotation of the
turbine blades in the turbine meter and the differential
pressure developed across the orifice plate in an orifice
meter can be used as basis of volume determination.
Turbine meters became important in volume measure-
ment when electronics were accepted as an element of a
measuring device. The rotation of the turbine blades can
be sensed electronically without need for any mechanical
connection to the turbine rotor. This provides a simple
arrangement that is inherently reliable and particularly
suitable for high-pressure service. Thus, turbine meters
initially were applied to measure injection water
volumes. However, high-viscosity fluids drastically
reduce the range of turbine meters.
Turbine meters are being used for well testing and wet-
oil lease production measurements when combined with
net-oil computers. These meters tend to be more tolerant
of short over-range periods and sandy fluid than are
positive volume meters. Turbine meters also arc being
used for ACT, particularly for high-volume and/or high-
pressure service.
Orifice meters are used more commonly for gas
measurement but they have some applications in liquid
measurement. Compressible liquids that require pressure
correction for volume determination frequently are
measured with orifice meters.
Gas Measurement
The primary device for lease gas volume measurement
has been and continues to be the orifice meter, which in-
itially measured gas volume by using a mercury
manometer before development of the bellows-type chart
recorder. Orifice meters have these advantages: (1) no
moving parts in the gas stream, (2) the ability to handle
wide range of flow rates (long term) by means of plate
size changes, (3) reliable and nonexternal powered
recorder, and (4) a reliable sensor (bellows). The chart
recorder is not compatible with automatic data acquisi-
tion; other types of gas measurement devices are used
with SCADA. These gas measurement devices include
positive-displacement meters, gas-flow computers, tur-
bine meters, and vortex meters. ’
Positive-Displacement Meters
The installation of SCADA systems with automatic well
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
testing generated a need for gas measurement over a
wide flow range with direct readout capability. The
“rotary” positive-displacement gas meter is similar to
the liquid “lobed-impeller” or gear-type meter. The
rotary gas meter has the capability to measure gas ac-
curately over a range of about 15 to 1 compared with
about 4 to 1 for an orifice meter with a fixed orifice plate
size. The rotary meter can be equipped with mechanical
compensation on indicated volume for static pressure
and flowing temperature corrections. The rotary meter
needs to be protected from over-range and liquid ac-
cumulation within the measuring elements. These meters
are usually applied to low-pressure gas measurement
service.
Gas-Flow Computers
Gas-flow computers were developed to use existing
orifice-meter runs and to provide a direct readout of gas
volume that was compatible with SCADA. These
devices use static and differential pressure electrical
transducers on a standard orifice meter as a basis for gas
measurement. The computer integrates the signals from
the transducers and combines with fixed data on meter
run size, plate size, etc. to develop a gas volume. The
volume readout will be in the form of a switch closure
that will register on an internal counter and provide input
to electronic counter in an RTU.
Some gas-flow computers can accept a temperature
transducer input to measure temperature of flowing gas
stream for improved accuracy of volume measurement.
Computers also may have capability to use two differen-
tial pressure transducers (e.g., 0 to 20 and 0 to 200 in.)
and to select input from the unit providing most accurate
instantaneous reading for integration. Early gas-flow
computers were analog devices. Many current designs
are digital units based on a microcomputer. The flow
computer integration function also is being done by the
microcomputer-based RTU. All designs have integration
accuracy compatible with the basic measurement
capability of the orifice meter,
Gas Turbine Meters
Gas turbine meters also are used to obtain direct readout
on gas volume measurement that is compatible with
SCADA. Turbine meters can measure gas volumes ac-
curately over a range of about 20 to 1 at medium
pressures. Rangeability tends to increase with increasing
static pressure. These meters are usually somewhat less
subject to over-range damage than the positive-
displacement meter if over-range period is of short dura-
tion. Meter proving and checking may require installa-
tion of prover loop for a master meter. Gas turbine
meters can be equipped with temperature and static
pressure volume compensation capability. Many gas (or
liquid) turbine meters are destroyed when they are over-
ranged while pressuring up the system.
Vortex Meter
Vortex meters have a “bluff body” that spans the flow
area through the meter and causes vortices to form in the
flowing medium. There vortices are shed off the bluff
body at a frequency that is proportional to the volumetric
flow rate through the meter. The vortices can be
AUTOMATION OF LEASE EQUIPMENT
“counted” with suitable pressure or other flow pattern
sensors, which are connected to an electronic component
for flow accumulation. Vortex meters have rangeability
characteristics similar to positive displacement and tur-
bine meters without the moving parts of these devices.
Temperature Measurement
Types of temperature-sensing devices commonly used in
oil and gas production include filled-thermal, resistance
thermal detection, thermocouple, thermister, and solid-
state. The filled-thermal device operates on the basis of
the principle that a fluid expands or contracts with
changes in temperature. The device consists of a
temperature-sensitive bulb connected by capillary tubing
to an expansible element that is sensitive to pressure
change. The bulb may be filled with a liquid, a liquid
and its vapors, or a gas. The expansible element may be
a diaphragm, a bellows, or a bourdon tube.
The$lled-thermal device has sufficient output force to
be used directly for temperature compensation on
positive-displacement meters used for LACT. The
bellows assembly is connected to an infinitely variable
transmission, which corrects the meter’s volume output
to a base temperature of 60°F.
A resistance thermal detector (RTD) works on the
principle that a change in resistance of a wine is related
directly to a change in temperature of the wire. The
device consists of a resistance element (sensing element)
and a related electrical circuit, which uses the changing
resistance of the element to control an output signal. The
output signal can drive recorders and controllers.
A thermocouple works on the principle that heat ap-
plied to one end of two strips of metal of different com-
position, which are bonded at either end, develops an
electromotive force (EMF) that is proportional to the
temperature. Thermocouples may be of the wire type, in
which both elements are in wire form, or of the Pyod
type, in which one element is a closed tube and the other
a wire welded to the inside bottom of the tube. The ther-
mocouple is connected to an electrical circuit, which
senses the generated EMF and develops an output signal
that can drive recorders and controllers. Thermocouple
devices are used in applications where temperatures may
exceed 1,OflO”F.
nermister and solid-state devices exhibit a resistance
change with temperature change. Both these devices re-
spond rapidly to a temperature change because of the
small mass of the sensing element. Electrical circuits are
required to convert the “sensed” resistance change into
an output signal that is proportional to temperature.
Automatic Sampler
An automatic sampler is a device that removes a
representative volume of fluid from a moving stream and
retains it in a container for later processing and analysis.
Factors that improve probability of obtaining a represen-
tative sample include the following: (1) sampling probe
should be located in a vertical downrun of pipe at the
center of the pipe and with probe opening facing
upstream; (2) the total flowstream should be in turbulent
flow; (3) sample size and sampling interval should be
such that the sample is proportional to the total stream
flow; (4) sample metering chamber should be closely
coupled to sampler probe and located below the center
16-7
line of sample probe; and (5) samples should be col
lected and stored at pressures exceeding the vapor
pressure of the sample liquid to prevent evaporation and
deterioration during storage.
Samplers also are used with positive-volume and
positive-displacement meters in well testing and wet-oil
(not pipeline quality) lease volume measurements.
Representative sampling becomes more difficult with in-
creasing water content in the oil stream. For improved
accuracy, fluid mixtures that may have both free water
and oil emulsion (oil-external phase) components should
be processed through a three-phase separator before the
remaining oil emulsion stream is sampled.
The capacitance probe and net-oil computer have not
replaced the automatic sampler on most LACT installa-
tions because (1) crude oil value frequently is based on
gravity (determined on sample volume), (2) the gross-oil
volume available directly from LACT counters is
satisfactory for daily operating needs, and (3) the poten-
tial operating cost reduction by eliminating sampler use
is not significant. Most major purchasers will have a
recommended (or required) design for automatic sampler
installation.
BS&W Monitor
Pipelines specify the maximum BS&W content that a
crude oil may contain to be acceptable for transfer. The
development of LACT equipment required a means to
monitor the quality of crude oil as it was being measured
and transferred automatically to a pipeline. The com-
monly accepted device for this function is a capacitance
probe BS&W monitor. The dielectric constants of crude
oil and water are about 2 and 80, respectively. The
BS&W monitor uses a concentric probe, which senses
the apparent dielectric constant of a fluid stream by
measuring its capacitance between the probe electrodes.
The capacitance probe generally is installed in a ver-
tical riser on the premise that a more uniform mixing of
stream components will result and thus, that a more ac-
curate sensing of water content is ensured. Temperature
compensation is required since dielectric constants of oil
and water vary with temperature. The BS&W monitors
used with LACT generally have a 0 to 3 % BS&W range.
The monitors have a variable set-point that is used to
divert the oil stream back through the treating facilities
when the selected BS&W content is reached and/or ex-
ceeded. In this application, a BS&W monitor controls
the crude oil stream being transferred to the pipeline, but
it does not determine the BS&W content as basis for
gross volume adjustment.
Net-Oil Computer
The application of SCADA systems to production opera-
tions increased the need to read directly the net-oil con-
tent of an emulsion stream for well testing and lease oil
production measurements. The basic principle of the
capacitance probe used in BS&W monitors was extended
to oil emulsions of higher water content by probe
redesign.
The capacitance probe, with modification to give a
linear output, provides a technique to obtain instan-
taneous value of water content in an oil emulsion stream.
By combining the probe output with volume output from
a positive-displacement or turbine meter, the net-oil and
16-8
water volumes in an emulsion stream can be determined.
The device that combines the capacitance probe and
meter volume information to obtain net-oil and water
volumes is designated as a net-oil computer.
The net-oil computer can determine the oil/water con-
tent of an emulsion stream with reasonable accuracy (I
to 2% in oil measurement to about 35% water). The
capacitance probe will continue to indicate water content
above this value (if in an emulsion form), but the
decreasing oil percentage of the total stream causes in-
creased error in the measured oil fraction. A limitation of
the capacitance probe is that any “free” water moving
across a probe with oil emulsion will distort the indicated
water content and cause substantial errors. Applications
with water cuts above 35% can be measured by using
three-phase separators (for well testing and/or lease oil
production). Treating chemicals can be used with three-
phase separators, if necessary, to keep water content in
the emulsion to 35% or less. With these procedures, well
testing and lease oil production can be processed with
total water production of more than 99 %
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) Systems
SCADA systems applied to oil and gas producing opera-
tions vary in function and overall capability. Some
systems am oriented primarily to local operating person-
nel needs and may only monitor/control a few wells in a
single field. Other systems are applied to multiple fields
that have several thousand total wells. Even with the
wide variations, SCADA systems consist of the follow-
ing basic elements: (1) supervisory control/data acquisi-
tion equipment, (2) field instrumentation and cabling
systems, (3) communication facilities, and (4) digital
computer systems.
SCADA Equipment
This equipment functions to interconnect digital com-
puter systems and instrumentation and control devices
that are related to the oil and gas producing process. The
equipment consists of a communication adapter and
RTU’s. A communication adapter is attached directly to
the digital computer by a high-speed data link and at-
tached indirectly to RTU’s by communication circuits.
The communication adapter serves as a data concentrator
for the digital computer, which can drive several com-
munication circuits simultaneously. A number of RTU’s
generally share a common communication circuit.
The communication adapter and the RTU’s are de-
signed to use a specific message protocol or structure for
the transmission of information. This message structure
generally will contain the RTU address, function being
requested, function modifiers, and supplemental infor-
mation used for checking validity of message transfer. A
primary feature shared by the communication adapter
and the RTU’s is the checking for valid message
transmission between the devices. Manufacturers use
different techniques to ensure receipt of valid messages
and most of these have a high probability of detecting in-
valid transmissions. Earlier communication adapters
were designed with “hard-wire” logic and were separate
devices. Many of the current designs are microcomputer-
based units that may be an integral part of the digital
computer rather than a separate unit. These units fre-
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
quently can handle multimessage protocols to allow
mote flexibility in attached devices.
RTU’s are electronic devices that connect the SCADA
system directly to the oil and gas production facilities
that are being automated. An RTU has the capability to
store information from several input points and to
transmit this information in a serial mode over a single
communication circuit to a digital computer on demand.
The RTU also may receive control information from the
computer that it routes to a selected control point. The
RTU generally is located within a few thousand feet of
its connected instrumentation and control equipment but
may be up to several hundred miles from the computer
location.
RTU’s commonly sense input information related to
status/alarm (on-off, etc.), volume accumulation (oil and
gas meter counts), and instantaneous analog values
(temperature, pressure, flow rate, etc.). The RTU can
provide control output in the form of relay activate (on-
off, start-stop) and a set-point value. The set-point is
commonly a 4 to 20 mA or 10 to 50 mA signal that is
compatible with control devices. Although these basic
RTU capabilities may appear limited, most data input
and control output functions related to oil and gas pro-
duction can be implemented directly. Some specific
functions may require supplemental logic in local control
panels for implementation.
The basic RTU functions described previously are
common to units designed with “hard-wired” logic.
Many of the current and most future RTU designs will be
microcomputer-based. The microcomputer allows
substantial increases in RTU functions with relatively
small incremental hardware expansion and cost. For ex-
ample, RTU’s are being used to replace stand-alone gas-
flow computers simply by adding to the microcomputer
program logic that integrates static pressure, differential
pressure, and temperature transducer data from an orifice
meter. The microcomputer in the RTU can handle all
basic RTU functions and process gas-volume accumula-
tion for 30 to 50 m runs without timing constraints. With
continuing developments in electronic technology and
improving program support, the outlook is for significant
expansion in RTU Capability.
Initial RTU designs that incorporated microcomputers
tended simply to implement “hard-wired” logic in the
microcomputer. In addition, microcomputers used with
RTU’s generally did not have any internal error checking
such as parity on memory, data bus, and address bus
transfers. These conditions resulted in microcomputer-
based RTU’s that were difficult to trouble-shoot when
malfunctions were experienced. Self-diagnostic
capabilities should be the first functional extension of
microcomputer-based RTU’s. Good diagnostic features
usually will require a combination of extended hardware
and software. Diagnostic checks should be run at startup
and at frequent intervals during the regular operation of
the RTU. RTU’s should have a “watch-dog” timer that
will attempt to restart the microcomputer if it stalls as a
result of hardware and/or software malfunction. The
restart feature also should provide a means to document
its use.
The RTU as an electronic device has two primary en-
vironmental factors that adversely affect operational
reliability. These factors are heat and electrical tran-
AUTOMATION OF LEASE EQUIPMENT
sients. All solid-state electronic components suffer
decreased life with increasing operating temperatures.
Many users of RTU’s routinely have placed these units
in air-conditioned buildings to decrease the mean time
between failures. More recent introduction of low-power
electronic components such as complementary metal-
oxide silicon (CMOS) may minimize the need to provide
cooling below normal ambient temperatures.
Solid-state electronic components are subject to
damage by extremely short-duration (microseconds)
higher voltage electrical transients (e.g., noise, spikes).
These transients may enter an RTU by means of primary
power or by the many signal loops connecting the RTU
to the instruments and control devices associated with
the production process. RTU’s frequently are provided
battery backup power to allow for continued operation
with primary power outages. Common procedure is to
operate the RTU continuously on battery power with
primary power driving a battery charger. This arrange-
ment provides relatively good isolation for the RTU
from power line transients.
All RTU input/output connections to the field cable
system also must be protected from voltage transients.
Status/alarm and accumulator input points frequently use
optical isolation between field cables and internal cir-
cuitry. Each field signal loop also should use a gas tube
(or similar device) to route induced voltage transients to
earth ground. Lightning can induce sufficient energy to
literally evaporate protective components in extreme
cases but many of the otherwise damaging transients can
be suppressed with proper protection equipment. Elec-
trical noise also may be caused by inductive devices such
as relay and solenoid valve coils. Inductive components
should have suppression diodes placed across the input
terminals to minimize electrical transient generation.
Field Instrumentation and Cabling Systems
Field instrumentation and control devices are selected
primarily to meet needs of the oil and gas producing
facilities. If these devices are also to interface with the
RTU of a SCADA system, some additional features may
be required. RTU status/alarm and accumulator inputs
require an electrical switch closure to convey informa-
tion to the RTU. For example, a separator high-level
float control may have a pneumatic switch for control
valve activation. An electrical pressure switch may be
added to the pneumatic control line to allow the RTU to
sense the position of the high-level control. In general,
reliability of interface increases when the primary in-
strumentation has a direct electrical connection com-
pared to the example that required a pneumatic to elec-
trical conversion.
Meters for liquid and gas measurement also need to
have an electrical switch activation to indicate some in-
crement of volume accumulation. Liquid meters, for ex-
ample, frequently will have an electrical switch closure
at nominal 1-bbl volume increments. The switch closure
must be maintained for some minimum time increment
(about 50 milliseconds) to ensure that electrical tmn-
sients will not cause invalid volume counts. The RTU
will have a separate signal loop (wire pair) and internal
electronic counter associated with each meter being
monitored.
Pressure, temperature, flow rate, position, and similar
16-9
operational parameters are sensed by the RTU as an
analog input value from electrical transducers. Nominal
electrical transducer output ranges of 1 to 5,4 to 20, and
10 to 50 mA usually can be processed by the RTU. A
current output transducer is preferred since the signal is
less susceptible to electrical transient distortion than a
voltage output.
Multiconductor cables are used to connect the RTU to
the instrumentation and control devices associated with
the production process. The signal cables consist of in-
dividually insulated copper wires genemlly of 19 or 22
gauge that commonly are used for commercial telephone
service. The cables usually are buried to minimize prob-
ability of mechanical damage and electrical noise intm-
sion. Cables can be damaged when buried and repairs
should be made immediately to prevent further deteriora-
tion. Cable lengths are controlled by cost relationships
between installing more RTU’s at separate locations and
the amount of cable required for interconnection. Most
cable systems will be limited by economics to a few
thousand feet.
Radio communication links between RTU’s and a cen-
tral location within a field can reduce overall cabling
costs substantially. This technique can use a master radio
station in a “polling” mode to communicate with the in-
dividual RTU’s. Separate transmit and receive frequen-
cies enhance the radio communication procedure. In this
arrangement, the master radio transmits an outbound
message to all RTU’s and the RTU’s will decode the ad-
dress portion of the message. The addressed RTU then
will decode the function portion of the message and reply
to the master radio by bringing up its transmit radio link
for the period required by the return message. The
master radio is linked to a regular four-wire communica-
tion circuit for communication outside the field area.
The low-energy signals used in the cable system re-
quire careful connection of wiring to instrumentation.
Any damage to wiring insulation or collection of
moisture at connection points may result in sufficient
signal leakage to cause invalid sensing of operational in-
formation. Some installations are made with the signal
loop power supply “floating” or not connected to earth
ground. Maintenance checks then can be made to deter-
mine current leakage to the positive and negative ter-
minals of the power supply from earth ground as a
measure of signal leakage. With selective isolation of the
signal loops, leakage problems usually can be identified.
Common practice is to design alarm-signal loops to be in
normal condition when the sensing device has a closed
electrical switch. This feature makes the alarm signal
more fail-safe in that any failure of the signal path will
cause indication of an alarm condition also. Less critical
“status” loops frequently are open in the normal state to
minimize total power needs.
Communication Facilities
SCADA systems require capable and reliable com-
munication facilities to connect the communication
adapters on the digital computer system with the RTU’s
that are located in fields being automated. Most SCADA
systems use dedicated or nonswitched communication
circuits that have a four-wire configuration. The four-
wire designation provides two independent communica-
tion paths that will support simultaneous data transfer in
16-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

devices are located at each link interconnection, the cir-

-I
a EXCESS FLOW
SHUT-IN
CONTROL VALVE
c-- I hardware implementation that provided for direct con-
I nection to plant instrumentation and control equipment.
-1 -c%+
b HI-LOW PRESSURE
SHUT-IN
CONTROL VALVE
CHRISTMAS
TREE
-,z,E
c AUTOMATIC CONTROL
VALVE WITH
PRESSURE SWITCH
Fig. 16.1-Automatic wellhead safety controls.
two directions (full duplex). Data transmission in
SCADA generally is operated in one direction at a time
(half duplex) with transmit over one path and receive
over the other path but at different time periods. Data are
transmitted over the communication circuits with the aid
of modems. Modems are electronic devices that convert
voltage or current level from the communication adapter
into analog signals that can be transmitted over the com-
munication circuit. A similar modem at the RTU
receives the analog signals and converts them into
voltage or current levels that are compatible with the
electronic circuitry in the RTU. A data transmission
from an RTU to the communication adapter operates in
the reverse cycle.
SCADA can use commercially available voice-grade
(telephone) communication circuits. Communication
speeds of 1,200 bits/see can be used with long term
reliability over these circuits by using conventional
modem equipment. Higher communication rates can be
obtained by using more complex modems and higher
quality communication circuits if the application being
monitored requires more critical timing responses. In-
creased communication rates tend to require more
maintenance time or tine tuning of communication
equipment to achieve a constant reliability of
performance.
SCADA communication circuits may require multiple
ownership and maintenance responsibility links to reach
particular locations. Circuits with divided maintenance
responsibility tend to have more reliability problems. In
these cases, adequate test facilities at the computer site
can aid in defining the particular link causing problems.
The four-wire circuit is compatible with testing since it
can be turned around to receive a transmitted test signal
from the computer site. If remotely operated turn-around
I- cuit can be tested and problems isolated to the responsi-
ble maintenance group.
Digital Computer Systems
SCADA became possible with the development of
process-control-type computer systems in the late
1950’s. The process control computer was a special
This same hardware also provided a means to intercon-
b---f
nect with the communication adapter of a SCADA
system. The SCADA equipment then allowed the proc-
ess control computer to be connected indirectly to oil and
gas facility instrumentation at remote locations.
Process control computers had software operating
systems with program execution control that was com-
patible with SCADA needs. The operating systems were
designed to recover automatically from minor program
malfunctions to minimize computer operator needs in the
continuously operating SCADA applications. Early
process control computers had limited memory size that
tended to require assembler language routines for some
functions. Frequently, bulk storage (disk or drum)
devices also were limited in capacity. Most earlier
SCADA systems were based on a central computer
system concept.
Currently, SCADA systems have extremely capable
computer systems available for system implementation.
Process-control-type computers are available with few
practical limitations on memory size, speed of execu-
tion, and random access storage capacity. In addition,
many of the general-purpose-type computers (business
and scientific applications) now have extensive com-
munication capabilities and operating system features
that are compatible with most SCADA requirements.
Distributed computing, which uses multiple computers
at remote sites, became practical in the mid- to late
1970’s as manufacturers developed capable network
software. The network software provided capability to
develop application programs at central locations and
download through communication links into computer
systems at field locations. Increased use of distributed
computers in SCADA is anticipated.
Basic application software is generally available from
manufacturers of the SCADA systems. The rapidly
changing technology, however, has made it difficult for
suppliers to develop general purpose application soft-
ware that is transportable to new computer systems.
Most larger SCADA systems have tended to be
specialized software applications that have continuing
program development to meet the changing operational
needs. Application software for both small and large
SCADA systems should have flexibility to allow
changes/additions to the implemented functions.
Typical Automatic-Control Installations
Automatic Well Control
Automatic Wellhead Controls. Wells may be con-
trolled at the wellhead or at the well manifold. Frequent-
ly, it is necessary or desirable to control them at both
places. Fig. 16.1 depicts three different types of
AUTOMATION OF LEASE EQUIPMENT
Fig. 16.2-Automatic controls for rod-pumped wells.
places. Fig. 16.1 depicts three different types of
automatic control valves that could be installed at the
wellhead immediately adjacent to the tubing wing valve.
Although Fig. 16.1 pictures a naturally flowing well, the
same types of automatic controls would be applicable for
artificially lifted wells of all types, if required. The
excess-flow valve shown in Fig. 16. la generally is used
only to protect against flowline breaks when the wells
ate choked and controlled at the well manifold. The
high/low pressure shut-in valve in Fig. 16.lb may be
used whether the well is choked at the wellhead or at the
well manifold. It is protection against both flowline
breaks and chokes cutting out or plugging. The control
valve and separate pressure-sensing element shown in
Fig. 16.1~ perform exactly the same functions as the
high/low pressure shut-in valve.
Rod-Pumped-Well Control. The typical automatic-
control system for a rod-pumped well is shown in Fig.
16.2. The high-low pressure safety shut-in valve is
necessary only when the well has a tendency to flow
natumlly when the pumping unit is shut down. The
excess-flow valve, again, is protection against flow-line
breaks. Some operators use them; others do not. They
am not always effective unless line pressures are high
enough, and the size of the break large enough, to create
a substantial pressure drop. The pressure switch is the
most common automatic safety control used with rod-
pumped wells, particularly where the wells are remotely
controlled. Regardless of which of these three types of
controls are used, when the control pressure is reached,
that automatic control must furnish a signal to shut down
the pumping unit. This is accomplished by grounding the
magneto of a gas engine or shutting off an electric motor.
A pump-off control, if used, would be installed in the
flow line immediately adjacent to the pumping tee.
Gas-Lift-Well Control. Fig. 16.3 shows a typical ar-
rangement of controls on the gas-supply line to a well
that is produced by an intermitter-type gas-lift installa-
tion. The “time-cycle controller” shown on the right is
an automatic production programmer. It automatically
opens and closes the diaphragm control valve, to which
it is connected by instrument lines, according to the
schedule manually created in the programmer. The
“flow-control valve” is a manually actuated valve used
to control the mte at which gas is admitted to a well.
Automatic-control valves on the flow line, if required,
would be one of the types shown in Fig. 16.1.
Hydraulic-Pumped-Well Control. Fig. 16.4 depicts
the typical automatic controls for a hydraulic pumping
16-11
TUBING PRESSURE GAUGE TIME CYCLE
CASING PRESSURE GAUGE CONTROLLER
i t-GAS METER 7
Fig. 16.3-Typical automatic control of gas-lift well.
POWER OIL TANK m
CONTROL
PANEL
OW PRESSURE
T-DOWN SWITCH
MANIFOLD TO SUMP
Fig. 16.4-Typical hydraulic-pumping-system control.
system. A high/low pressure switch protects the triplex
pump and its prime mover against overloading from ab-
normally low suction pressures and/or high discharge
pressures. In either case, the pressure switch would shut
down the prime mover. Automatic Control Valve V-l in
the manifold bypass is generally a diaphragm-type
regulator valve which is normally closed. It would open
at a pressure slightly under the setting of the high/low
pressure shutdown switch and divert sufficient power oil
back to the power-oil tank to maintain system pressure at
a safe level. Automatic Control Valves V-2 and V-3 are
in the power-oil lines to individual wells. They would be
closed automatically in the event the pressure switch shut
down the triplex and prime mover. With an appropriate
programmer, they could also be used to produce in-
dividual wells selectively on an intermittent schedule.
Automatic Well Manifolds. In Figs. 16.5 and 16.6 are
shown two typical automatic well manifolds designed for
controlling the wells at the well manifold rather than at
the wellhead. The single-wing well manifold shown in
Fig. 16.5 has a maximum of flexibility to meet any
system of stage separation and/or treating that might
arise. It has another advantage in that it could be in-
stalled initially on new leases as they are developed
without the automatic-control valve and still add the
valve later with a minimum of expense. The dual-wing
well manifold shown in Fig. 16.6 is limited to situations
where all production in a well manifold is processed
through a single vessel or a common sequence of
vessels. Both these manifold designs would require flow
lines capable of withstanding full wellhead pressure and
16-12
PRESSURETE (fti~~~,
F;;;a TESd d i
PRODUCTION’ I’
ONE REQ’D FOR EACH
SEPARATION AND/OR
TREATING VESSEL
Fig. 16.5-Typical single-wing automatic well manifold.
3-WAY 3-POSITION
PRESSURE GAUGE CONTROLVALVE
PRODUCTION
Fig. 16.6-Typical dual-wing automatic well manifold.
would choke and control the wells at the manifold. All
manifold designs should provide for monitoring valve
leakage.
Some operators prefer to use three-way, two-position
control valves in the well manifold and to control the
wells at the wellhead. Automatic-control valves of the
types shown in Fig. 16.1 then would be installed at the
wellhead in addition to the control valves in the well
manifold. Other operators would prefer to use a two-way
control valve in each riser to each pressure vessel served
by the well manifold.
Automatic Well Testing
A typical automatic well-testing system is illustrated in
Fig. 16.7. The sequence control logic for conducting the
test and for calculating test results may be self-contained
in the control panel or it may originate in a SCADA
system that is remote fmm the site. In either case, a
three-way control valve in the test/production manifold
is activated to divert the selected well to the test vessel
when the related signals are received from the control
panel. The test vessel may be either a separator or a
heater treater. The liquid-metering elements commonly
will be either positive-displacement or turbine meters.
The oil meter will be combined with a capacitance probe
and net-oil computer to provide measurement of net-oil
and emulsion-water volumes. The free water volume
will be measured by a separate water meter. Well-test
control logic will combine the emulsion-water and free
water measurements to obtain total test water volume.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 16.7-Typical automatic well-testing system
The test-gas volume can be determined with a
positive-displacement meter, turbine meter, or gas-flow
computer. The three-way control valves should be
equipped with position switches that can be used to con-
firm that only the selected well is in the test vessel. The
test vessel normally will have a high-level float switch
that will automatically divert the on-test well back to
production status when a high liquid level is detected.
The same switch can be used to notify the SCADA
system of the test vessel malfunction.
Some operators have extended the use of measurement
equipment, as described for well testing, to total lease
production. For example, with more logic in the control
panel and manifolding of dump lines from test and pro-
duction vessels, the oil-measurement equipment can be
time-shared to measure both test and production oil
volumes. The control panel determines (one at a time)
which vessel dumps through the oil-measurement equip-
ment and mutes the volume counts to the related counter.
Separate gas-measurement facilities are required for test
and production volume determination.
The time-sharing concept has been extended further in
cettain instances. For example, a number of separate
leases, each having only a few wells, were arranged to
have all production separators located at a common site.
The oil production from each separate lease production
separator was determined by time-sharing a single oil-
measurement facility. In addition, a single test separator
was used to test all wells at the site. The site control
panel muted test volume counts to the test counters and
to the appropriate lease counters related to the well on
test.
LACT
The first efforts to design an acceptable LACT installa-
tion tried to incorporate the existing equipment on the
lease and familiar operating principles insofar as possi-
ble. Thus, understandably, the first officially accepted
LACT system was a weir-tank system installed by Gulf
Oil Corp. on its Ames Lease in the Bloomer field, KS, in
1955. Shell Oil Co. also pioneered in the development of
the weir-tank-type LACT system on its leases in the
Antelope and Wasson fields in Texas, beginning unof-
ficial experiments as early as 1948. The next significant
development in LACT system design was the meter-
tank-type system.
AUTOMATION OF LEASE EQUIPMENT 16-13

Fig. l&8-Typical weir-tank-type automatic-custody-transfer Fig. 16.9-Typical automatic-custody-transfer system using

system. metering dump tanks.

The meter-tank-type system is closely akin t6 the weir-
tank system in many respects, but perhaps it deserves
consideration as a separate category because these
vessels were designed solely as measuring vessels. The
great similarity between measurement with the larger-
sized positive-volume dump meters and conventional
lease tanks assured their early acceptance. Officially ac-
cepted LACT installations of this type of the Phillips
Petroleum Co. and Amoco in Oklahoma and Texas
followed closely on the heels of the Gulf weir-tank-type
system in Kansas. The third type of LACT design which
has gained wide acceptance to date is the positive-
displacement-meter-type system. Exxon Co. U.S.A.
was perhaps the strongest early proponent of this type of
system, and they performed much development work on
their leases in south Texas.
The positive-displacement-meter-type equipment
rapidly became the LACT standard primarily because of
substantial cost and operating reliability advantages over
the other two units. The positive-displacement-meter
LACT assembly was skid-mounted for relatively simple
installation within existing production facilities. Figs.
16.8 and 16.9 are included for reference to the historical
development of LACT as an important element of lease
automation.
Positive-Displacement-Meter LACT System. Fig.
16.10 shows a positive-displacement-meter LACT in-
stallation. Option B indicates a two-meter arrangement
that was recommended strongly in earlier installations
for improved measurement reliability. Operational ex-
perience found the single meter arrangement (Option A)
to have satisfactory reliability and most LACT’s were in-
stalled with the single meter. Some LACT’s have two
meters but most of these operate the second meter in a
stand-by mode rather than simultaneous measurement
through both meters. Most major purchasers have
recommended (or required) certain designs for LACT
installations.
The routine operation of crude-oil transfer is con-
trolled by the normal operating high-level float switch
with an override to shut down on emergency with the
low-level float switch. The BS&W monitor will divert
fluid stream to the treating facility on detection of high
BS&W content. The strainer is used to protect the meter
from particles that could damage the meter. The meter is
temperature-compensated to indicate oil volume at 60°F
standard condition. Daily and monthly volume limit
switches prevent overrun of lease on either daily or
monthly allowable volumes. A calibration loop is
located downstream of the meters to allow convenient

EMERGENCY
HIGH LEVEL
FLOAT SW ITCH
OPTION “A’
SINGLE PD METER SYSTEM

CALIBRATION
SAMPLER

,TICKET PRINTER 8 COUNTER

MlLY VOLUME LIMIT SWITCH
MONTHLY VOLUME LIMIT SWITCH

t TRANSFER PUMP&-
L-^. r-

GAS ELIMINAT”R”’

RETURN
LINE
DIVERTING VALVE’

OPTION ‘8”
TWO P 0 METERS IN SERIES

Fig. l&10-Typical automatic-custody-transfer systems using positive-displacement meters.


Fig. 16.11-Automatic backwash of rapid sand nlters in water-
treatment plant.
Fig. 16.12-Typical method of controlling injection-pumping
rate.
meter-proving or calibration with a master meter. A
sampler is used to collect sample volumes for basis of
BS&W correction and oil gravity determination. The
back-pressure valve is used to minimize gas break-out or
“flashing” in the crude stream prior to being metered. A
check valve (not shown) should be located downstream
from the back-pressure valve (or combined with it). API
Standards 1101, 2502,253 1,2542,2544, and 2546, and
supplements thereto provide recognized industry codes
for liquid petroleum measurement. 2
Automatic Lease Process Control
There are many normal lease-operating processes that
may be automated or that already are automated com-
pletely and not recognized as such by the average in-
dividual. Space limitations will permit only a brief look
at a few of these control systems to show what can be
and is being done.
Automatic Water-Treating Plant. Fig. 16.11 depicts a
rather elaborate automatic backwash system for rapid
sand filters in water-treating plants. Normal flow is from
the precipitator and oil remover through the sand filters
into the accumulator. When the differential pressure
across the bank of filters reaches a predetermined value,
the backwash cycle is initiated automatically. Valves
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. l&13-Automatic control of water-supply wells.
P-3, F-l, F-3, F-4, and A-l are closed; Valve A-2 is
opened; and the backwash pump is started. After a slight
delay, Valves F-l and B-l are opened and Filter 1 is
backwashed into the backwash-settling tank for a
predetermined, but adjustable, time. At the end of this
time, Valves B-l and A-2 are closed and Valves P-3 and
F-5 arc opened. Normal flow is permitted through Filter
1 into the backwash-settling tank for a short interval to
settle the filter bed. At the end of this interval, Valves
P-3 and F-5 are closed, Valves A-2 and F-4 are opened,
and the backwash pump is started. After a slight delay,
Valve F-3 opens and the same cycle is completed for
Filter 2.
Four float switches are required in the accumulator.
Float Switch FS-1 is an emergency low-level float
switch, which maintains a flooded pump suction and
prevents gas from locking the pump since the ac-
cumulator normally will be gas-blanketed. The volume
between Float Switches FS-1 and FS-2 is large enough to
backwash the filters. Normally the fluid level is not per-
mitted to fall below FS-2. If it should, the injection
pump is shut down if it has an electric prime mover, or
Valve A-6 is opened and the injection-pump output is
bypassed back into the accumulator if the injection pump
has a gas-engine prime mover. When the fluid level
reaches Float Switch FS-3, the normal injection process
is resumed. Float Switch FS-4 is an emergency high-
level control that would cause Valve S-l to close to pre-
vent running over the accumulator.
Valve A-3 is shown as a backpressure valve that is in-
tended to keep a constant head on the backwash pump.
The backwash pump probably will be a centrifugal pump
because of the high rate normally recommended for
proper backwashing. If the injection process ceases for
the backwash cycle, then gas pressure applied to the top
of the accumulator can be used in place of the backwash
pump.
After all the filters have been backwashed and settled
into the backwash-settling tank, the solids in the water
are permitted to settle out in the bottom of the tank. Then
Valve B-2 is opened automatically to permit the solids to
be washed out to the pit. Then Valve B-2 closes, Valve
B-3 opens, and the transfer pump returns the clear water
back through the system. Float switch FS-5 is for the
purpose of maintaining a flooded suction on the transfer
pump, and Float Switch FS-6 is to prevent running over
the vessel.
The system just described represents a composite
situation. All automatic water-treating plants would not
have to be this elaborate. For example, a backwash-
settling tank would be desirable only where it was
necessary to keep the water going into the pit at a
minimum. On the other hand, by a few small changes,
AUTOMATION OF LEASE EQUIPMENT
- REGENERATION FLOW
Fig. 16.14-Automatic cycling of desiccant
the systems shown in Fig. 16.11 could also be altered to
provide for continuous through-put and injection while
one of the filters was being backwashed.
Automatic Control of Injection-Pumping Rate. Fig.
16.12 shows a typical method of controlling the
injection-pumping rate of a gas-engine-driven injection
pump. A float switch and pilot valve, acting through a
snap-active pneumatic relay, controls the position of (1)
a low-level bypass regulator, and (2) a bellows-operated
pneumatic motor that adjusts the engine throttle linkage
relative to the position of the float switch in the clean-
water tank. In the event the fluid level drops too low in
the clean-water tank, the pilot valve sends a signal to a
low-level shutdown switch, which grounds the magneto
on the engine and shuts it down.
Automatic Control of Water-Supply Wells. Fig.
16.13 shows a method of using float switches to control
the operation of several water-supply wells to maintain
an adequate supply of water in the raw-water tank. As
always, high- and low-level emergency float switches
are provided. Additional float switches are included to
program the addition and subtraction of supply wells
feeding the system to assure an adequate volume of
water is always in the raw-water tank. The well-on float
switches would be actuated by a dropping fluid level,
and the well-off float switches by a rising fluid level.
At the water-supply wells, there are several ways to
control the pumping equipment. If the pump is driven
electrically, it might be necessary to start up and shut
down the pump motor only as called for. If the water-
supply well were artesian or had a tendency to flow
naturally, it would be necessary, of course, to furnish a
shut-in valve. If the pump is driven by a gas engine, it
would be necessary either to provide the engine with an
electric ignition system (battery or electric motor) and a
startup sequence programmer or to install a diverting
valve and leave the engine running while diverting pro-
duction back into a casing annulus.
Automatic Control of Dry-Desiccant-Type Gas
Dehydrators. As a final example, let us consider a lease
16-15
D/P CELL B
beds in dry-desiccant-type gas dehydrators
process that has been fully automatic since its inception,
but one which is rarely thought of in terms of automa-
tion: the automatic cycling of desiccant beds in dry-
desiccant-type gas dehydrators. Fig. 16.14 is a
schematic of a typical dry-desiccant-type dehydrator.
The wet gas stream enters the horizontal separator and is
divided, with a part of the gas going to the regeneration
stream and the remainder continuing in the main gas
stream through the dehydrating tower. The proportioning
of the flow between the two streams is controlled by the
regeneration-rate controller. The rate of flow in the
regeneration gas line is measured by a differential-
pressure cell and transmitted to the regeneration-rate
controller. The regeneration-rate controller, in turn, acts
to position Automatic-Control Valve V-10 to maintain
the predetermined rate of flow of gas through the
regeneration system.
Automatic-Control Valve V-l 1 in the regeneration gas
line is controlled by Controller B. Each time the con-
troller rotates until the pin on the next trip clamp unlatch-
es the pilot arm, Valve V-l 1 reverses its position. In the
one position, it diverts gas through the heater to provide
hot gas for expelling moisture from the desiccant bed of
the tower being regenerated. In the other position, it
bypasses the heater and provides unheated gas to cool the
desiccant bed in the same tower before placing it back in-
to service. By the time the controller rotates one more
position, the regeneration valves on the towers will have
switched so that the hot gas goes to the other tower.
Automatic-Control Valves V-l, V-2, V-3, and V-4
control the flow of regeneration gas to dehydrating
towers, and Valves V-5, V-6, V-7, and V-g control the
flow of the main gas stream. Valves V-l, V-3, V-6 and
V-S are always in the opposite position from Valves V-2,
V-4, V-5, and V-7. The main-stream valves and the
regeneration-stream valves are manifolded in such a
manner that only one tower at a time receives the main-
stream gas and that tower is blocked off from the
regeneration gas. The other tower receives the regenera-
tion gas and is blocked off fmm the main-stream gas.
The position of all these valves is controlled by Con-
troller A acting through relay Valve V-9 and the pilot-
16-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

gas-control manifolds. Each time the controller rotates Hebard, G.G.: “Automatic Lease Custody Transfer,” Oil and Gas J.
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Hill, R.W.: “Factory-built LACT Unit Is Gas Operated,” Oiland Gas
instead of flowing to the Relay Valve V-9. Relay Valve J. (May 6, 1957) 98.
V-9 then will reposition itself and allow instrument gas
to flow to the other pilot-gas-control manifold and vent Hubby, L.M.: “Automatic Production Controls,” Paper API 926-l-C
the gas from the pilot-gas-control manifold supplied in presented at the 1956 Southern District Spring Meeting, Division of
Production, San Antonio, Mar. 9.
its original position. This, in turn, will cause each of
these control valves to reverse their positions, and thus “LACT: A Youngster Now, Soon a Giant,” Oil nnd Gas J. (Sept. 22,
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reverse. The length of each cycle is controlled by the
spacing of the trip clamps on the controller. “LACT Is for Stripper Leases, Too,” Oil and Gas J. (Dec. 15, 1958)
70.

“Lease Automatic Custody Transfer,” Bull. 2509A, API, Dallas

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